Category: Science

The scope of scientific study is vast, and it encompasses fascinating and intricate disciplines. Learn more about the most interesting topics in science.

Do You Really Sleep Worse on a Full Moon?
Since ancient times, mankind has been captivated by the moon. It is said to possess mysterious properties, the likes of which have a significant impact on the way we conduct our lives on a day-to-day basis. It is still believed that around the time of a full moon, an abnormally high number of children are born and that an abnormally high number of accidents take place. Even though these and a great number of other lunar myths have been exposed as untrue by researchers for a very long time, one lunar myth nevertheless endures to this day: people sleep worse when the moon is full. So, is it really the case?
The presence of a full moon
Surveys indicate a large number of people still believe this viewpoint, even in developed countries. But should we truly assume it is true? No. Several studies have proven that there is no correlation between the presence of a full moon and an increased risk of sleep difficulties on the following night. This was shown via the use of objective sleep measures carried out in sleep labs as well as through the analysis of sleep journals.
Scientists believe that one explanation for this phenomenon is that the moon does not shine as brilliantly as one would expect it to given its size. On a night with a full moon and stars, the brightness is just 0.2 lux. A streetlight generates anywhere from 50 to 100 times more light than this. When compared to the darkness of the night sky, which has a lux reading of 0.001, the full moon appears to humans to be an extremely brilliant object.
The memory of being sleepless under a full moon sticks with you
Because of this, attributing their inability to sleep to the presence of the full moon is scientifically considered to be absurd. But why is it then that such a large number of individuals feel that they are “moon-sensitive“? It is similar to how superstitions got their start; certain nights just stick out more in our memories than others do because we can relate the disruption in our sleep to something more tangible.
Even if the room is appropriately darkened, if we have only had this experience a few times, then it will become subconsciously settled, along with our anticipations; this will be the case even if we have only experienced it a few times. Researchers use the term “self-fulfilling prophecy” to describe situations like this one. In addition to this, people have a biased vision of the world, regardless. “Oh yeah, there was a full moon, and I didn’t sleep well because of it.”
No discernible effects on humans
That sleepwalking might have anything to do with the full moon is just as much of a myth as sleeping worse during the full moon. There is no proof that the moon, regardless of whether it is full or not, has any kind of influence on the human body that can be measured. But for certain creatures, such as the Palolo worm that lives in the South Seas, the rules are different.
This worm, which makes its home on coral reefs, times the laying of its eggs to coincide with the phases of the moon. Every year, on the seventh night after the first full moon of fall, hundreds of worms release their rear ends packed with eggs or sperm, causing their shells to rupture at the surface of the water and causing the eggs and sperm to mix. The purpose of this mass occurrence is to achieve the following goal: the animals that consume the nourishing worm ends will be unable to keep up with the amount, which ensures there is still enough left to assure the worms’ continuous survival.
September 10, 2022
Oldest Known Surgery from 31,000 Years Ago
The oldest evidence of a surgery dates back to 31,000 years ago. This ancient skeleton’s missing left foot and ankle are no coincidence; the Stone Age guy had a successful amputation as a kid. A Stone Age healer removed a child’s foot and the patient lived. It was only recently that archaeologists on Borneo uncovered this oldest known surgery. They unearthed the remains of the young patient who had a healed amputation of his lower leg. According to the study published in Nature, he passed away between six and nine years after his procedure and was laid to rest in a karst cave. This discovery demonstrates the extraordinary sophistication of ancient hunter-gatherer healing practices.
Fossil evidence suggests that our ancestors utilized beeswax to alleviate toothache and tooth damage, as well as medicinal plants to address stomach issues and wound healing. Trepanations, high-risk surgeries in which the skull bone is pierced, have been documented as far back as the Neolithic (from 10,000 BC) and early Bronze Ages (from 3,300 BC). It is unknown, however, whether or not this was performed for ceremonial or therapeutic purposes.
Dead for 31,000 years
The TB1 Skeleton. The body was recovered in a tomb at Liang Tebo Cave.
© Maloney et al./ Nature, CC-by 4.0
Recently, researchers discovered evidence of an amputation that took place 31,000 years ago, making it the oldest known surgical procedure from the Stone Age. East Kalimantan in Borneo is a karst area where rock paintings as ancient as 40,000 years and other evidence of early human existence have been uncovered. Tim Ryan Maloney of Griffith University in Australia and his colleagues made the discovery. Prehistoric rock art is also found in the top half of the three-chamber Liang Tebo Cave.
The crew discovered the tomb while digging in the cave’s main room, where the skeleton had been well preserved. A young adult guy, around 19–20 years of age, was TB1, a dead man who was found buried with flint knives and a chunk of red ochre. Charcoal and a bone sample dated by Maloney and his team revealed the age of this burial as about 31,000 years. This places it in the Paleolithic Era, the time of early farmers and gatherers.
Amputation of the left lower leg and foot
But what really sets it apart is the fact that the left foot was not found throughout the excavation. Bone growth at the ends of the deceased man’s left tibia and fibula suggested that the damage had healed. To put it another way, the prehistoric kid must have made it through without his foot and with just half a lower leg. The fibula’s distal end was fully covered by new bone lamellae. This means that TB1 survived its injuries for an additional six to nine years.
How did this young man of the Stone Age break his foot? Fractures usually result in splinters and bruises after blunt force trauma, such as an accident or animal assault; however, TB1 does not have these characteristics. Instead, the ends of the leg bones seemed to be cut in a straight line. This points to a surgical amputation of the lower portion of TB1’s lower leg, the oldest known surgery in history.
The Oldest Evidence of a Surgery
This data suggests that a brave healer from as early as 31,000 years ago performed this potentially life-threatening procedure. Thus, the skeleton discovered in Kalimantan’s Liang Tebo cave provides the earliest evidence of a successful surgical amputation or even surgery. Scientists previously reported that a Neolithic farmer in France had his left forearm surgically amputated some 7,000 years ago and that the wound had healed in part.
This successful amputation dating back to the Paleolithic Era not only reveals a previously unknown aspect of ancient human medicine but also provides fresh insights into the social and medical practices of our predecessors. The common belief up until recently was that hunter-gatherer societies lacked the technological sophistication to do such complicated tasks. Major surgery or long-term patient care was seen as incompatible with the nomadic lifestyle and lack of education. But it was wrong.
Remarkably Educated Primitive Doctor
After the amputation, the Stone Age patient must have lived for another seven to ten years.
(Jose Garcia / Griffith University)
The discovery of TB1 currently disproves these previous conclusions. Even in the late Pleistocene, the ‘surgeon’ needed an in-depth understanding of limb anatomy and the muscular and vascular systems to prevent deadly blood loss and infection. In order to keep the patient alive throughout this earliest operation, the surgeon must have carefully dissected the patient’s nerves, blood vessels, and other tissues.
In fact, there are no symptoms of serious infection in the amputation sites on the deceased man’s body, as this was common following an amputation before antibiotics were discovered. In order to avoid gangrene, the young boy would have needed special care and nursing from the Stone Age community since he was immobile. The wound was likely cleansed, dressed, and disinfected on a regular basis, maybe with the use of medicinal plants that were readily accessible in the area, to avoid infection and alleviate discomfort.
The child’s physique shows that he or she lived into early adulthood after the amputation but eventually healed from the injury. This says volumes about the quality of treatment and community support he had access to, especially considering the difficult topography of this karst area.
It’s the Oldest Surgery but It’s Hard to Consider It Primitive
Even though the discovery of this earliest surgery does not reveal whether cultures in this region generally possessed this level of medical knowledge or whether this operation represented an isolated case, the researchers believe that this was certainly the case. The discovery of this exceptionally old piece of evidence of intentional surgery in the tropical rainforest on the eastern edge of the Sunda landmass leaves much to be speculated about.
Our knowledge of this period in Homo sapiens’ history may also be limited by preconceptions regarding the ‘primitive’ nature of early medical and socio-cultural practices among non-sedentary populations in tropical Asia, but the researchers believe it is entirely possible that the people of the Stone Age rainforest of Borneo acquired and passed on the necessary knowledge and experience over the course of generations.
The research by Maloney and colleagues is significant because it provides a different viewpoint on early treatment and care. This study adds to the existing body of knowledge on the topic while also disproving the widely held belief that medical care was not an important factor in ancient societies.
This Article at a Glance
What is the oldest evidence of surgery?
The oldest evidence of surgery dates back to 31,000 years ago. Archaeologists on Borneo recently uncovered the remains of a young patient who had a healed amputation of his lower leg.
What did the Stone Age healer remove in the earliest successful surgery?
The Stone Age healer removed a child’s foot in the earliest known successful surgery. The left foot was not found throughout the excavation, and bone growth at the ends of the deceased man’s left tibia and fibula suggested that the damage had healed.
How did the Stone Age patient survive after the surgery?
The Stone Age patient must have lived for an additional six to nine years after the surgery. The fibula’s distal end was fully covered by new bone lamellae, indicating the bone grew again after the amputation. The wound was likely cleansed, dressed, and disinfected on a regular basis to avoid infection and alleviate discomfort, and the patient would have needed special care and nursing from the Stone Age community since he was immobile.
September 10, 2022
Does Time Go Faster as You Age?
Most people believe that time moves faster as they become older. Especially in retrospect, it seems that this is the case. The past few years of our lives appear to have gone by far too fast, while the first five years of our lives feel like an eternity. However, does time really seem to fly by faster as we age, or are we merely experiencing mental refraction?
New Year’s Eve is coming closer and it seems like only yesterday that we were celebrating the previous New Year. From adulthood onwards, time often seems to fly by. When we reflect on our youth, though, we often find that elementary school or the graduation trip we took before entering high school seemed to endure an eternity. The same thing often happens when we talk to acquaintances.
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Is it possible that how we see the passage of time changes as we become older?
Time in a peculiar way
Research has demonstrated that our sense of time changes as we become older. However, the time period is also a factor. People of all ages have a consistent perception of the duration of shorter time periods, such as weeks, months, or up to a year.
When participants were asked to estimate how rapidly time had gone in the past ten years, however, a distinct pattern emerged: older individuals estimated a quicker rate of time passage.
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It seems that one’s sense of time does not change much between the ages of 50 and 60. Age does undoubtedly have a role in shaping how we perceive the passage of time.
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The conundrum of holidays
As a result of various influences, we do not always judge the same intervals of time to have the same duration. The extent of our past experiences is one factor, while the extent to which we reflect on past events or make estimates of present duration are other factors.
Claudia Hammond, a psychologist, coined the term “holiday paradox” to characterize this phenomenon.
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According to this theory, if we have a lot of novel or interesting experiences within a certain time period, we will remember that time period as being longer than it really was. Time moves quickly during this period. The day appears short and unremarkable when we get up, but when we reflect on it that night, it feels lengthy and jam-packed.
Conversely, when we are bored or doing routine tasks, the effect is the polar opposite. It might seem like an age when you’re waiting for the train or doing mundane tasks at the workplace. On the whole, however, we remember very little about that day. In hindsight, this makes the time period appear shorter.
More knowledge and wisdom
The neurobiology of the human brain provides an answer. It makes a more in-depth record of the novel or emotionally charged encounters than routine ones. The same holds true for our memories, with the novelty and significance of unique events being rewarded with a higher retention rate. Time periods in our past will always be relative to the number of memories we have of them.
This is also why we remember our youth as being so lengthy in hindsight. Simply said, we gained more knowledge and experienced more things for the first time during that period than at any other moment in our lives. That’s why the first field trip always feels so long and the final one looks like it went by in a flash.
Take a break from your normal routine
However, this seemingly contradictory brain activity has the benefit of allowing us some control over how time seems to pass. For the simple reason that when we go out of our comfort zones and try something new, that experience becomes etched indelibly into our brains.
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For this reason, it might be useful to adopt preventative actions now if we want to have fond memories of a long and fruitful life in old age. We could go out and see the places, learn a new hobby, or try skydiving instead of sitting around and watching Netflix.
September 10, 2022
How Do Plants Know When Spring Is Coming
September 10, 2022
How Much Energy do Trees Need in Kilowatt-Hours
September 10, 2022
Why Do Wasps Get Aggressive in Late Summer and Fall?
When having a barbecue in the backyard, particularly at the end of summer, you may often run across unexpected visitors. They move quickly, buzz about, and perch on the meal, all while exerting a hostile influence. Because they are drawn in by the aroma of the meal, wasps are notoriously tough to shoo out. In particular, dessert is an increasingly popular target. But why might we find so many wasps or yellow jackets at this time of year? And why are wasps or yellow jackets known to be particularly hostile in late summer and fall?
In the late summer, when all of the wasp larvae emerge from their respective colonies, the wasp population reaches its maximum size. When there is a higher demand for food, it is much more difficult to locate enough food to meet that need. Adult wasps, who formerly subsisted, in part, on the sugary juice produced by the larvae, must now depend on other sources of sweetness to ensure their own survival. Most wasps or yellow jackets tend to appear in the late summer and early fall.
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This creates the impression that they are more hostile than at other times of the year.
What goes up must come down
Wasps spend most of their lives in wooded areas and open fields. They construct their nests in a variety of locations, depending on the species, including tree hollows, ground burrows, and even high up in the air. These insects construct their nests for that particular year. The overwintered queen starts the construction of the nest in the spring. In order to do this, she injects sperm into eggs that she has been carrying about in her seminal vesicle ever since she mated the previous autumn. The larvae eventually mature into workers that are infertile.
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In the late summer, males and young queens begin to hatch, and the wasp colony will continue to grow until it reaches its maximum size in the autumn. A single colony may contain up to 12,000 individuals at any given time.
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Now more than ever, wasps need copious amounts of food. The increasing number of wasp visits may be attributed to this factor. August is traditionally the peak of the wasp or yellow jacket season when the population is at its largest. Because of this, it’s likely that they appear more aggressive than usual. In fact, the behavior of the insects does not alter during the course of the year; the only difference is that there are just more wasps.
Late in the autumn, the wasp colony is destroyed when the previous queen passes away. When the cold weather finally arrives, the last worker wasps die as well. Only the young queens who were born in the late summer are able to survive the winter by hiding in warm locations that are insulated from the cold, such as bark or decaying wood. After that, the young queen starts a new colony the next spring by constructing a nest in a new place.
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Looking for something to eat
Do wasps actually get aggressive in the summer or fall? Actually, yes. Wasp larvae have an increased need for a substantial quantity of protein towards the beginning of the summer. Therefore, wasps fly more often to places with meat and sausage, as well as to places where they hunt insects; yet, they do not consume this food themselves.
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They grind it up into a paste in order to give it to their offspring. In return, parts of the insect diet (chitin, which makes up insect exoskeletons) are regurgitated by the wasp larvae, resulting in a sweet liquid that is then fed back to the adult wasps. The larvae are the food storage for the wasp colony.
However, the wasp larvae begin to emerge at the end of the summer, forcing the adult wasps to seek out an alternative source of nutrition in the form of sugar. After the month of August, all wasps, including the juvenile wasps and the male drones, search for sweet meals such as nectar, fruit juices, and soft beverages. The struggle to secure adequate food supplies begins.
Wasps are not as hostile as one would expect given their reputation. They are just looking for something to eat. This may lead one to believe that wasps are more aggressive than they really are. It’s their life cycle.
September 9, 2022
New Type of Synapses Discovered: Axo-Ciliary Synapse
September 9, 2022
Why Does Our Face Blush? Scientific Reason
In order to succeed while public speaking, singing, or performing, you need confidence. Unfortunately, when it all comes down to it, our faces tend to blush with excitement, which may make us feel even more vulnerable. Sometimes all it takes to blush is the notion of thinking about it. Why, then, does it always seem like this sudden heat sensation in our faces starts to rise suddenly at the worst possible time?
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For what reason do we feel the need to hide our faces?
Sports and saunas are two other scenarios where people often blush; for others, a warm room or the ingestion of alcohol could be the trigger. The physical effort increases blood circulation in the body, so we blush. These cases of blushing are easily explained. However, the phenomenon known as “social blushing” is different.
When we’re put in circumstances that make us feel threatened, ashamed, or furious, the muscle tension increases as a result of the adrenaline rush. The autonomic nervous system responds to stress by activating the so-called sympathetic nervous system, which speeds up many of the body’s processes.
A Response by the Autonomic Nervous System
Brain sends hormones into the body that cause blood pressure to rise. Concurrently, the heart rate accelerates and more blood is pumped to the brain.
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The face becomes red because the blood vessels expand and the blood flow rises. This is due to the fact that the face has an exceptionally rich capillary bed. Sweaty palms are a common occurrence of blushing. But this is a totally typical physiological response for a healthy human being.
A person’s sensory threshold determines how and how frequentlythey blush. An individual’s susceptibility to stress is also important when it comes to blushing. There are doctors who specialize in helping people with erythrophobia (an abnormal fear of blushing). The prevalence of congenital disorders of sympathetic nervous system regulation is estimated to be roughly 1 in 200 persons according to studies. This causes the individuals to become visibly more agitated and flushed with anger than usual.
An Evolutionary Defense Mechanism
Mark Twain, an American novelist, once said, “Man is the only animal that blushes. Or needs to.” His elucidation was spot-on, and it demonstrated that there is more to a blush than merely a surge of blood to the face. Blushing makes our feelings obvious, since our face flushes red mostly from embarrassment or when we are stressed out for something.
However, the exact mechanism of why a person’s face becomes red when they’re embarrassed still remains a mystery.
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Many hypotheses have been proposed, but none have been conclusively demonstrated. It has been hypothesized that becoming red in the face in an embarrassing scenario is an evolutionary defense mechanism designed to prevent the individual from being shunned by his social group after committing a violation, which likely meant death in pre-historic times. Turning red in the face serves an “apologetic” purpose, signaling “I realize I made a mistake, I’m sorry.
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“
Studies have shown that people who blush after making a mistake in public, such as tripping over their feet in a store, are more likely to be seen with sympathy than pity. They are less likely to believe that the person did the thing on purpose, and thus the person is less likely to be judged harshly or excluded from society. In this sense, blushing may serve as a kind of defense, perhaps against the potential social repercussions of an action.
There Is a Catch
However, it’s unlikely that blushing serves any essential purpose. Prehistoric humans, as seen through the lens of evolutionary biology, had uniformly dark skin. Since blushing is only so prominently visible in light-skinned individuals, it makes little sense for it to have a vital survival purpose.
And being shy doesn’t stick with you forever. It is well known that infants do not blush. This only begins at the age of three, and it reaches its pinnacle around adolescence, when emotional and physical changes make you more vulnerable to the judgmental gazes of others. The volume of blushing frequently decreases beyond that point.
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Methods Against Blushing
Even yet, blushing is still embarrassing and humiliating, particularly when it draws others’ notice. Experts propose relaxation and breathing techniques for individuals who blush often; these methods don’t eliminate blushing, but they can release inner stress. Likewise, those who concentrate less on their red faces will feel calmer, which is why talking to others may be helpful in stopping blushing.
Extreme blushers may benefit from specialized behavioral treatments that aim to identify the causes of their anxiety and then direct them to deliberately seek out social settings where they may blush. Successful treatment usually results in less frequent blushing over time.
September 9, 2022
How Does Corn Turn Into Popcorn
September 9, 2022
Why Do So many People Drink Alcohol?
Drinking alcohol has been ingrained in the social fabric of many societies and is a regular practice during social gatherings. In some cultures, drinking beer at the end of the day, sparkling wine for a toast, and maybe even more at the next celebration are examples of this. But why is it that so many individuals like drinking alcohol, despite the fact that they are aware of the risks associated with doing so? And why exactly does drinking make one feel happier?
Already many thousands of years ago, the use of alcoholic beverages became a custom or a regular cuisine in many cultures. And this pattern will likely continue: Germans are among the heaviest drinkers in the world, with an average annual consumption of more than 10 liters (340 oz) of pure alcohol per person.
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It is projected that 2.5 million people in Germany will need alcohol addiction treatment in the near future. Up to 40,000 individuals in the country lose their lives each year as a direct result of the effects of drinking too much alcohol.
The hedonistic indulgence of toxins
Alcohol is a cytotoxin that is known to cause damage to organs and is associated with an increased risk of a wide variety of disorders. Consuming excessive amounts of alcohol causes damage to brain tissue and disrupts the activities of all organs and the body as a whole. The most common illnesses caused by alcohol use include cirrhosis of the liver, damage to the pancreas, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and other mental disorders.
Because when alcohol is broken down, the neurotoxin circulates in the body, poisoning it with acetaldehyde, a very dangerous and carcinogenic chemical, and leading to alterations in the brain that are often permanent; this is particularly true in those younger than 25 years old. This is because their brains are still in the process of growing. Long after the effects of dehydration have worn off, the perception will still be hampered, blood sugar levels will be decreased, and the body will continue to battle against the lack of water. In spite of this, a feeling of euphoria is often what is retained in the mind, which creates the risk of developing an addiction.
(Credit: Unknown artist)
Because despite the fact that alcohol is recognized as both a neurotoxin and a drug, it is nevertheless easily accessible in most places and, most importantly, is generally seen to be acceptable by society. Why do so many individuals choose to ignore the dangers associated with this widely used stimulant?
Interference with the functioning of the brain
To this day, the consumption of alcohol is still the subject of much debate: on the one hand, alcohol is still a substance that is detrimental to one’s health; on the other hand, some studies show that people who drink alcohol in moderation would live longer than those who do not drink alcohol at all. Another explanation for alcohol’s widespread consumption is that, when a person has developed a tolerance to its bitter flavor, their bodies no longer recognize the threat presented by the neurotoxin since they have gotten acclimated to it.
The use of alcoholic drinks may have the benefits of lowering tension, bringing about feelings of serenity and euphoria, and removing inhibitions. Some people believe that drinking alcohol is a restful or relaxing activity, particularly after a tough day at work. According to the results of a poll, one in five males said that drinking alcohol helped them relax. In addition, the poll found that around eight percent of the women stated they drink alcohol to unwind. But what might possibly be the cause of this?
It has been known for a very long time that alcohol has an effect on the brain that causes a person to gaze into their glass more often while they are drinking. This last effect is caused by a shift in the proportion of neurotransmitters in the brain, which are chemical messengers that communicate with the nerve cells. The upbeat mood may be attributed to this process.
What happens when we drink alcohol?
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The vast majority of the alcohol we drink goes straight into our bloodstream and is then disseminated all throughout our bodies. Finally, it breaks through the blood-brain barrier and enters the brain, where it causes an increase in the amount of dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is essential for the functioning of the reward system. This is due to the fact that our bodies constantly produce a significant quantity of dopamine whenever we achieve success in a certain endeavor, whether it be in a sport, at work, or in a relationship, for example. The same can be said of endorphins, which are messenger molecules that have the effect of making us feel joyful and even euphoric at times. Alcohol stimulates the release of these feel-good endorphins, which, for example, are normally produced while engaging in physical activity.
The intoxication level of an alcoholic not only alters their state of mind, but also their typical actions and characteristics. People judge distances increasingly inaccurate, lose the ability to focus, their overall speed and coarse motor skills deteriorate, and they show a tendency to overestimate their capabilities.
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The surroundings are only observed in a hazy manner, and stressful memories and unpleasant experiences are forgotten. Drinking alcohol provides a brief escape from the actual world; for many people, this is a temptation.
September 9, 2022
Why Do Spicy Foods Hurt?
Anyone who enjoys spicy curries is familiar with the sensation of having their tongue and mouth region burn and their body suddenly become very heated and sweaty. Tears, stomach cramps, and, in the worst cases, nausea and vomiting could be the result of eating very spicy chili peppers.
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Yet, why? When we consume spicy food, what happens to our body physiologically?
Humans have taste buds that pick up on five different flavors: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami, the latter of which is the spicy flavor associated with protein-rich cuisine or soy sauce. When we consume anything salty, for instance, our saliva carries the salt to the taste buds, where it gets detected. On the other hand, the bitterness or sharpness in spicy foods is sensed in a manner unrelated to the tongue’s taste receptors.
Sharpness is “fooling” our receptors
Piperine is a chemical compound in pepper. (Credit: ResearchGate)
This is caused by the active chemicals in spicy foods, such as the piperine in pepper, the mustard oil in horseradish and mustard, the allicin in garlic, the isoalliin in onions, the gingerol and shogaol in ginger, and the capsaicin in chilies.
When these molecules reach our tongues, they irritate pain receptors like the so-called TRP channels, which are also responsible for the experience of heat and serve as a burn warning system. The sharp stimulus from bitterness causes not just pain but also heat perception, “fooling” our receptors.
The sensation of heat
The nerve cells of the mouth secrete chemical messengers called neuropeptides in response to intense heat impulses, such as capsaicin from chili peppers. These trigger a response in our neural system. The blood vessels widen as a result. This increases heat loss by increasing blood flow to the skin’s surface.
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However, in severe circumstances, this might cause a reduction in blood pressure and circulation issues.
The glands also increase their output of fluids like sweat and tears. The evaporation of sweat from the skin results in the cooling of the human body. Since the active substances stay on the tongue after swallowing the spicy food, the resulting effects on the body are prolonged. The “burning” in our lips persists, and we experience an increase in body temperature and sweating.
The brain, too, has an emotional response to sharpness, producing chemicals like adrenaline and endorphins (the latter of which works as the body’s natural pain inhibitors but can also generate emotions of enjoyment) in response to spicy, sharp foods. Spiciness, in large enough quantities, may even intoxicate us. “Pepper High Effect” is another name for this phenomenon.
Digestion is also affected
Capsaicin, which is found in chili peppers, speeds up your metabolism and gets the digestive system working better. This is due to the fact that the active component causes irritation in a variety of different receptors and the stomach lining. This prompts the stomach to contract more forcefully and secrete more gastric acid than normal in an effort to get rid of the heat as fast as possible. The digestion process is sped up as a result.
The heat from chili peppers has been shown to increase metabolic rate and improve digestion in rodent studies, which may explain why some people report feeling more “full” after eating spicy foods.
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When added to a high-fat meal, capsaicin prevented weight gain in rats. They were also more active than usual despite the abundance of food. Scientists are investigating whether or not capsaicin may increase thermogenesis (body heat) and hence fat burning.
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Cons and pros of spicy foods
In addition to the heated active substances, many spicy meals also include additional ingredients that offer health benefits. Ginger, for instance, is often recommended for those experiencing gas and bloating. Garlic has been linked to lowering blood cholesterol levels and helping manage high blood pressure, while horseradish has been touted for its antimicrobial properties.
However, not everyone can handle spicy meals despite their health benefits. Spicy foods may irritate the mucous membranes, leading to sickness, vomiting, and even high blood pressure in persons with weak stomachs. Spicy foods may initially be too much for some people, but they may develop a tolerance over time if they are introduced to them gradually. Nonetheless, it’s best to keep kids away from chili and other spicy foods.
Fat to extinguish everything
Fat, such as mascarpone, cream, milk, or oil, helps with the burning feel of spicy foods, as the pungent active ingredients are fat-soluble and can combine with the capsaicin on the tongue, for example, to wash down the spiciness if a dish is too spicy and painful. Water usually does not help with the burning feeling from spicy foods since it only distributes the active ingredients on the tongue without actually combining with them.
September 9, 2022
Telescope: History and Invention
Who invented the telescope? The telescope enabled us to find our place in the universe and discover the fine balance deep in space and its treasures. We don’t know who made the first usable telescope or which genius predicted the future of this tool. But Dutch lens maker and inventor Hans Lippershey was the first to apply for a patent for the telescope in 1608.
The real inventor of the telescope, and the patent issues
Hans Lippershey was born in Wesel, Germany. In 1594, he moved to Middleburg, Netherlands (then the Dutch Republic). He got married the same year, became a Dutch citizen, and opened an optician in his city. Little is known about his life. What is known for certain is that he was the first to apply for a patent for the telescope, which he called “kijker” (Dutch for “observer”, also “binocular”).
Lippershey is experimenting with lenses.
In September 1608, the inventor Lippershey went to the Dutch Republic’s political capital, Den Haag, and applied for a patent for his invention. But his discovery was turned down, saying it was too simple. The device was made up of two lenses placed at a distance inside a pipe. Nevertheless, authorities at Den Haag saw a future in Lippershey’s invention and commissioned him to make a telescope with three lenses (or binoculars) used with both eyes. The Dutch Parliament made a generous payment to Lippershey for his work. The money he received was more than enough for him to buy and repair the neighboring house.
However, the Dutch Parliament had several reasons to reject the patent application: Within a few weeks, another Dutch spectacle-maker, Jacob Metius (1571-1630), made an application very similar to that of Lippershey. Thus, a claim of priority regarding the invention of the telescope came up in the 1620s. Zacharias Janssen (1580–1638), who lived a few houses away from Lippershey’s, suggested that he find the telescope first.
Mirror Grinding Machine, designed by Leonardo da Vinci.
The oldest drawing of the telescope is from a 1609 letter sent by Italian scholar Giovanni Battista Della Porta (1535-1615). Della Porta later suggested that he found the telescope before Lippershey but died without proving his claim. In fact, it’s likely that many lens makers did align two lenses correctly and get enlarged images long before Lippershey, but they couldn’t see where what they were doing would lead.
Italian glassmakers’ role in the discovery of telescope
The telescope’s invention reached a turning point in 1609, when people who learned about it began to make their own telescopes and use them for a new and world-changing purpose. The new goal was to discover the sky. The first person to observe the sky with a telescope was the English astronomer and mathematician Thomas Harriot (1560-1621). Harriot made a drawing of the Moon he saw through the telescope on July 26, 1609. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), who was much more famous than him, did the same drawing four months later with more details. He explained his magnificent findings in his book Sidereus Nuncius (The Sidereal Messenger) in 1610.
A compound microscope was designed by British scientist Robert Hooke (1635–1703).
Hans Lippershey is usually honored as the person who discovered the microscope or, more precisely, the compound microscope (consisting of two or more lenses). But again, Zacharias Janssen developed this device almost at the same time. As a result, no patents were issued for the microscope, as any inventor who could place the two lenses at the right distance would get a larger image of the objects. But none of them were lucky enough to invent the telescope.
The city of Middelburg, where Lippershey and Janssen lived, was famous for glass production. The city owed this reputation to its superior lens grinding technique and its ability to produce fine, bubble-free glass, which it developed over the years. Working with high-quality glass was an innovation in 17th-century Northern Europe. The production secret for the glass was taken from Italy, which had held a monopoly on quality glass since the 13th century. Besides the lens producers from Middelburg, the Italian glassmakers of the 13th century deserve to be honored for their contribution to the emergence of these extraordinary inventions that changed the world in some way. The invention of the telescope is among these honors.
Did Galileo Galilei invent the telescope?
Galileo
Although Lippershey is a skilled craftsman in all aspects and filed for a patent for the telescope, Galilei is considered the true hero of this story. His detailed observation of the Moon, as well as his observations about Jupiter’s moons, overturned the dogmatic theory that the Earth was in the center of the universe. With Galilei, the invention of the telescope gained new meaning.
Hubble Space Telescope
Hubble used a concave mirror, not an objective lens, to collect the light. The built-in camera takes incredibly clear pictures of all kinds of celestial objects using the collected light.
By developing this simple telescope design, Galileo invented his own device with a magnification of eight times in August 1609. Lippershey’s device could only triple the magnification. Galileo, who also tried compound microscopes in the 1610s, became the first person to make biological observations through a microscope in the 1620s. Galileo was a great thinker. He is often referred to as the forerunner of physics or even modern science. He was a very complete scientist rather than an inventor. Even though he found the early thermometer and a geometric caliper, he did not invent the telescope.
September 7, 2022
How Was the Atom Split? History of Splitting the Atom
Following the discovery of the nucleus in the atom in 1911, it was found that when bombarded with particles from radioactive substances, the atomic nuclei can split and ultimately create a tremendous quantity of energy. Otto Hahn (1879–1968) and Lise Meitner (1878–1968) discovered the splitting of the uranium nucleus. The heaviest nuclei are those of uranium, and their isotopes were divided by neutrons.
Splitting an atom
In the process called “fission,” additional neutrons are produced, and these neutrons cause the fission to continue in a chain reaction. In 1942, a research team led by Enrico Fermi (1901–1954) succeeded in carrying out a chain reaction in the world’s first nuclear reactor. Three years later, the same chain reaction was used in the nuclear bombs that destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
Chain reaction
The energy source in a nuclear reaction or explosion is a chain reaction. A uranium or plutonium nucleus is split by fission, new neutrons emerge, and these neutrons cause new nucleus fissions. As a result of the energy and radiation of the divided parts, a huge amount of heat is released. This heat is used in reactors to generate electricity in a controlled manner. The heat generated by the explosion is much more severe than this.
1. Stray neutrons: Atoms bombarded with radiation give off neutrons. Sometimes neutrons can also be released from decaying uranium nuclei, but these neutrons very rarely react with uranium nuclei to cause a chain reaction. Most nuclear reactions use a highly radioactive but rare isotope of uranium, uranium-235.
2. Nuclear fission: When a neutron hits another uranium nucleus, the nucleus splits in two, almost evenly. In addition to high-energy radiation, a few neutrons are also released. These neutrons can cause other nuclei to split in a chain reaction. Graphite or uranium and heavy water are used to slow down these neutrons.
Splitting the atom in the family
In 1917, Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn discovered a new element in uranium ores, called protactinium. Meitner and his nephew Otto Frisch (1904-1979) carried out the uranium fission experiment in 1939. Otto Hahn worked on the breakdown of neutrons and uranium nuclei. By-products of this disintegration process included barium nuclei, which weighed half as much as uranium nuclei. This is one family to remember when it comes to breaking down the atom.
A richer fuel: U-235
Uranium can damage organs or bone marrow, leading to blood cancer.
Fuel rods consist of parts of a uranium compound called uranium dioxide, which contains a high content of uranium-235. These rods are used in the Magnox reactor and the British Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor-AGR.
Unstable uranium: uranium-238 (U-238)
The illegal market for radioactive uranium-238 in the world is huge.
The main isotope of uranium is uranium-238 (U-238). Its nucleus contains a total of 238 particles, including 92 protons and 146 neutrons. Neutrons prevent the protons in the nucleus from pushing each other due to the positive charges. However, an unstable U-238 nucleus spontaneously decays, emits an atomic particle, and eventually turns into a thorium nucleus. The thorium core is also unstable. Therefore, with this chain decay process, it becomes different particles and the process continues until a lead nucleus is formed.
Other uranium isotopes also go through similar chain decay processes and turn into a different isotope of lead. This feature allows the rocks containing uranium to be discovered by looking at their radioactivity. Uranium can also break down through fission, which can cause a chain reaction. Special conditions must be met for such a chain reaction, and a sufficient amount of relatively pure uranium should be used.
Warnings about the atomic bomb
Robert Oppenheimer was later featured on the TIME magazine cover.
40 years before the first nuclear explosion, in 1905, Albert Einstein (1879–1955) showed in the Theory of Special Relativity that energy and mass are equivalent and can convert into each other. In 1939, he warned American President Franklin Roosevelt that the uranium chain reaction could be dangerously used to make a very powerful bomb.
Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967) joined the US atomic bomb project in 1942 and later became the head of the lab that would make the first nuclear bomb. In 1954, after his dismissal for security reasons, he put an end to his atom studies.
Cherenkov Radiation
The blue glow in the reactor core.
This magical blue glow in the heart of the nuclear reactor is caused by light-emitting electrons as they pass through the medium. In such reactors, the chain reaction is controlled by rods containing neutron-absorbing materials such as cadmium. Severe heat in the reactor’s core is removed with the help of gas, liquid metal, or high-pressure water.
September 6, 2022
History of Smallpox: Vaccine, Eradication, and the Blankets
September 6, 2022
How Did We Start Discovering the Stars?
How and when did we discover what stars were? Our stargazing studies, or knowledge of the stars, have developed impressively since the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), who was imprisoned and burned for claiming that the sun is just one of the many stars (and that he had some other religious beliefs). However, the greatest leap would occur in the nineteenth century, when new scientific techniques such as parallax were developed, allowing us to determine spectral measurements and star distances.
Since the sun is very close to us from a universal perspective, we have obtained important information about other stars only by examining our own star. By looking at the different stars, each at a different stage of their evolution, astronomers gathered information about the life cycle of stars and understood how the sun and the solar system would reach their ultimate end.
Stargazing in Egypt
We now know what stars are made of, how hot they are, and how they move in space. However, the discoveries of brown dwarf stars and planets outside the Solar System have shown that there are many mysteries to be solved about the stars. In ancient Egypt, astronomy was very important, but for them, it was more like a religion than a science. The Hunter Constellation, for example, represented Osiris, the god of death. The following image, taken from a mummy coffin, depicts the daughter of the god Shu (the god of the atmosphere), and Nuit (the goddess of the sky), as she leaves Earth.
For Egyptians, the god of the atmosphere and her daughter, the goddess of the sky, belonged to the stars.
Stargazing in Babylon
The Babylon tablet below, which dates back to 500 BC, is covered with writings describing the movements of stars and planets. The Babylonians were intelligent astronomers and astrologers who could predict eclipses, invented the angular measure to find the angular distances of sky objects, and designed an effective form of numerical representation for all that.
A Babylon tablet describing the movements of the stars and planets.
Spectroscopy
The development of spectroscopy or spectrum measurement in the 1860s was a great achievement for astronomy. The light of the star passed through a plate known as the grid and was separated on the plate by spectral wavelengths. This helped to create a kind of star map. However, as the image below shows, the spectrum of the Arcturus star had all the spectrum colors of the rainbow, as well as some black lines.
Each black line in the spectrum corresponds to a different atom.
Each set of black lines defined an atomic type. For example, while hydrogen lines always appeared at certain wavelengths, helium lines always appeared in some other group. So spectroscopy made us understand what the stars (and other objects) are actually made of. The spectroscopy also reveals the stars’ relative speeds according to the Solar System.
Doppler tomography
Some stars have very large stains on their surface that cover very large areas. Thanks to the method known as Doppler tomography, astronomers have been able to indirectly view the surfaces of these stars since the 1980s. This method is similar to the medical imaging methods that doctors use to see inside the human body.
Doppler tomography.
Chinese celestial sphere
The Chinese had long been known as intelligent astronomers, and therefore the Chinese star maps go back centuries. There is evidence that they discovered the sunspots much earlier than the commonly known date of 1611. It was also noted that they recorded the 1054 supernova (SN 1054), resulting in the formation of the Crab Nebula. The 18th-century map below shows 1,464 stars, divided into 283 constellations.
The Chinese made a star map many centuries ago.
Becklin-Neugebauer object
Since many astronomical objects are visible only in the infrared spectrum, it is necessary to go as far as possible in the atmosphere to make more detailed observations. This Hubble Space Telescope image below shows a rather large star in the depths of the Orion Nebula. This infrared radiation source is the Becklin-Neugebauer object itself. The object was discovered in 1966, and it was infrared astronomy’s first major discovery.
Becklin-Neugebauer object, originally located in the “Orion” nebula.
The history of stargazing begins with ancient Egypt before Christ, and looking at the size of the discoveries made, it is understood that humanity had been observing the stars for centuries. Today, it is known that every galaxy has billions of different stars.
September 6, 2022