The Opium Wars were two armed conflicts that pitted China against Great Britain and France in the mid-19th century. Opium, a drug that the British produced in India and introduced into China despite the imperial prohibition, was the catalyst for them. The Opium Wars had devastating consequences for China, which had to cede territories, open ports, pay indemnities, and accept privileges for foreigners. These wars marked the beginning of the “Century of Humiliation” for China, during which it lost its sovereignty and prestige to Western powers.
Historical Context
China, under the Qing dynasty, was an isolated and self-sufficient empire with little interest in trade with the West. It exported tea, silk, and porcelain but imported very few European products. The trade balance heavily favored China, which demanded payment in silver from foreigners. Great Britain, in need of tea for its national consumption, sought a way to reduce its trade deficit with China.
The solution came in the form of opium, an addictive substance cultivated in India and sold to the Chinese through local merchants. Opium quickly spread in Chinese society, leading to health issues, crime, and corruption. The Chinese government, aware of the danger, attempted to crack down on the opium trade, but they faced resistance from the British, who defended their economic interests.
The British East India Company was a powerful multinational corporation that held a royal charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600, giving it a monopoly on trade with Asia, particularly India and China.
The First Opium War
The first Opium War erupted in 1839 when Emperor Daoguang appointed Lin Zexu, a high-ranking official, to put an end to the opium trade. Lin Zexu confiscated and destroyed over 20,000 crates of British-owned opium in Canton, the main trading port with the West. He also blockaded foreign ships and demanded they surrender all the opium they had. Outraged by this violation of their property and freedom of trade, the British sent a war fleet to retaliate. They bombarded Chinese coastal forts, took control of several islands, including Hong Kong, and sailed up the Yangzi River to Nanking, the capital at the time. Overwhelmed by the technological and military superiority of the British, the Chinese were forced to negotiate peace.
The Treaty of Nanking
The Treaty of Nanking, signed in 1842, concluded the First Opium War. It stipulated that China had to:
1. Cede the island of Hong Kong to Great Britain in perpetuity.
2. Open five ports to foreign trade: Canton, Amoy, Fuzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai.
3. Pay a war indemnity of 21 million dollars to Great Britain.
4. Reduce tariffs on imported goods.
5. Grant extraterritoriality to British nationals, allowing them to be judged under the laws of their home country rather than Chinese laws.
The Treaty of Nanking was the first of the “unequal treaties” that China had to sign with Western powers. It compromised China’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, leading to a loss of control over its foreign trade and customs policy. It also paved the way for further foreign claims and interference as foreigners sought to exploit China’s weakness.
The First Opium War (1839-1842) concluded with the Treaty of Nanking, which forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain, open several treaty ports to foreign trade, and pay reparations. It marked a significant defeat for the Qing Dynasty.
The Second Opium War
The Second Opium War, also known as the Arrow War, broke out in 1856 when Chinese authorities seized a British merchant ship, the Arrow, suspected of opium smuggling. The British, who considered the ship under their protection, protested against this violation of their flag and demanded apologies and reparations. When the Chinese refused, the British decided to resume hostilities.
The French soon joined them under the pretext of defending Christian missionaries in China. Both nations formed an alliance to attack China by sea and land. They captured Canton, Tianjin, and Beijing, where they set fire to the Summer Palace, a masterpiece of Chinese architecture and art. Emperor Xianfeng, who had fled the capital, had to accept the victors’ conditions.
The Treaty of Tianjin
The Treaty of Tianjin (also known as the Treaty of Tientsin) , signed in 1858, concluded the Second Opium War. It stipulated that China had to:
1. Open an additional ten ports for foreign trade.
2. Allow foreign diplomats to reside in Beijing.
3. Permit the free movement of Christian missionaries throughout the country.
4. Legalize the opium trade.
5. Pay a war indemnity of 8 million taels (approximately 12 million dollars) to Great Britain and France.
6. Cede the Kowloon Peninsula to Great Britain.
The Treaty of Tianjin was ratified in 1860 after the British and French had defeated the last Chinese resistance at the Battle of Palikao. It reinforced the clauses of the Treaty of Nanking and deepened China’s dependence and humiliation in the face of Western powers. It also promoted the expansion of Christianity and opium in China, at the expense of traditional culture and morality.
The Treaty of Tientsin (1856) was a supplementary treaty following the Second Opium War. It expanded foreign trade and diplomatic rights in China, including additional treaty ports, and allowed foreign legations in Beijing.
The Key Figures in the Opium Wars
- Daoguang (1782-1850): Chinese Emperor, the sixth of the Qing Dynasty, who ascended to the imperial throne in 1821. His reign was marked by conflicts with the British during the First Opium War.
- Xianfeng (1831-1861): Chinese Emperor, the seventh of the Qing Dynasty, who inherited the imperial throne in 1851. His reign was a period of significant political upheaval due to internal rebellions and the interference of Western powers.
- Lord Palmerston (1784-1865): British statesman who served as Prime Minister from 1855 to 1865. He engaged in vigorous diplomatic activities that expanded Britain’s influence in Asia, Africa, and Oceania.
- Henry Pottinger (1789-1856): British military officer and official, the first colonial governor of Hong Kong. Later, he served as the governor of the Cape and Madras.
- Charles Elliot (1801-1875): British naval officer and diplomat. During the First Opium War, the British government appointed him as a plenipotentiary minister and commander of the British fleet. His role was pivotal in the establishment of Hong Kong as a British colony.
Consequences of the Opium Wars on Chinese Citizens
Collaboration with the British and other foreign powers: Some Chinese individuals collaborated with the British and other foreign powers, either for personal gain or out of conviction. For instance, the Cohong merchants who controlled trade in Canton profited from the opium trade and negotiated with the British for commercial and diplomatic advantages. Certain scholars and reformers, such as Wei Yuan and Lin Zexu, advocated the adoption of Western techniques and institutions to strengthen China and resist foreign aggression.
Resistance against the British and foreign powers: Some Chinese people resisted the British and foreign powers, driven by patriotism or conservatism. Chinese soldiers and officers, for example, courageously and determinedly fought against the superior forces of the invaders, despite their technological and organizational inferiority. Some mandarins and emperors, like Daoguang and Xianfeng, refused to yield to foreign demands and attempted to maintain traditional order and China’s sovereignty.
Impact on the Chinese population: Finally, some Chinese individuals were directly or indirectly affected by the Opium Wars. For instance, Chinese peasants and workers suffered from poverty, famine, corruption, and oppression resulting from the Opium Wars and their aftermath. Some of them rebelled against the imperial government and foreigners, as seen in the Taiping Rebellion, which nearly overthrew the Qing dynasty. Others fell victim to opium addiction, which devastated their health, families, and dignity.
The Role of Christian Missionaries in China During the Opium Wars
The role of Christian missionaries in China during the Opium Wars was complex and ambiguous. On one hand, they served as agents for the spread of the Christian faith, which had around 600,000 followers in China by the end of the 18th century, primarily Catholics. They also acted as observers of Chinese culture and civilization, studying and admiring them, notably the Jesuits like Matteo Ricci. They contributed to the dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge between the West and China, particularly in the fields of astronomy, cartography, and printing. Additionally, they played a social and humanitarian role by assisting the poor, sick, orphans, and the persecuted.
On the other hand, Christian missionaries were also players in Western colonial and imperialist dominance over China, often supporting or justifying it. They benefited from the unequal treaties imposed on China after the Opium Wars, which granted them privileges and protections, such as the right to enter the country, preach freely, own land and property, and enjoy extraterritoriality. At times, they became embroiled in conflicts with Chinese authorities and the population, who accused them of undermining China’s sovereignty, culture, and traditional religion. They were the target of persecutions and massacres, as seen in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, which resulted in over 30,000 Chinese Christians and 300 missionaries losing their lives.
