The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, symbols of the grandeur and splendor of ancient civilizations, continue to captivate the collective imagination through the texts that describe them.
The Great Pyramid of Khufu: A Partial Disappearance
Built around 2560 BCE (and the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World), the Great Pyramid was constructed as a tomb for Pharaoh Khufu. It has withstood the test of time, but its original polished limestone casing has been eroded by time and natural disasters.
Architectural elements were also likely plundered for the construction of other buildings.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
This ancient wonder, often attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II (the king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire at the time), remains shrouded in mystery. Archaeological evidence suggests that the gardens were not actually “hanging” in the literal sense but were built on terraces. The exact cause of their disappearance remains unknown, with theories ranging from damage caused by earthquakes to gradual neglect over time.
The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
Erected in honor of Zeus in Olympia in the 5th century BCE, this colossal statue, made of gold and ivory, is believed to have been destroyed in a fire that consumed the temple in the 5th century CE. Other, less widely accepted theories suggest that the site suffered damage over the centuries, including earthquakes, which contributed to its gradual disappearance.
Dedicated to the glory of Artemis, the goddess of hunting and the wilderness, this spectacular temple suffered multiple destructions, including a devastating fire in 356 BCE caused by the infamous arsonist Herostratus. Although it was later rebuilt identically, the temple was ultimately razed by the Goths in 262 CE.
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
Built in the mid-4th century BCE in memory of King Mausolus, this grand mausoleum was progressively damaged by several earthquakes during the Middle Ages. Over time, its massive structure crumbled, and its stones were repurposed for other buildings, further accelerating its disappearance.
Erected in 280 BCE to commemorate Rhodes’ victory against a siege, this giant bronze statue was toppled by an earthquake in 226 BCE. Some fragments of the statue may have remained visible for a while, but they were eventually melted down by Arab invaders in the 7th century.
The Lighthouse of Alexandria
Lighthouse of Alexandria
Built on the island of Pharos in the 3rd century BCE, the Lighthouse of Alexandria guided sailors for centuries. Its destruction is most commonly attributed to an earthquake in the 14th century, which caused the structure to collapse. The recovered stones were likely used to construct a fortress, gradually erasing all traces of the lighthouse.
Although the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World have physically disappeared, they continue to captivate the imagination. Their complex history of construction, decline, and eventual loss adds an intriguing dimension to our understanding of these extraordinary monuments. Despite their absence, they live on through history and mythology, preserving their legendary status.
Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), one of history’s most successful conquerors, ruled over ancient Macedonia for 13 years. Alexander was a Greek king, explorer, and general. From the time of his first victory at the age of 18, he always moved his soldiers quickly into battle before the enemy lines were ready. He never lost a battle throughout his career. During his 13 years as King of Macedonia, Alexander the Great established an empire that stretched from Greece to what is now northwest India.
Alexander, King of Macedon
Detail of Charles Le Brun’s painting “Alexander and Porus” depicting Alexander the Great; it is located at the Louvre in Paris, France.
Alexander became King in 336 BC following the assassination of his father, Philip II, and was educated by the scholar Aristotle. In 336 BC, after crushing multiple uprisings, Alexander launched a massive invasion into Persian territory. Alexander started with repeated wins, eventually taking over almost the whole Persian Empire. Following his victories at Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, Alexander set his sights on India next. He went as far as the foothills of the Himalayas, after which he returned to Babylon to rule over his conquests. The cultural legacy that his dominion spread to the East, however, did outlive him.
In general, knowledge of ancient Macedonia’s past is poor. During the Neolithic Era, several migratory peoples made their way there (c. 6200 BC). After 3000 BC, the mountainous areas between Mount Olympus and Mount Pindus were settled by people who spoke Greek. It was amid the fertile alluvial plains of Haliacmon and Axios that Perdiccas I of Macedon founded his empire in the 7th century BC. Philip II led his nation to new heights of success and growth in the 4th century BC. In 338 BC, he achieved victory against the Greeks and united Greece and Macedonia into a single kingdom.
Alexander, the son of Philip II and Olympias, the Princess of Epirus, became King of Macedonia at the age of 18 (336 BC) after his father’s assassination. He was a student of Aristotle, who provided him with a rigorous education that helped cultivate his intrepidity, bravery, and innate disposition for battle. His whole upbringing had been shaken by tales of Hercules and Achilles, mythical forebears of the Macedonian throne. He had already made his mark in his father’s army as a young man, showing great skill in battle. Because of his magnetic charisma, Alexander was unrivaled in his ability to inspire his troops to victory in the face of adversity. Not only did the young prince learn to ride very well (his horse’s name was Bucephalus), but he also helped his father in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, where he gained invaluable experience in the art of combat.
Alexander the Great and his horse Bucephalus by Domenico Maria Canuti (1645-1684).
Philip II of Macedon, who had recently conquered the Greek towns, was just getting ready to attack the Persian Empire when he passed away. Although Alexander was determined to carry out his father’s plan, he postponed it while he put down a rebellion in his nation. It had been 150 years since the Persians had made another effort to conquer Greek land. Since then, the Persian Empire’s decline continued unabated. However, King Darius III was able to raise significant troops in all four corners of his immense realm, from the Mediterranean to the Indus. His riches greatly surpassed that of Alexander.
This massive size, though, may end up being a hindrance. It took weeks for the messages to travel throughout the Persian Empire and months for the warriors to assemble into their regiments. Although they outnumbered their enemies, the Persian army was so disorganized and disparate that it was difficult to keep them under control. Conversely, the legendary Macedonian phalanx, although well-equipped and over-trained, demonstrated mobility and brittleness when faced with military tactics. Unlike his contemporary Darius, who was weak and unimaginative, Alexander was a strong and inspiring leader.
At the meeting of the Greek states held in Corinth (the League of Corinth) at the end of the summer of 336 BC, Alexander established his position in Greece and obtained the leadership of the Greek armies. So the new king of Macedon handed over the regency to his mom, Olympias. In 335 BC, Alexander launched a great military effort on the outskirts of the Danube to suppress a revolt by the Thracians. Upon its return to Macedonia, he swiftly crushed the rebellious Illyrians and Dardanians at the Lake of Prespa and then made a beeline for the insurgent city of Thebes. He subjugated approximately 30,000 people to slavery and demolished the city, saving only the shrines to the gods and the house of the poet Pindar. Now that he was unburdened, Alexander was able to focus his attention eastward.
The Conquest of Persia
Alexander cuts the Gordian Knot, painting date 1767.
After Alexander handed over power in Macedonia to one of his generals, Antipater, in the spring of 334 BC, he embarked on a military campaign against the Persian Empire, marking the beginning of a new “Iliad,” that of an aficionado of Homer. He led 35,000 warriors over the Hellespont (the present-day Dardanelles), accompanied by his top generals, Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. According to legend, he fought 40,000 Persians on the banks of the Granicus near ancient Troy, losing just 110 men in the process. The myth claims that at that point Alexander failed to untie the mythical Gordian Knot during his walk in Phrygia. He then sliced it with his sword. He afterwards ruled over Asian nations all the way in Afghanistan to the east.
After his first major victory at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC, Alexander, at the age of 22, conquered Asia Minor and freed the Greek towns on the coast from Persian rule. But his fleet didn’t let him gamble on a naval battle since the Persians could turn the tables in a maritime battle at any moment. Refusing to make a further incursion inside, Alexander instead crossed Syria and traveled down the Mediterranean Coast to Phoenicia, where the Persian fleet was based. Along the way, he defeated Darius’s Persian army in the Battle of Issus (333 BC).
After then, the Persians offered Alexander little opposition. In return for their submission, these towns and regions saw this skilled leader as kind, since he promised not to increase taxes and kept his warriors from putting them into slavery. The strategy worked, as several towns capitulated rather than suffer devastation and looting. However, some cities, like Tyre, the largest Phoenician harbor, stubbornly held out. The Greek and Macedonian forces besieged the city for eight months before finally taking it. The city’s remaining inhabitants were then forced into slavery.
With the security of this key port in his grasp, Alexander turned his attention to Egypt, which for two centuries had been under the rule of the Persians. Memphis, the ancient capital, greeted him as a liberator and anointed him king. After establishing the city of Alexandria in the Nile Delta, Alexander the Great traveled to the oasis of Siwa in the desert, where he planned to see the oracle of Amon and learn that he was indeed the son of the Greek god Zeus, not Philip. Alexander’s fame became so large that even he started to see himself as a god.
Alexander the Great in the East
Francesco Fontebasso (1709-69), defeated Porus at the Battle of Hydaspes in 326. (Credit: Wikimedia Commons)
Alexander the Great left Egypt in October 331 BC to launch an assault on the core of the Persian Empire. Darius III suffered a second defeat at the Battle of Gaugamela, although his army outnumbered Alexander’s Macedonian army by a factor of six to one. Alexander took control of the Persian capitals of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, the last of which he burned as a symbol. Darius departed, having lost all hope. He died soon after being killed by relatives.
The Greek-Macedonian army continued their voyage in Central Asia for three years, finishing the conquest of the Persian Empire, which vanished forever in 327 BC. Then, Alexander headed in the direction of northern India. When Alexander reached the Himalayan foothills, he fought and won a decisive battle on the Hydaspes River (north of current Pakistan) in the Battle of the Hydaspes against the King Porus.
His weary army, on the brink of a coup, asked him to turn around. Although he would have happily pushed on to the east forever, Alexander conceded and turned back. With his army in tow, he followed the Indus to the Gulf of Oman and then began the arduous trek over the Gedrosian Desert (in Iran). In 324 BC, he was back in Babylon, his new capital.
“Alexander Entering Babylon” by Gérard Audran (1640-1703).
In June 323 BC, at the young age of 32, Alexander the Great died abruptly in Babylon, most likely as a result of his alcoholism. He had been preparing for further conquests in the Persian Gulf and the East. He had become a dictator after concluding that he was a god. Due to his failure to establish a strong central administration, his kingdom soon disintegrated into chaos.
The descendants of Alexander were quickly eliminated while still infants. Alexander’s generals, to whom he had committed the administration of the conquered provinces, fought amongst themselves in a series of conflicts, eventually dividing the territory between them to form separate sovereign kingdoms. Only Ptolemy in Egypt (the Ptolemaic Kingdom, founded 305 BC) and Seleucus in Persia (the Seleucid Empire, founded 312 BC) established long-lasting dynasties.
Alexander the Great’s lasting impact
Alexander the Great had conquered much of Asia, including the Indus Valley, and brought with him the culture of the Greeks. Greeks flocked by the tens of thousands to the new towns built in the conquered lands, many of which were named after Alexander. Alexander’s conquests encouraged economic transactions and the movement of individuals and ideas, both of which contributed to the spread of Greek culture and language among the people he conquered.
This time of dominance in the Mediterranean and Near East is known as the Hellenistic period. Stunning metropolises like Alexandria, Pergamon, and Seleucia supplanted Athens as the cultural capitals of the Hellenic world. Arts and sciences thrived, and scientists, mathematicians, and astronomers like Archimedes, Euclid, and Eratosthenes helped to define the era. However, only the upper classes were exposed to Greek culture, with the masses sticking to their traditions.
Due to Rome’s rise to dominance, the Hellenic World inevitably declined. Midway through the 2nd century BC, the kingdoms of Greece and Macedonia submitted. For them, the fall of the Seleucid and Ptolemaic dynasties in 64 and 30 BC was decisive. The Greek civilization, particularly in architecture, science, literature, and mythology, was much respected by the Romans, who seamlessly assimilated the legacy of Alexander. The Bible and the Quran both refer to his deeds.
Alexander served as an example for countless conquerors throughout history. Even today, aspiring military strategists research the illustrious wars of Alexander the Great, who, with a small army of a few thousand men, successfully extended the recognized frontiers of his era.
Frequently asked questions regarding Alexander the Great
Which philosopher has often been credited for training Alexander the Great?
The Greek philosopher Aristotle got young Alexander interested in science, medicine, and philosophy. He also taught him a lot about rhetoric and literature.
Which empire did Alexander the Great conquer?
Persepolis served as the primary capital of the Persian Empire, which was established by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC. After Alexander the Great beat Darius III in the Battle of Issus in 330 BC, he took over the Persian Empire.
How did Alexander the Great die?
In the spring of 323 BC, Alexander the Great returned to Babylon after a campaign that had taken him to the Indus River’s borders. The sickness he had in June ultimately proved fatal. His mysterious absence left his huge empire in shambles, with his top generals fought amongst themselves for control.
Bibliography:
Bill Yenne, (2010), Alexander the Great: Lessons from History’s Undefeated General.
David George Hogarth, (1897), Philip and Alexander of Macedon: Two Essays in Biography.
Peter Green, (2007), Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age.
How was Babylon destroyed? All spring and summer the Persian army led by Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II or Kurash II) waited outside Babylon’s magnificent walls in the hope that the city would succumb to famine. The Persians had conquered their arch-rivals the Medes and the rich and legendary Lydia in a series of victorious campaigns. Once Cyrus had conquered Babylon, he would rule not only Mesopotamia but also Syria and Palestine, which had been under Babylonian rule. But how did the fall of Babylon come about?
The Unexpected End of Glorious Babylon
The Babylonian army entered Babylon via the Euphrates through the center of the city. In the Book of Daniel in the Torah, the prophet Daniel describes the fall of Babylon with a feast given by Belshazzar, the regent of Babylon.
The Babylonians, well aware of Cyrus’ ambition, had taken a wise precaution and stored enough food to last them for years. However, they did not take into account one of their greatest defensive weaknesses, the Euphrates River, which runs right through the middle of the city. Cyrus was quick to realize that the river was the route that would lead his troops right into the heart of Babylon.
Cyrus ordered a canal to be dug from the banks of the river a little above the city of Babylon and connected to the nearby marshes. So the waters of the Euphrates flowing through the canal into the marshes receded, and when they were knee-deep, the Persians jumped in and marched along the riverbed to the city. The Babylonians were celebrating a feast that day and before they even realized the Persians were approaching, the city fell to the enemy. The fall of Babylon was happening.
Cyrus II, unlike his contemporaries, was a merciful commander. He was warmly welcomed by the Babylonians and green branches were spread before him as he entered the city. He was also kind to the Babylonians and showed his goodwill by participating in the worship of their greatest god, Marduk.
According to the Greek historians Herodotus and Xenophon, this is how the legendary city of Babylon fell. But the prophet Daniel, who lived there, preferred to see the fall of the city to the enemy as an expression of divine vengeance. In the Book of Daniel chapter of the Torah, the Prophet Daniel is acting as regent in the absence of his father Nabonidus. Belshazzar, who is recognized as king in the chapter, is reported to be giving a feast for thousand nobles.
As guests drank from sacred cups taken from the temple in Jerusalem, a hand appeared writing on the wall, prophesying the fall of Babylon: “Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin.”
The guests were drinking wine from the holy vessels of the Jews, which 47 years before tonight the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II had plundered from Jerusalem. As the feast continued, a hand appeared and wrote these words on the wall: “Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin.” Babylon had been prophesied to be lost and destroyed.
Return to Jerusalem From Exile
The prophet Daniel interpreted these words as follows: “God has numbered the days of your kingdom and put an end to it; it has been divided in two and given to the Medes and Persians.” The prophecy of Daniel was fulfilled, the Persian army marched into the city and Belshazzar was killed before dawn, probably not by Cyrus’ soldiers, but by his own men who had rebelled.
One of the first things Cyrus did was to end the Jews’ long exile in Babylon and send them back to Judah to rebuild Jerusalem and Solomon’s Temple. The Jews saw Jehovah’s hand in all this. Ezra, the leader of the Jews, tells how Cyrus, inspired by the God of the Israelites, sent the Jews home and allowed them to take with them “five thousand four hundred” special cups that had been used in Belshazzar’s feast, looted from the temple.
The Tower of Babel mentioned in Genesis.
Greek historians and Jewish prophets agree on the power and greatness of Babylon. The name Babylon means “gate of God”. Spread over 4000 hectares of land, Babylon was the largest city in the world at the time and still retains the splendor that King Nebuchadnezzar brought to it. The outer ring of the city’s double walls was 17 kilometers (10mi) long and protected by regularly spaced bastions.
At the top of the busy quay along the river rose the Ziggurat, or “tower of Babel” mentioned in Genesis. The tower was a man-made hill of mud bricks rising to 90 meters (295ft) high and could be seen for miles across the flat Euphrates plain.
At the top of the tower, which consisted of many platforms connected by stairs, was a temple. The Babylonians called it Etemenanki. Next to it was a temple complex called Esagila. It was here that the Persian king Cyrus won the Babylonians’ trust by worshipping Marduk.
Gardens and a Glittering Palace
The Gardens of Babylon
On that fateful night, Belshazzar must have feasted in the glittering palace on the north side of the old city, overlooking the Euphrates. The famous “Hanging Gardens of Babylon” were not far away. The city was entered through eight gates, the most magnificent of which was the Ishtar Gate. From here, a ceremonial road more than 20 meters (65ft) wide led south through the city to the temple area.
The surrender of Babylon to Cyrus II marked the end of Babylon’s legendary splendor, even though the city had been the capital of the richest provinces of the Persian Empire under his successors. The fall of Babylon had begun. In 482 BC, when the people of Babylon revolted against Xerxes, he had the walls and temples destroyed and the statue of Marduk melted into gold.
In 331 BC the city of Babylon surrendered to Alexander the Great and in 275 BC most of its population moved across the Tigris to the new capital Seleucia. The wind-swept ruins of Babylon would stand for more than 2,000 years until Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein bulldozed much of it in 1990 to make way for “New Babylon”.
