The rusalka is a character in East Slavic mythology, presenting one of the most varied images in folk mysticism. The perceptions of rusalkas prevalent in the Russian North, the Volga region, the Urals, and Western Siberia significantly differ from those in Western and Southern Russia. It was believed that rusalkas watched over fields, forests, and waters. Until the 20th century, in the northern provinces of Russia, the term “rusalka” was seen as formal or scholarly. Previously, this character was known as vodyanikha, shutovka, shtokotikha, and in the south of Russia and Ukraine, mavka.
Under Western influence, the Slavic rusalka merged in Russian literature and cinema with the image of the Mermaid, who has a fish tail instead of legs and lives in the sea. In the English bestiary, the term “rusalka” is used for Slavic rusalkas, and “mermaid” is used for sea nymphs.
Etymology
According to the “Roman influence” theory defended by F. Mikloshich and A. N. Veselovsky, the word “rusalka” has a late origin, derived from the name of the ancient Roman festival commemorating ancestors – Rosalia (from Latin “Rosalia,” meaning “rose festival dedicated to the deceased”). At the same time, the historian-antiquarian T. D. Zlatkovskaya questions the possibility of Eastern Slavs borrowing characters from ancient Roman mythology. According to the mythologist E. E. Levkievskaya, the mythological image of the rusalka is genuinely Slavic and originated in ancient times.
Some researchers of the 19th century believed that the term originated from the words “ruslo,” “rusy,” or the names of rivers like Rusa, Ros, Rasa, etc. Others suggested a connection to the plant “rosen” (Bulgarian white ash), which played a role in the rusalia ritual. However, it was noted that this name also has Latin origins.
According to I. Yagich, due to the association with the word “ruslo” (stream), the rusalka transformed in popular consciousness from a nymph of forests and fields into a water being. In Ukrainian, the name “mavka” is preserved, while in Belarusian, it’s “vodianitsa” or “kupal’ka,” serving as synonyms for rusalka.
Mythological Image
According to the academic dictionary “Slavic Antiquities” (L. N. Vinogradova), a rusalka is a malevolent spirit appearing in the summer as a long-haired woman in a grain field, forest, or near water, capable of tickling a person to death or drowning them. The East Slavic term “rusalka” is linked to the ancient Russian name of the pagan spring festival, rusaliya.
According to V. Y. Propp, the rusalka was a character associated with the cult of plants, fertility, moisture, and the spirit of water bodies, personifying the element of nature (water, “green” life).
In Little Russia and Galicia, there were several beliefs about rusalkas. In some views, rusalkas are identified with mavkas, while in others, they are linked to wild wives, “mamuns” (monkeys) among Poles, and “vilas” among Serbs and Bulgarians, who controlled wells and lakes and were able to “lock” water. It is often believed that rusalkas are the spirits of unbaptized children, drowned maidens, girls who died before marriage, or those born or died during Trinity Week. In Western Poland, there is a legend of how the father of a deceased bride tied her body to a post, “wedding” her so that she wouldn’t become a rusalka.
In some beliefs, rusalkas were attributed with the ability to shapeshift. It was thought, for example, that they could take the form of squirrels, rats, frogs, birds, or even appear as cows, horses, calves, dogs, hares, and other animals. However, in most stories, rusalkas appear as women or young girls.
Among the Ural population, there was a belief that rusalkas were cursed wives and virgins. They live in the flesh, invisible to people, and will continue to do so until the coming of Christ. They live permanently underwater, in the company of demons.
In Polesie, the term “rusalka” is often used in relation to the deceased in general or even to specific deceased female residents of their villages.
Beliefs About Life
In some parts of Ukraine, folklorists noted a distinction between field rusalkas (also known as “poludnitsy”) and forest rusalkas (“pharaohs,” from the troops of the biblical pharaoh who perished in the Red Sea). As D. Zelenin writes, “Rusalkas cannot be definitively classified as water spirits, forest spirits, or field spirits; rusalkas are simultaneously all of these and more.” According to legends, rusalkas can be encountered in ponds, lakes, and flowing waters.
In most folk tales, rusalkas are depicted naked and without headgear. Clothed rusalkas are often portrayed in tattered sarafans.
There was also a belief that during Rusalka Week, when rusalkas roam the forests, if one accidentally encounters them, they should throw a scarf or some piece of clothing, such as a dress sleeve. It was believed that rusalkas would take threads, fabrics, canvases, clothes, and food from women who had fallen asleep without prayers. They would also choose lovers from among their men. The desire to dress led rusalkas to approach bathhouses at night, where spinners sometimes left yarn, and they would spin threads for their clothing. “But obviously, not all of them are trained in this art yet; some only soak the wick in the crest and spit on it.”
Among Eastern Slavs (as well as the Sami people), there was a widespread belief that water nymphs, or beautiful rusalkas, emerged from the water at night, sat on the grass, and combed their hair. This belief was often used as a motif by artists and poets, such as Shevchenko in the poem “Drowned.”
In folk tales, rusalkas were said to use fish bones as combs. In the Chita region in the second half of the 20th century, there was a recorded story about a woman whose house stood by the river. She took a comb left by a rusalka on the shore, “and every night that hairy maiden wouldn’t let her sleep—knocking on the window or the door.” Following the advice of an elder, the comb was returned to the shore, and since then, the rusalka has stopped coming.
According to epics, another distinguishing feature of rusalkas was their love for weaving wreaths from flowers, reeds, and wooden branches. In Belarus, a folktale was recorded in which a rusalka crafted a cradle for her baby from a large piece of birch bark.
According to beliefs, rusalkas fed on fish and crayfish, and at night, they entered barns and milked cows. Some researchers mention stories from peasants in the 19th century who claimed to have often seen rusalkas among cultivated fields sown with rye and hemp, where they “broke the grain.” It was believed that in the wild steppe, they fed on various herbs and berries. In Galicia, peasants believed that the “wild woman loves peas very much, and you can often encounter her in the field or garden.”
Appearance
According to some Russian beliefs, rusalkas have the appearance of little girls, very pale, with green hair and long arms. In the northern regions of Russia (and in some places in Ukraine), rusalkas were predominantly described as hairy, unattractive women. Large breasts are often noted: “big, big boobs, almost scary.”
According to Zelenin, there is no specific image of a rusalka. The widespread Russian notion of a “shutovka,” “vodyanitsa,” “khidka,” or “chertovka,” often depicted as an ugly woman with a huge chest, refers to the wife of a water spirit or a female water spirit—similar to the rusalka.
Mentions of rusalkas with fish tails in folk beliefs are quite rare and seemingly emerged under literary influence (see mermaid in the fairy tale “The Little Mermaid”). Western European mermaids inherited their appearance from artistic depictions of Homeric sirens, while Slavic rusalkas share similarities with ancient Greek nymphs. In the English bestiary, the term “rusalka” is used for Slavic rusalkas, and “mermaid” is used for Western European ones.
A significant distinguishing and unifying feature of the appearance of rusalkas is their flowing, long hair. Disheveled hair, unacceptable in ordinary domestic situations for a peasant girl, is a typical and significant attribute: “moves like a rusalka (about an unkempt girl)” (from Dahl’s dictionary).
The predominant hair color is blonde, which is why historian S. M. Solovyov derives the name “rusalka” from “with blonde hair.”
Habitats
According to folk beliefs, rusalkas inhabit the forest on tall trees (such as oak or lime), where they enjoy swinging both at night and during the day. Rusalkas try to conceal their traces on the shore, as they can dig through the sand and smooth out footprints (according to observations by V. I. Dahl, they can only be caught off guard). In pine forests, there are often trees around which no grass grows; according to folklore, rusalkas dance around these trees and trample circles.
The described habitat of rusalkas includes parts of Belarus, Smolensk, and Kursk regions. It is believed that Belarusian rusalkas say “Uu-gu, uu-gu!” while Smolensk rusalkas say “Reli-reli!” or “Gutynki-gutenki.” In the Kursk province, according to folk beliefs, the melodies and rhythms of folk songs were similar to those of rusalkas. In some specific areas, rusalkas are called “likhopleskis” because they swiftly splash or dance.
Among the Poleschuks, it is considered that the permanent refuge of rusalkas is the “zone of death” (cemeteries, graves, the “other” world, and water as the boundary between worlds). Places of their temporary stay on earth during Rusalka Week were considered: rye or hemp fields, boundaries, forests, trees, water places, road intersections, etc. In the village of Khorobychi in the Chernihiv region, it was said: “Rusalkas live in both water and land—in winter, they are in the water, and during Rusalka Week, they come out to fields and forests.”
Character
Negative Traits
In Russian mythology, rusalkas were described as dangerous beings, often harboring negative attitudes towards people of all ages. In some beliefs, they would throw stones at people, tickle someone to death, and drown them. In other legends, they would seduce young men, luring them into the depths. According to folklore, rusalkas dislike and despise young girls, actively driving them out of the forest. In one folk tale, it is recounted how a rusalka jokingly extinguished the bonfire lit by several people on the night of Ivan Kupala, and the outraged people almost beat her with clubs, forcing the rusalka to retreat. According to Belarusian folklore, rusalkas were known to run naked and contort themselves; anyone who saw such rusalkas would adopt this habit.
According to V. I. Dahl, rusalkas could capture a flock of geese roosting on the water by folding their wings in a way that prevented the birds from taking flight. According to Alexander Pushkin’s description, rusalkas frightened riders with “splashing, laughter, and whistling.”
Among peasants, several methods circulated to keep rusalkas from bothering people: staring at the ground and avoiding eye contact with rusalkas. According to the peasant Dmitry Shvarkun, there was a recorded incantation against so-called “rusalka harassment”:
Water nymph, forest creature, playful maiden! Untie, roll away, and don’t appear in my yard; it’s not for you to live here forever, just for a week. Go to the deep river, to the tall aspen. Aspen, shake, water nymph, calm down. I accepted the law and kissed the golden cross. I won’t interact with you and won’t be your godparent. Go to the forest, to the thicket, to the forest master; he has been waiting for you, sent a mossy bed, spread with ants, laid a log for your pillow; sleep with him, and don’t appear to me, a baptized one.
It was believed that people who did not remove their cross necklace were protected from the influence of rusalkas. If this did not deter a rusalka, the peasant had to prick her with a pin.
Positive Traits
According to folklore, despite their nature, rusalkas could exhibit noble character traits towards certain individuals. They were known to be very kind to small children, rescuing them from wild animals. In some stories, rusalkas saved drowning individuals from death. Rusalkas were also attributed with a cheerful demeanor: they often “tumbled, played, engaged in races, danced, laughed,” and organized their entertainment at night. Rusalkas were considered patrons of fertility. Peasants believed that where rusalkas held festivities, there would be a good harvest; in particular, where rusalkas danced, grass and crops grew better; rusalkas themselves protected fields from any harm. According to some beliefs, if a person spotted rusalkas during Rusalka Week and said “Chur moya!” (begone, mine!), one of them would go to the person’s house and do all the household work until the next Rusalka Week.
Folktales about Domestic Rusalkas
Zelenin, a collector of folklore in the early 20th century, claimed that there were cases in Belarus where a rusalka lived in a house to work for the inhabitants, feeding off other families, especially those experiencing conflicts at the dinner table.
According to a folktale from peasant Agafiya Antonova in Belarus, as conveyed by elderly witnesses, two captured rusalkas were once brought to her village: “And they don’t say anything; they just cry and cry, like a river, until they were let go. And when they were let go, they sang, played, and went into the forest.”
In the Smolensk province at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the following legend was recorded:
My great-grandfather went once into the forest to gather willow twigs during Rusalka Week. Rusalkas attacked him, but he quickly drew a cross and stood on it. After that, all the rusalkas retreated, except one who still persisted. My great-grandfather grabbed the rusalka by the hand and pulled her into a circle, hastily putting a cross on her, which hung around his neck. Then the rusalka submitted to him; after that, he brought her home. The rusalka lived with my great-grandfather for a whole year, willingly doing all the household chores. When the next Rusalka Week came, the rusalka ran away into the forest again. Captured rusalkas, they say, eat very little—they feed mostly on steam and soon disappear without a trace.
Rusalka Week
According to popular belief, rusalkas descend into rivers in the fall and spend the entire winter there. On Green Week, they come ashore and remain there throughout the summer. It was believed that during “Rusalka Week,” rusalkas roam the fields, swing on trees, and can tickle passersby to death or lure them into the water. Therefore, from Semik to Dukhov Day, people avoided swimming in open water, and they didn’t travel alone through sown fields. Thursday, in particular, was noted as “Rusalka’s Great Day,” and on this day, girls would go to the forest to “baptize the rusalka.” The farewells to rusalkas typically began on Tuesday and were often scheduled for Sunday or the first day of Peter’s Lent following Rusalka Week. It was believed that rusalkas were especially active on the night of Ivan Kupala on June 23–24 (July 6–7 in the new style). On the next day (Fevronia-Rusalknitsa), the last rusalkas would leave the shores for the depths of the water bodies.
Ukrainians referred to Thursday in Rusalka Week, when rusalkas celebrate their Easter, as Mavskoy or Navskoy Easter (Ukrainian: mavskiy, navskiy velykden).
Rusalii
Eastern Slavs referred to the holiday commemorating the deceased with a memorial ritual as Rusalii. Rusalii were observed on the eve of Christ’s Nativity and Theophany (winter Rusalii), during the week after Trinity Sunday (Rusalka Week), or on the summer day of Ivan Kupala. In ancient Russian sources, the term “Rusalii” referred to the Pentecost holiday. During Rusalii, songs and festivities extended well past midnight.
Among the southern Slavs, Rusalii were celebrated during the Holy Days (from Christmas to Epiphany), on Holy Easter, starting from the day of the Ascension (Ascension Thursday), and particularly during Rusalka Week, when “rusali” (or “rusalki”) would appear. Bulgarians believed that on the Wednesday of Mid-Pentecost (25 days after Easter), known as “Rusalka Wednesday” in folklore, rusalki would “set out on a journey.”
In Macedonia, from Christmas to Epiphany, male groups called “rusalii” would visit yards, organizing special dances around sick individuals and performing ritual dances to heal them. In northern Bulgaria and northeastern Serbia, groups of “rusalii” or “kalushar” would visit villages during Trinity Week, aiming to magically cure people afflicted with “rusalka” disease.
It was believed that rusalki or samodivas, appearing on Earth after Ascension, caused “rusalka” disease. A group of men would visit rural homes, and the “rusalii” would perform ritual dances near the sick person (who was taken outside and placed in the yard or meadow) involving spinning and jumps, sometimes reaching an ecstatic state and convulsions, which, according to folk beliefs, provided the most effective healing impact. This method was believed to drive harmful spirits out of the afflicted person.
The oldest mention of Rusalii is found in graffiti No. 23 (according to A. A. Medyntseva) in the Novgorod Sophia Cathedral, dating back to the mid-11th century. Women participating in the Rusalii ritual are referred to as rusalkas in the “Word about Wicked Wives” in the “Golden Matitsa” list, dated by watermarks to the second half of the 1470s to the early 1480s.
Comparative Characteristics
The use of comparative characteristics of characters from different Slavic traditions has revealed many similarities among female mythological figures: the East Slavic rusalka, the West Slavic goddess, the Bulgarian samodiva, and the Serbian vila. For instance, the Bulgarian samodiva could be referred to as a rusalka. Terms like rusalka, goddess, samodiva, and vila are widespread as primary mythological characters across significant Slavic territories. The term rusalka is prevalent throughout the East Slavic territory, Eastern Poland, and Northern Bulgaria. The goddess is used across Poland and bordering areas. Samodiva is found throughout Bulgaria and the bordering Serbian-Croatian zones. Vila is associated with Serbian-Croatian territories.
Rusalkas may correspond to: in the Ukrainian region: mavka, navka, loskotukha; in Belarusian: nimka, kazytka, sauka, zheleznyachka; in Eastern Poland: żytnie panienki, żytnie majki, żytniczki. Polish goddesses may be called rusawki, pokutnice, mamony, placzki, odmienica, zly duch, babula, nocula, mara, diablica, czarownica, or ubohenka. Bulgarian samodivas may also be referred to as beli-cherveni, medeni-masleni, sladki-medeni, zhivi-zdravi, samovila, dimna samovila, yuda, blagi, vihrushki, vrazhkite kerki, vila, diva, samoyuda, rusalka, and rusalia. Serbian-Croatian vilas include samovila, samodiva, dobrica, nedobrica, bela vila, bela-crvena, vodarkinja, primorkinja, juzerkinja, bolarica, prigorkinja, nagorkinja, zagorkinja, belgoroka, peshterkinja, planinkinja, pletikosa, zlatokosa, bazhdarica, zlatokosa, sedmakinja.
Their appearance defies clear and unequivocal description but generally possesses an anthropomorphic female, sometimes childlike, form. They can all become invisible, and only individuals with special qualities can perceive them. In Ukrainian and Southern Russian beliefs, these characters are depicted as attractive and young. Starting from the Polesia region and extending through Belarus to the Russian North, there is a tendency to portray them as ugly and old. In West Slavic mythology, goddesses are portrayed as grotesque old women. Among Southern Slavs, vilas and samodivas more often have an attractive appearance. A common feature among all characters is long, light, flowing hair, white garments, and a wreath on the head.
For East and West Slavic characters, a clear origin in women who died “unnatural” deaths is evident. In East Slavic tradition, these are the souls of children who died before baptism and the souls of maidens who died before marriage. In West Slavic tradition, they are the souls of women who died during childbirth or before postpartum church purification, as well as women who had abortions. In Southern Slavic beliefs, people who pleased samodivas and vilas died and joined their ranks. A common trait among all Slavic characters is the ability to bear children on their own.
They all live beyond the usual residential space—near water, in the forest, in the mountains, in caves, in the sky—far from humans. When entering a house, the character changes their behavior and mischief—sits behind the stove, in the corner, feeds on the steam of hot food or prepares memorial dishes—and invisibly spins at night. Vilas, samodivas, and rusalkas are considered bringers of moisture, capable of “locking water.” Rusalkas and goddesses usually bathe, splash, wash clothes, entice into the water, and drown. They usually appear at night and disappear with the crowing of roosters. On land, they mostly dwell in the spring-summer period, when they can influence crop fertility during the flowering season.
A common characteristic among all characters is their love for music, singing, and dancing. Additionally, they possess the ability for shape-shifting, prophecy, witchcraft, and malevolence, as a characteristic of impure forces. The Polish goddess stands out for her greater malevolence and is the only one not directly associated with vegetation and its impact on crop fertility.
