The Reconquista, or Reconquest, refers to the centuries-long struggle undertaken by Spanish Christians against the Muslims to reclaim their territory. In the 8th century, Visigothic Spain was invaded by the Moors from North Africa, who conquered almost the entire peninsula. However, a few Christian strongholds in the mountainous north quickly took up arms, gradually expanding their borders southward. It is likely that these spared territories helped maintain a sense of legitimacy in the minds of the Christians over the former Visigothic kingdom. The Reconquista lasted until 1492, when the Catholic Monarchs captured Granada. This long period in Spanish history deeply marked the country, politically, socially, and culturally. The year 1492 is a key date in history, as it also marks the discovery of America and the end of the Middle Ages.
The Moorish Invasion That Sparked the Reconquista
Since the 5th century, the Iberian Peninsula had been occupied by the Visigoths, a Germanic people who, under Emperor Honorius, expelled the Vandals, Alans, and Suebi from the territory in 412. Their kingdom’s center remained in Aquitaine until Clovis drove them out in 507. The Visigoths then retreated to Spain and established their capital in Toledo in 554. However, after unifying the kingdom and establishing Catholicism, the Visigoths faced succession crises and an economic decline, which led to the Muslim invasion. In 711, the Berber commander Tariq crossed the Strait of Gibraltar with his troops, delivering a crushing defeat to the last Visigothic king, Roderic. The Muslims quickly conquered the entire peninsula, except for the mountainous regions of the north (Cantabrian Mountains and Western Pyrenees).
Christian Resistance and the Beginning of the Reconquista
The first known act of resistance took place around 722 when Pelagius, a descendant of Visigothic kings, formed a kingdom in Asturias and took up arms. The battle of Covadonga ended with a Moorish defeat. This first Christian victory is considered the starting point of the Reconquista. Despite this, the Muslim kingdom continued to solidify its presence. In 756, the Umayyad Abd al-Rahman declared himself Emir of Córdoba, breaking ties with the Caliphate of Damascus. The unification of Muslim territories was only achieved in 929 when Abd al-Rahman III made the Emirate of Córdoba a caliphate. The region then experienced great intellectual, artistic, and economic prosperity.
The Christians began emerging from the mountains. Pelagius’ son-in-law, Alfonso, conquered much of Galicia and León. Under Alfonso III (866-910), the borders of the Kingdom of Asturias extended to the Douro River, and the capital moved from Oviedo to León. Upon his death, his sons divided the land. Elsewhere, Christian resistance led to the formation of other kingdoms, such as Navarre, established in 830. United under the crown of Sancho the Great, King of Navarre (1000-1035), these territories were again divided by his sons. Christian Spain was thus not in a strong position against the Moors, with some kingdoms even fighting each other and some rulers forming alliances with Muslims to protect their interests.
Reconquista of the Spanish Peninsula
At the beginning of the 11th century, the situation reversed. The Caliphate of Córdoba fractured into small independent Moorish principalities, called “Taifa kingdoms.” As Moorish domination weakened, the Kingdom of Castile grew in power, annexing León in 1037 under Ferdinand I. These conditions facilitated the Christian reconquest of the territory. Additionally, the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela opened Christian lands to the rest of Europe, bringing support from the Pope and foreign nobility. Thus, Alfonso VI, King of Castile, accompanied by some French knights, launched an attack on the Moors and captured Toledo in 1085.
Faced with this rapid progress, the Muslim princes of the Taifa kingdoms called for help from the Almoravids, a Berber dynasty from North Africa. Their intervention led to two significant defeats for Alfonso VI in 1086 and 1108. However, these new occupants primarily focused on reunifying Muslim territories and paid little attention to Christian kingdoms.
After Rodrigo Díaz, known as El Cid Campeador, took Valencia in 1094, it wasn’t until 1118 that the Christian Reconquest gained new momentum. Alfonso I the Battler, King of Aragon, engaged in multiple battles against the Moors and captured Zaragoza, immediately making it his capital. In the mid-12th century, the Almoravids were supplanted by the Almohad dynasty in North Africa. These reformist Muslims imposed their rule over the Moorish territories in Spain. Inevitably, clashes with the Christians soon followed. The most violent took place at Alarcos in 1195, where King Alfonso VIII of Castile suffered a terrible defeat.
But this event had a positive outcome for the Christians, as they decided, for the first time, to unite their forces against the Muslim presence. This union, bolstered by the energetic support of Pope Innocent III, led to the resounding victory at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. The Almohad power never recovered from this defeat, and the subsequent years saw the capture of Córdoba, Valencia, and Seville. By the end of the 13th century, the Muslims were confined to the Kingdom of Granada.
Christian Spain Rebuilds
Never truly united during the Reconquista, Christian Spain of the late 13th century gradually took shape. Portugal, which became independent from León in 1139, would never be reattached to Spain. Castile and Aragon remained the two largest kingdoms born from the Reconquista. Socially, the different classes were deeply influenced by these centuries of reconquest. The Spanish nobility saw itself as warlike, proud, and thirsting for independence while also showing tolerance; the dynamic clergy viewed the defense of religion by force as a necessity; and a community of small landowners, to whom the sovereigns had granted fueros—guarantees and privileges to aid in repopulation—fiercely defended their rights for a long time.
Furthermore, Muslim and Jewish populations were not expelled from the territory and coexisted with Christians. This coexistence fostered cultural exchange. Great works and ideas were translated by various groups, circulated, and thus became more accessible. This was the case, for instance, with certain works of Aristotle or Averroes.
The End of the Reconquista in 1492 with the Fall of Granada
However, up until the 15th century, the peninsula experienced several internal crises related to successions or disagreements between the monarchy and the nobility. The centuries of Reconquest had resulted in a politically divided Spain, which was not unified until the marriage of Ferdinand V of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469. Both politically and religiously, the unification of the country finally culminated in the conquest of Granada in 1492, thus marking the end of Muslim rule over the peninsula. Spain remained profoundly marked by these seven centuries of sporadic fighting.
The long duration of the Reconquista and the irregularity of the conflicts can be explained by the divisions among the Christian territories, whose kingdoms sometimes fought each other. It was only in the 12th century that the Reconquest truly began to take on the character of a crusade against Muslim presence. After fostering the religious unity of the country around Catholicism, the Reconquista ultimately concluded with political unification, achieved in the 15th century by the Catholic Monarchs.
Important Dates of the Reconquista
July 711: The Muslims Set Out to Conquer Spain
The last Visigothic king, Roderic, was defeated on the Rio Barbate by a Berber military expedition led by the lieutenant Tarik. Under the command of the Arab governor Musa ibn Nusayr, Tarik had successfully crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to begin the conquest of Spain. Their spectacular breakthrough annihilated the Visigothic kingdom. Indeed, almost the entire peninsula soon fell under Muslim rule, with only a few mountainous strongholds in the north resisting.
722: The Battle of Covadonga Sparks the Reconquista
A descendant of the Visigothic kings, Pelagius, or Pelayo, managed to rally the population of Asturias against Moorish domination. When the Berber troops set out to suppress the rebellion, Pelayo prepared for battle. The confrontation led to a major victory for the insurgents at Covadonga. This event, a symbol of hope for Christians under Muslim rule, would be the spark that ignited the Spanish Reconquista.
May 15, 756: The Founding of the Emirate of Córdoba
Abd al-Rahman, from the Umayyad dynasty, seized power in Córdoba and declared himself emir, thereby founding the Emirate of Córdoba. Abd al-Rahman I provided the country with an exemplary administration. In 929, the Emirate of Córdoba became a caliphate under Abd al-Rahman III, transforming into a formidable intellectual and cultural Muslim center. However, the mountainous northern regions remained Christian.
1031: The End of the Caliphate of Córdoba
The religious intolerance of Caliph al-Mansur, known to Westerners as Almanzor (981–1002), plunged the Caliphate of Córdoba into a deep social crisis. In fact, all Muslim factions in Spain ended up fighting one another. By 1031, the caliphate had irreversibly fragmented into several principalities, the Taifas kingdoms.
1037: Castile Expands
Ferdinand I, king of Castile (1035–1065), embarked on the conquest of León and annexed the kingdom to his own territory. In 1054, he also seized the province of Navarre, even killing his brother, Garcia IV, during the confrontation. In 1064, he took Coimbra from the Moors, making Castile an especially powerful kingdom.
May 25, 1085: The Capture of Toledo by Alfonso VI
Alfonso VI, king of León and Castile, captured the kingdom of Toledo, which had been under Moorish control since 711. The conquest of León in 1037 by Ferdinand I had made Castile particularly powerful, enabling it to begin the Reconquista. However, in 1086 and 1109, Alfonso VI suffered two heavy defeats against the Almoravids who had come as reinforcements.
October 23, 1086: Defeat of Alfonso VI by the Almoravids
Faced with the advance of the king of Castile, the Muslim princes of the Taifas kingdoms called upon the Almoravids, a Berber dynasty from North Africa, for help. The confrontation took place at Sagrajas and ended in the defeat of Alfonso VI. In 1108, he suffered another rout at Uclés.
1094: The Cid Campeador Takes Valencia
A vassal of Alfonso VI of Castile, Rodrigo Díaz, known as El Cid Campeador, managed to capture the kingdom of Valencia, which was under Muslim rule at the time. He remained the governor until his death in 1099. The kingdom resisted the Almoravids until 1102, then fell back under Moorish control.
1118: The Capture of Zaragoza by Alfonso I the Battler
At the heart of the Reconquista, Alfonso I, known as “the Battler,” king of Aragon and Navarre, seized Zaragoza with the help of French barons. It took him four years of fighting against the Moors to achieve this victory. It is from these many battles that he earned his nickname. Alfonso I made Zaragoza the capital of Aragon. At his death in 1134, the kingdom of Aragon and the county of Catalonia were united.
1139: Portugal Becomes a Kingdom
The Count of Portugal, Alfonso I the Conqueror, took the title of king following his victory against the Muslims at Ourique. This confirmed his independence from the kingdom of León.
July 19, 1195: Christian Defeat at Alarcos
While the Spanish Christian kings continued their conquest, North Africa fell under the rule of the Almohads, displacing the Almoravids. The new Muslim dynasty quickly intervened in Spain and, thanks to Yakub al-Mansur, inflicted a terrible defeat on Alfonso VIII of Castile at Alarcos. After the event, the Christians united against the Muslims. The reconquest turned into a true crusade led by Pope Innocent III, culminating in the great victory at Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212.
July 16, 1212: The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
Led by lords Sancho VII of Navarre, Peter II of Aragon, and Alfonso VIII of Castile, the Spanish Christians defeated the Almohad Muslims in Andalusia. Nearly 60,000 Arab soldiers perished in the fighting. For Catholics, this dazzling victory marked significant progress in the reconquest of Spain, occupied by Muslims since the 8th century. The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa signaled the end of Almohad Spain and heralded the decline of the Arab empire in Spain.
1236: Córdoba Falls to the Christians
Ferdinand III of Castile seized Córdoba. In 1248, he also managed to extend his domination over Seville.
1238: Christians Capture the Kingdom of Valencia
James the Conqueror captured the kingdom of Valencia, which was occupied by Muslims. Three years earlier, he had already taken the Balearic Islands.
September 23, 1343: Death of Philip III of Navarre
Philip III of Navarre was the Count of Evreux, and also a “prince of French royal blood,” as the grandson of King Philip III of France. In 1328, upon the death of his cousin, Charles IV the Fair, he was crowned king consort of Navarre. He actively participated in the Hundred Years’ War against the English, as well as in the Reconquista launched by King Alfonso XI of Castile. During the siege of Algeciras in the kingdom of Granada, he was killed by an arrow to the throat.
1478: Sixtus IV Authorizes the Appointment of Spanish Inquisitors
Pope Sixtus IV authorized King Ferdinand V of Spain and Queen Isabella the Catholic to establish an Inquisition in their country under the monarchy’s control. After the Reconquista, the aim was to root out and condemn the Marranos (Jewish converts) who continued to practice Jewish rituals in secret. In 1492, the repression of Spanish Jews began.
January 2, 1492: The End of the Moorish Kingdom of Granada
The kingdom of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold in Spain, fell to the Catholic Monarchs. The abdication of Sultan Boabdil marked the end of seven centuries of Muslim presence in Spain. Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile then made their entrance into the city. The battles fought since the 8th century against the Muslims to reconquer Catholic Spanish lands, the “Reconquista,” ended with this victory. The new borders of the country defined a now unified Spain. Starting in March, religious unity was achieved. After the Muslims, the queen expelled all the Jews from Spain.
Bibliography:
- García-Sanjuán, Alejandro. “Rejecting al-Andalus, exalting the Reconquista: historical memory in contemporary Spain.” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 10.1 (2018): 127–145. online
- Hillgarth, J. N. (2009). The Visigoths in History and Legend. Toronto: Pontifical Institute for Medieval Studies.
- Reilly, Bernard F. (1993). The Medieval Spains. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39741-3.
- Collins, Roger (1989). The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-15923-1.
