Charles II the Bald (823–877) was King of the Franks (843–877) and later Emperor of the West (875–877). He was the son of Louis I the Pious and the grandson of Emperor Charlemagne. With the help of his brother Louis the German, he defeated his older brother Lothair at the Battle of Fontenoy in Puisaye (841) and signed the Treaty of Verdun (843) with them, becoming King of West Francia. The reign of Charles the Bald was marked by Viking invasions, Franco-Germanic wars, and the rise of feudalism. After the death of Emperor Louis II (875), he received the imperial crown and acquired Provence. During the ceremony in 877, he is said to have had his head shaved as a sign of submission to the Church, earning his nickname “the Bald.”
Key Facts about Charles the Bald
Born: 13 June 823
Died: 6 October 877
Title: King of West Francia (843–877), Holy Roman Emperor (875–877)
Dynasty: Carolingian
Parents: Louis the Pious and Judith of Bavaria
Spouse: Ermentrude of Orléans
He was a significant patron of the Carolingian Renaissance, fostering learning, arts, and culture at his court.
Charles the Bald: King of West Francia
Born in Frankfurt am Main in 823, Charles the Bald was the son of Louis I the Pious (himself the son of Charlemagne) and his second wife, Judith of Bavaria. Appointed at a young age as Duke of Alemannia, he became King of Aquitaine and received numerous territories in West Francia from his father.
Upon Louis the Pious’ death in 840, Charles and his brother, Louis II the German, rebelled against their eldest brother Lothair I, the designated heir of the Empire. In 842, they pledged mutual support through the Oaths of Strasbourg. These oaths are likely the first treaties formulated in the “vulgar” language, meaning in both Romance and Germanic tongues.
This fraternal union allowed the succession war to end the following year with a treaty, the Treaty of Verdun, which divided the Empire into three kingdoms. Charles received West Francia, the western part of the Empire, to the west of the Meuse, Saône, and Cévennes. However, in 855, Lothair died, and a new conflict arose between Charles II, his brother Louis, and the sons of the deceased. Louis proclaimed himself King of West Francia and accused his brother Charles of leaving the kingdom in the hands of the Vikings. Charles, exiled in Burgundy, managed to gather an army and expel Louis from his kingdom. He later reconciled with his brother and regained his title as king.
The subsequent territorial division favored Charles, who expanded his kingdom by acquiring Provence and part of Lotharingia, shared with his brother. In 875, after the death of Emperor Louis II, the last son of Lothair, Charles II, supported by Pope John VIII, had himself crowned Emperor of the West in Rome on Christmas Day.
In the following month, January 876, he obtained the title of King of the Lombards.
The division of the empire was not peaceful, and Charles often clashed with his brothers over territory. He formed alliances and waged wars with both Lothair I and Louis the German throughout his reign. His relationship with his nephews, such as Louis II of Italy, was also strained.
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A Reign Marked by the Beginnings of Feudalism
Charles the Bald as depicted in the Vivian Bible, c. 845
During his reign, Charles II had to deal with the insecurity caused by attacks from the Normans, who landed on the coasts, sailed up the rivers, and pillaged cities (such as Rouen, Bordeaux, Paris, and Tours), as well as attacks from Muslims in the Rhône Valley. These invasions led to the consolidation—foretelling feudalism—of large territorial entities led by hereditary chiefs.
With the support of the Church and his advisor Hincmar, Charles II worked to continue Charlemagne’s efforts to preserve the country’s religious culture. He also sought to organize his kingdom by establishing the heredity of offices (the honores) through the Capitulary of Quierzy (877). This essential text sheds light on the nature of royal power and the evolution of vassalage, as well as comital and episcopal offices.
A compromise between the king and the aristocracy, this agreement did not suffice to pacify their relations: as soon as Charles left, a noble revolt led by Count Boso broke out.
One of Charles’ most notable acts was the Capitulary of Quierzy, issued in 877, which granted hereditary rights to the nobility in West Francia. This document is seen as a significant step in the development of feudalism, as it allowed nobles to pass their lands and titles to their heirs, reducing the king’s direct control over them.
The Death of Charles the Bald
Illumination representing Charles the Bald before 869
The emperor did not have time to counter the rebels. Charles II died in the Alps on October 6, 877, during a campaign against the son of Louis the German, Carloman. His own son, Louis II the Stammerer, succeeded him as king, but the imperial throne remained vacant until 881, when Charles III the Fat was crowned.
The Emperor Charlemagne inherited an extensive territory that he continually expanded throughout his reign. While his power remained absolute and centralized, it became necessary to dispatch controllers to ensure the proper management of various regions, referred to as counties.
The missus dominicus (missi dominici) were tasked with monitoring the counts and bishops of these territories, conveying the emperor’s orders to them, and ensuring compliance with the laws. Typically sent in pairs, these envoys of the emperor usually comprised a cleric and a layperson.
—>Missi dominici had a range of functions during their missions. They were responsible for inspecting local administration, hearing grievances, delivering royal edicts, collecting information on local conditions, and ensuring the loyalty of regional officials.
What Was the Origin of Missi Dominici?
The first references to missi dominici (missus dominicus) date back to the Merovingian era, during the reigns of Charles Martel and Pepin the Short. As early as 751, Pepin the Short dispatched “missi” to traverse his kingdom. However, it was Charlemagne who, in 775, more effectively organized the function and utilization of these “missi.” The specific status of missi dominici was established in 789.
The emperor made them a crucial element of his empire’s administration, deploying them as inspectors and messengers. Their responsibility was to convey information about the occurrences in various countries. They monitored the territorial management of counts and bishops.
During this period, the empire extended over the majority of Western Europe. The emperor governed from his capital, Aachen, while the administration of counties was entrusted to nobles (counts) or bishops. In 802, a capitulary precisely defined their tasks and missions. Missus dominicus were employed until the 10th century.
—>Missi dominici played a significant role in judicial matters. They acted as judges, hearing cases and resolving disputes during their travels. This helped ensure the fair administration of justice according to the king’s laws.
What Was the Role of the Missi Dominici?
The term “missi dominici” originates from Latin and literally translates to “envoy[s] of the lord [ruler].” It was commonly used in the plural form, less so in the singular (missus dominicus). The role of Missi Dominici was to oversee local representatives of power. Essentially, the emperor delegated the management of his counties to nobles, often counts or bishops.
The primary mission of missi dominici was to enforce royal rights within the framework of imperial ideology. They received oaths of allegiance and ensured the loyalty of the emperor’s officers. Additionally, they monitored the management of the counties and conveyed directives from the central authority.
Missi Dominici intervened in political, legal, and religious domains, overseeing both the clergy (bishops) and secular authorities (counts). They were responsible for dispensing justice on numerous occasions and, at times, even commanding an army. Their functions were diverse and significant.
Missi Dominici typically traveled in pairs (sometimes more), often consisting of a noble and a clergy member. Serving as direct emissaries of the emperor, they fulfilled the roles of inspectors, judges, prefects, and messengers. Some may have remained stationed, but they were obligated to carry out four annual visits to the territory entrusted to them.
How Did Charlemagne Revolutionize the Role of the Missi Dominici?
During the reign of Charlemagne, the role of missi dominici transformed. The emperor employed them to consolidate his power across his extensive territory, making them a central element of his policy. While missi were previously selected from the lesser nobility, a shift occurred in favor of trusted individuals.
The function was now bestowed upon high-ranking aristocrats or significant religious figures, enhancing the prestigious nature of the role. This decision was made to ensure the impartiality of the missi dominici, granting them natural authority over the visited counts or bishops.
Charlemagne personally appointed the missi dominici to oversee both the political and religious aspects of his kingdom. In a system characterized by robust and centralized power, these officials played a pivotal role in his administration. Operating at the highest hierarchical level, they supervised the counts, who, in turn, received their appointments from the emperor. Charlemagne strategically chose individuals from the upper echelons of the aristocracy to serve as missi dominici, aiming to secure their loyalty.
The missi dominici were tasked with disseminating Charlemagne’s directives throughout the entire empire. They scrutinized the actions of the counts and their subordinates, reporting any abuse or disobedience to the emperor.
They conveyed news and challenges encountered in all regions of his vast empire to the emperor.
Who Were the Missi Dominici?
The missi dominici were directly appointed by the emperor. Initially, they were chosen from the vassals of the lesser nobility. During the reign of Charlemagne, the missi dominici were selected from the aristocracy, as the emperor sought to ensure their loyalty.
Typically, the missi dominici work in pairs, consisting of one layperson and one cleric, or more. Initially, they were outsiders to the missatica (region) they were meant to oversee. This condition is intended to ensure a certain impartiality in their control and function. However, in practice, it remains challenging to find individuals unaffected by local political influences. Among the missi dominici, one finds not only nobles but also high-ranking ecclesiastics.
In specific and rarer circumstances, the emperor would call upon extraordinary missi. These individuals represented the emperor in delicate situations that required sending figures close to power. Consequently, they were chosen from the monarch’s most loyal advisors, all of whom were from the high aristocracy.
What Were the Missi Dominici’s Missions?
To gain a precise understanding of the role of missi dominici and their missions, one can refer to the Capitularies of 802 (see an excerpt). This document outlines the various tasks that missi dominici can undertake. They receive letters, forms, or diplomas based on their assigned missions, with instructions originating directly from the central authority. Upon reaching the “missatica,” missi dominici gather all officials to remind them of their civic and religious obligations.
Missi dominici oversees the political and administrative management of districts. The conduct of each individual must align with precepts and rights (orthopraxy).
They also ensure the proper observance of religious rituals. Missi dominici thus directly intervene in the moral and religious domain, monitoring members of the clergy.
They also serve as judges, with the authority to condemn or nullify sentences as needed.
Missi dominici acts as an envoy of the emperor, ensuring the loyalty of each individual. They receive the oath of allegiance from counts.
The Missi dominici facilitated a more decentralized governance of power in an imperialistic and autocratic system. They played a central role in the political administration of the empire during the historical periods of the Merovingians and Carolingians. However, their significance diminished during the 9th century with the establishment of the feudal system.
How tall was Pepin the Short? Pepin III (714–768), often known as Pepin the Younger, was a major figure in early medieval Europe. From 751 until 768, he ruled as king of the Franks and was instrumental in founding the Carolingian dynasty. Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire owe much to the stability that Pepin established in Western Europe. The mystery surrounding Pepin’s height and the question of how tall Pepin the Short was is still a mystery without concrete evidence.
And the earliest evidence regarding Pepin III being called “the Short” actually comes from the 11th century, two centuries after his death.
Curiosity Regarding Pepin the Short’s Height
Würzburg, Alte Mainbrücke, statue Pepin the Short. (Dguendel, CC BY 4.0)
The disparity between Pepin the Short’s moniker and the successes of his reign has led many to speculate about the king’s actual height. His influence on the Frankish realm and the later Carolingian reign makes Pepin the Short’s real height intriguing.
But the reality is that, over the course of history, many notable people have been given illustrative titles and descriptions that did not accurately represent their actual status. For instance, we know that Napoleon’s height was inaccurately described as short, but it was just his towering soldiers who surrounded him all the time.
Considering the contradiction of Pepin III’s moniker “the Short”, you might be wondering if there are any hard proofs or reputable sources that might shed light on Pepin the Short’s height.
The short answer is no. How tall Pepin the Short was is not known. But if we had to speculate based on the average height of the time, Pepin the Short’s height could be less than 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm).
But there is more to this story.
Lack of Historical Records
A drawing of Pepin the Short by J.-E. Buschmann, 1845.
The lack of reliable historical sources from the 8th century makes it difficult to learn about Pepin the Short’s physicality, such as his height. Physical descriptions of people in historical records from this time, such as their height, are sketchy at best.
Rather than focusing on the personal details of their kings, chroniclers of the time recorded the major political events, military operations, accomplishments, genealogical lineage, and problems with the reigns. Recording the height of ancient and medieval figures was never a common practice.
Due to its relative insignificance, the height of the medieval kings and queens was seldom addressed or documented in these accounts. This is also true when it comes to Charlemagne’s height as the son of Pepin the Short. The nature of these chronicles contributes to the lack of facts concerning Pepin the Short’s height today.
But you can always make educational guesses:
Theories and Speculations on How Tall Pepin Was
1912 drawing of Pepin the Short, fighting a bull and a lion. (Source)
Why was Pepin called the Short? Numerous historians and academics have spoken on the subject of Pepin the Short’s height, each with their own theory and opinion. The following are the most widely held beliefs and speculations about how tall Pepin the Short was:
Theory One: He Was Just Shorter
Pepin III might be given the nickname “the Short” because he was obviously shorter than other people of his day. We know for a fact that following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the average height of a man living at the end of the early medieval period was around 5 feet, 7.7 inches (172 cm). Today, this figure is around 5 feet 11 inches (180 cm).
Let’s say even if Pepin’s height was around the 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm) mark, that would still be enough to name the king “the Short”.
Theory Two: He Was Just Relatively Shorter
However, the same hypothesis also points to the fact that many members of the Frankish aristocracy were quite tall and intimidating, suggesting that the word “short” might just be a relative term in relation to Pepin’s family.
This theory assumes that Pepin the Short was probably of ordinary height for his period but seemed smaller compared to his ancestors. Considering Charlemagne’s tall height of 6 feet and 0.5 inches (1.84 meters), this approach holds some weight. Because Charlemagne was considered a giant at the time.
Pepin was the son of Charles Martel, who in 732 led the French to victory against the invading Muslims at the Battle of Tours. And Charles Martel is never described for his short stature. It is also possible that he was taller than his son, Pepin.
Theory Three: A Misunderstanding of His Latinized Name
During the Middle Ages, kings often derived Latinized versions of their names to emphasize their connection to the Roman Empire. The name Pepin was also known as Pippin and Peppin, and the Latinized version of this name would be Pippinus, Pipinus, and Pepinus.
Since the word “Pippinus” meant “little Pippin” or “young Pippin” in Latin, Pepin’s moniker “the Short” might have been a misreading of his Latinized name.
Theory Four: A Shift in Wording
(W. Commons)
Since Charlemagne’s father, great-grandfather (Pepin of Herstal), and great-great-great-grandfather (Pepin of Landen), as well as two of his sons, all had the same name (Pepin), it became essential to give each branch of the Carolingian Pepin family a unique moniker.
Pepin of Herstal, the grandfather of Pepin the Short, was called “brevis,” which means “short” in Latin. And the earliest evidence regarding Pepin III being called “the Short” actually comes from the 11th century, two centuries after his death.
According to one theory, the word “minor” (as used by the Young) has been replaced with “brevis” and then “parvus” in time, which simply meant “short.”
Long after Pepin’s death, in the late 9th century, the monk Notker Balbulus wrote a little treatise on the lives of Pepin and Charlemagne. Pepin the Hunchback, the illegitimate oldest son of Charlemagne, is mentioned.
The contemporary historian Einhard, the author of the Vita Karoli, depicts this son as handsome but hunched-back. Using Einhard’s story, Notker also mentions that he, too, had a hunchback but includes the observation that he was a dwarf.
“Pippin himself, a dwarf and a hunchback, was cruelly scourged, tonsured, and sent for some time as a punishment to the monastery of Saint Gall; the poorest, it was judged, and the straitest in all the emperor’s broad dominions.”
Early Lives of Charlemagne by Eginhard and the Monk of St. Gall, edited by Prof. A. J. Grant – Gutenberg.org
Theory Five: He Ruled for Too Short
An alternative theory proposes a distinct sense of the word “Short.” Some historians disagree on whether the nickname was meant to reflect Pepin’s small stature or the short duration of his rule. Pepin III ruled from 751 until his death in 768, a period of 17 years.
While 17 years of reign may not be that short, his son Charlemagne ruled for 46 years, and this was around the typical length of a king’s rule for the day.
Therefore, calling him “Short” might be a way to draw attention to the fact that he was the first monarch of the Carolingian dynasty. His dynasty would be linked to Charlemagne in later history.
Visual Representations of Pepin the Short
Pepin the Short is not shown in any contemporary artwork. All the creative representations of him have been made after his death. Since there aren’t many historical paintings or sculptures from the 8th century, even fewer paintings show Pepin explicitly.
Only some later works attempted to depict Pepin the Short’s height. Some medieval manuscripts show him towering above his contemporaries, but they were probably intended to convey a sense of his superiority. At the same time, some later paintings tended to minimize Pepin’s height, perhaps owing to his moniker.
Who Was Pepin the Short?
King of the Franks from 751 to 768, Pepin III was also known as Pepin the Short. He founded the Carolingian dynasty and was Charlemagne’s father. He was the son of Charles Martel, who in 732 led the French to victory against the invading Muslims at the Battle of Tours. St. Boniface’s mission to convert the Saxons and reform the Frankish church had his backing.
In Italy, he helped the church defeat the Lombards and give them territories that would later become the Papal States. In 754, Pope Stephen II anointed him. In 768, he passed away, and his remains were moved to the Basilica of St. Denis.
Despite being one of the most important European kings in history, having a predecessor and a successor nicknamed “the Great” (Charlemagne) and “the Hammer” (Charles Martel) while he was referred to as “the Short” didn’t help the popularity of Pepin III in history.
Fun Fact
His name in French, Pépin le Bref, is associated with the expression “bref, comme dirait Pépin,” which roughly translates to “well, as Pépin would say.” In this context, “bref” means “short,” giving rise to the humorous connection between Pepin’s nickname and the expression.
How tall was Charlemagne (742–814)? Charlemagne, or Carolus Magnus in Latin, reigned as king of the Frankish Empire from around 747 until his death in 814. There is no portrait of Charlemagne that has remained from his period in history. How well do we know his physical characteristics? Charlemagne was known to be quite tall, especially when compared to the average height of the Middle Ages and the relatively short stature of his father, Pepin the Short. According to scientific estimations, Charlemagne’s height was around 6 feet and 0.5 inches, or 1.84 meters.
Karl von Blass (1815–1894) painted a scene in which Charlemagne warns several careless students. (Public Domain)
After spending several years in Charlemagne’s court, the Frankish scholar Einhard penned a revealing portrait of the emperor in his Vita Karoli Magni. According to that, the Frankish King was 7 feet tall. However, according to the standard foot measurement (12.6 in / 32 cm) of the time, Charlemagne would have been 7feet and 4.2 inches (2.24 m) tall.
An extract from his account reads as follows:
Karl [Charlemagne] was sturdy and strong, with a tall stature that was not excessive. It is well known that his height has been seven times the length of his foot. He had a round head, large and lively eyes, a slightly long nose; he had beautiful gray hair and a cheerful and joyful face. His appearance was always impressive and dignified, whether he was standing or sitting. Although his neck was somewhat thick and short, and his belly protruded slightly, these flaws were not very noticeable given the symmetry of his limbs. His gait was confident, his entire posture masculine, and his voice clear, although not as powerful as one might expect from his size. […] He dressed in the national attire of the Franks: a linen shirt on his body, linen trousers covering his thighs; over that, he wore a tunic trimmed with silk; his lower legs were wrapped in leg bands. He then bound his calves with bands and wore boots on his feet. In winter, he protected his shoulders and chest with a vest made of otter or marten fur. Over that, he wore a blue cloak. He always wore a sword belt [See: Sword of Charlemagne] with a hilt and sheath made of gold or silver.
— Einhard, The Life of Charlemagne (Vita Karoli Magni).
Not as many people in the early medieval era, including members of royalty, had their heights recorded as they do now. But for centuries, Charlemagne’s height was known to be between 6 feet, 3.5 inches (1.92 m) and all the way through 7 feet, 4.2 inches (2.24 m).
However, research on Charlemagne’s preserved bones and the size of his tomb has revealed that he was actually 6 feet (1.84 m) tall rather than the 7 feet and 4.2 inches (2.24 m) that Einhard claimed. This is still making the Father of Europe taller than usual for his day.
It’s safe to assume that Charlemagne was a cut above the typical man of his day. In 2014, the bone study conducted by Swiss researcher Frank Rühli indicated that Charlemagne’s height was 6ft 0.5in (184 cm), much above the normal male height of 5ft 6.5in (169 cm) at his time. To put things into perspective, Charlemagne would have to be 6ft 4.8in (195 cm) tall today to create the same level of height difference.
His Physicality
Despite his height, Charlemagne was slim in build. According to the same research that used CT scans, MRIs, and macroscopy, the Holy Roman king weighed roughly 172 pounds (78 kg), or 22 on the body mass index scale.
Thus, Charlemagne was no behemoth, but rather a skinny guy. His title “The Great” reflected his political greatness rather than his tall stature. But it’s still reasonable to believe that the Frankish king’s elevated perspective was helped along by the man’s lofty height.
How Tall Was Charlemagne Compared to People of His Time?
The medieval people were shorter, but they were not dwarves. According to another study, following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the average height of a man living at the end of the early medieval period was around 5ft 7.7in (172 centimeters). Today, this figure is around 5 feet 11 inches (180 cm).
Thus, when compared to the typical man of his day, Charlemagne stood around 4.7 inches (12 cm) taller than them.
Charlemagne would still tower above the typical contemporary American by more than 3.5 inches (9 cm), given that the average height of a man in the United States is now 69.1 inches (175.4 cm).
Comparing Charlemagne’s height to that of the ordinary medieval man is like comparing the average height of an American man to that of an Indonesian man, which is 62.2 inches (158 cm).
Historical Figures Who Were Taller Than Charlemagne
Charlemagne has been known for his tall stature for centuries, but he was in no way the tallest ever. Here are some of the other European leaders and historical figures who were taller than the already tall Holy Roman Emperor:
Edward IV of England, at over 6 feet 4 inches (193 cm), was one of the tallest British rulers on record. In 1461, he overthrew King Henry VI of England and ascended to the throne.
Peter the Great, the monarch of Russia, was a towering figure at 6 feet 7 inches (201 cm) in height. Between the years 1682 and 1725, he was Russia’s leader.
James Kirkland, an Irishman, fought for the Prussians among the unusually tall Potsdam Giants unit. One of the tallest soldiers in history, he was reputedly 7 feet, 1.5 inches (217 cm) tall.
Maximinus Thrax (d. 238 AD), was said to have been nearly 8 feet tall. According to ancient Roman sources, his sandals were twice as big as the standard army size. Thrax fashioned a thumb ring out of his wife’s bracelet.
Charlemagne’s Physical Presence in Medieval Europe
Charlemagne visiting a school. Lithograph in colors by E. Crété after an illustration by H. Grobet, Histoire de France, Paris, Émile Guérin, 1902.
Were leaders of other nations or people around the Frankish King also amazed at Charlemagne’s tall stature? This is a valid question considering the relatively short height of some of the most dominant figures of history, such as Hitler, Alexander the Great, Stalin, Genghis Khan, Julius Caesar, or even Napoleon.
The physical size of Charlemagne was well known among his contemporaries, especially considering the era in which he lived. In fact, contemporary historians like Einhard (770–840) noted his towering stature as a contributing factor to his intimidating persona.
For instance, scholars in Charlemagne’s court, such as the Anglo-Saxon Alcuin (d. 804), remarked on Charlemagne’s tall height. The scholar was a close friend of Charlemagne’s only sister, Gisela, Abbess of Chelles. Charlemagne is also mentioned in Theophanes’ (d. 817) chronicles, although he makes no reference to the emperor’s height. The tall king died on January 28, 814, in Aachen.
Why Was Charlemagne Called “the Great”?
Charlemagne, or “Charles (Karl) the Great,” was not called “The Great” because of his tall stature. Charlemagne earned the title “the Great” not because of his size but because of the profound influence he had on European history. His influence on European politics, culture, and religion, as well as his military victories, helped him achieve this title.
The name “Charlemagne” comes from a combination of the names “Charles” and “magne:”
Charles: This name is derived from the Old High German word “karlaz,” which means “free man” or “man of the people.” It was a popular name among Germanic peoples and appeared in a number of distinct forms throughout the Germanic languages. The Latin version of Charles is “Carolus” and Charlemagne is for Carolus Magnus.
Magne: The Latin adjective magnus, meaning “great” or “large,” is the source of the English noun “magne.” It was a common way to express admiration for someone of stature or importance.
Why the Length of Feet Was Different in Medieval Times
One foot is around 12 in. or 30.48 cm today, and back in the days of Charlemagne, the length of a foot was a bit longer. Was it because people’s feet were longer at that time than they are today? Probably not. While Charlemagne was alive, one foot measured 12.6 in., or 32 cm.
This is because the precise length of a foot has changed through time and across geographic locations. Different towns or areas in medieval Europe could have employed different standards due to regional variances in measures. This was because of the absence of universally accepted standards for measuring.
The length of one foot began to be standardized throughout the Renaissance. The British Imperial Measurement System established the foot at 12 inches.
The Throne of Charlemagne is one of the historically most important pieces of furniture in the Aachen Cathedral in Germany. It is remarkable that such a simple-looking throne could garner so much interest. Even though it is known as the Throne of Charlemagne, its provenance as the seat of the legendary ruler is still up for debate. The throne is said to have the qualities of a relic, although its unassuming look leaves much to the imagination. There are so many mysteries around the Throne of Charlemagne.
What Made the Throne of Charlemagne Special?
A Myth or Relic
Napoleon Bonaparte and the Throne of Charlemagne in Aachen by Henri-Paul Motte (1846–1922). Napoleon prayed at the tomb of Charlemagne before his coronation and never sat on the throne out of respect for the man.
There is no evidence to suggest that the throne ever belonged to Charlemagne. The name “Throne of Charlemagne” is never directly mentioned in the sources. The throne’s minimalist form begs the question of what it represents and whether or not its construction gives it reliquary overtones.
The Throne of Charlemagne is often referred to as a myth or religious relic. According to the story, all Holy Roman monarchs wanted to be crowned at Aachen, and only the one who sat on the king’s throne was king. And, although it is not directly confirmed, Charlemagne was on the throne at the time.
The throne from its left side. The overall design elements of the Throne of Charlemagne are actually lacking in quality and detail. (Image: Torsten Maue – Flickr)
But why would monarchs choose to sit on this throne while others were more prosperous? Because even Charlemagne wasn’t crowned king in Aachen but in Noyon in 768. And he most likely attended the masses held in the Palatine Chapel on this throne.
But this is where the throne really shines as a religious relic. The material evidence and the fact that Charlemagne’s canonization occurred in 1165 lend credence to this idea and the throne’s status as a “secondary relic“.
The overall design elements of the Throne of Charlemagne are very lacking in quality and detail. The German chronicler Widukind von Corvey’s 936 account is the only one that specifically mentions a throne in the gallery.
No Contemporary Reference
The exhibition model of the Throne of Charlemagne at the Centre Charlemagne. (Image: Kleon3)
On the occasion of Otto the Great’s coronation at Aachen, a mere 122 years after Charlemagne’s death, a throne is mentioned. However, the fact that the throne is not mentioned in Einhard’s (d. 840) “The Life of Charlemagne” raises serious issues regarding whether or not it existed during Charlemagne’s lifetime and whether or not Charlemagne actually sat on it.
It is not evident from the records that there was ever a throne in Aachen Cathedral during Charlemagne’s reign between 768 and 814. A plethora of probes have been carried out to answer this question.
In 1899, the architect Joseph Buchkremer was the first to investigate the origins and design of the Throne of Charlemagne. Modern researchers, archeologists, and architects still use Buchkremer’s findings as evidence in their arguments for the throne. Some of their views were diametrically opposed to Buchkremer’s, while others confirmed certain aspects.
The Design of the Throne of Charlemagne
The original flooring is still present around the Throne of Charlemagne. (Image: Torsten Maue – Flickr)
Even though it is kept very basic for a mighty king, the Throne of Charlemagne still manages to make quite an impression visually.
The throne itself is constructed out of marble slabs, while the lower construction includes a stairway. There is also an altar on the back of the throne dedicated to Nicasius of Rheims, but it has little significance to the throne since it was added later in 1305.
The Altar of Nicasius of Rheims, on the back of the Throne of Charlemagne. (Image: Berthold Werner)
The Throne of Charlemagne has a limestone base. A smaller eastern half and a bigger western half make up the base plate. A riveted cross holds up four stone pillars that support the structure. The pillars are supported by profiled plinths that are placed immediately on top of the slabs. The stairway is just in front of them. These stairs have six steps and lead to the throne.
The six-step structure is comprised of four antique column drums. The real royal seat has a wooden framework within it and is topped with four marble slabs. The marbles, along with the steps, are believed to have been imported from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, c. 800.
However, owing to air raid shelters and other factors during World War II, the Parian marble’s surface is now darker, discolored, and covered with vertical drip tracks.
Six bronze brackets, bent at right angles, hold the plates in place; these are riveted to the plates themselves. Two vertical support boards and a seat plate make up the hardwood interior structure. The throne’s marble panels have seen better days; their original place of use was not the throne. Wear and tear, such as scratches, provide evidence of this.
The throne from its right side. The Nine Men’s Morris board game on the Throne of Charlemagne. (Image: ACBahn)
Those slabs were probably used as flooring. Moreover, they are completely covered with graffiti. Writing on the floor was a common practice during lengthy waits in medieval and ancient times. Especially discernible are images of the Nine Men’s Morris board game and a crucifixion scene.
However, the crucifixion scene is controversial. Some researchers identify this graffiti, while others point out that it’s lacking two key elements. Included in this are the feet, the cross trunk, and the hint of a head, complete with an aureole (a religious halo).
The Throne of Charlemagne in the Aachen Cathedral reflects a rather alternative conception of a throne, one that is not associated with lavish ornamentation.
Was the Throne of Charlemagne Real?
Historians do not fully endorse the throne due to a lack of supporting evidence. The throne may not have been in existence during Charlemagne’s lifetime, although there are still several claims that it was in use by Charlemagne.
The setting of the throne might provide information about its age. Joseph Buchkremer inspected the throne in 1899. Behind the throne is the Nicasius Altar, which Buchkremer removed so that it could be restored. After removing the ruined altar, he discovered a worn surface underneath. Buchkremer explained the deterioration of the stairwell by pointing out that it had previously been modified.
The medieval archaeologist Sven Schütte deduced subsequently that the actual throne was being constructed on brand-new foundations. The floor’s Carolingian-era date is another evidence of the throne’s tremendous antiquity. The pink Carolingian mortar, which was broken due to an earthquake, lends credence to this theory. Buchkremer uses more evidence to prove that Charlemagne occupied the throne.
According to him, the fact that most of the monarchs who succeeded Charlemagne wished to be crowned at Aachen, on Charlemagne’s throne, explains why the throne was possibly there throughout Charlemagne’s lifetime.
The use of an ancient column drum method to build the steps is potential evidence that they were built during Charlemagne’s reign. This theory is based on the fact that Charlemagne imported several pieces of Italian marble. The foundation stones also have a similar composition. Stones are identical in profile and proportions to those used in St. Mary’s Church.
Similarly, the dovetail structure of the throne was already commonplace in antiquity but was extensively employed throughout the Carolingian era.
Since Charlemagne went about building his Aachen Cathedral and St. Mary’s Church with great care and precision, historian Lobbedey concludes that the cathedral’s technical flaws disprove that the throne was built under the emperor’s supervision.
References
But the bronze lattice door in front of the throne might be a convincing proof of the throne being in the gallery since it was built and Charlemagne’s usage of it, as claimed by Buchkremer. The bronze lattice is fairly elaborate or ornamented, and this door would be unnecessary if there wasn’t a royal artifact seen through it.
Both Einhard and Buchkremer referred to Charlemagne’s palatine chapel in Aachen as a “porticus” (a chapel or burial place in a church). This reference points to another entrance, and this entrance, like the throne, would be located in the same gallery. The porticus potentially served as a passageway between Charlemagne’s private quarters and the throne, potentially providing him with an unobstructed view of the octagon below.
The throne was installed in the church’s central octagon, which serves as the palatine chapel’s main area.
In this light, Einhard makes specific reference to the “porticus” in the “Vita Karoli Magni,” but never once brings up the throne. It’s possible that the “porticus” served different purposes as well. Therefore, this text cannot prove that the throne in the gallery existed in Charlemagne’s reign.
The Throne of Charlemagne also missed out on opportunities to be more luxurious and impressive. Some historians conclude that this “extraordinary simplicity” indicates the monarch’s advanced years, instead of Charlemagne’s reign. So, calling the throne “Charlemagne’s Throne” might be a stretch.
Radiocarbon Dating
The internal wooden construction, which is on display at the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn, formerly had a marble sitting plate that has since been lost. St. Stephen’s Purse and other Imperial Regalia were housed under it on a shelf. This oakwood panel was dated to about the year 800 using radiocarbon technology.
The tree, whose wood was used to construct the throne, was cut down somewhere between 760 and 824, most likely in 798. This corrects the earlier assertions that the wood used in the throne was of Carolingian origin (800–888).
Some historians argue that it is not possible to conclude that the complete throne was constructed in the year 800 based on the dating of the wood alone. Given the present level of knowledge and technology, an absolute date is still not attainable.
Since the throne was not mentioned at all in contemporaneous sources, the conclusions of the dating of the wood of the throne might be misleading, even if they do match within the lifetime of Charlemagne.
The Throne of Charlemagne at a Glance
What is the significance of the Throne of Charlemagne?
The Throne of Charlemagne is a historically important piece of furniture in the Aachen Cathedral in Germany. While its connection to Charlemagne is still debated, it holds mythical and religious significance as a relic associated with the legendary ruler. It is believed that sitting on the throne symbolized kingship, and it is considered a secondary relic due to its association with Charlemagne’s canonization.
Is the Throne of Charlemagne confirmed to have belonged to Charlemagne?
There is no direct evidence to suggest that the throne actually belonged to Charlemagne. The name “Throne of Charlemagne” is not mentioned in historical sources, and it is not mentioned in Einhard’s “The Life of Charlemagne.” Its association with Charlemagne is based on legends and traditions surrounding the coronation rituals at Aachen.
What is the design of the Throne of Charlemagne like?
The Throne of Charlemagne has a simple design. It is constructed of marble slabs with a limestone base. The structure includes a stairway and features an altar dedicated to Nicasius of Rheims at the back, which was added later. The throne itself has a wooden framework inside and is topped with marble slabs. The surface of the marble has been discolored and damaged over time.
Are there any contemporary references to the Throne of Charlemagne?
There are no contemporary references to the Throne of Charlemagne during Charlemagne’s reign. The first mention of a throne in Aachen Cathedral comes from Otto the Great’s coronation, 122 years after Charlemagne’s death. The lack of contemporary references raises questions about its existence during Charlemagne’s lifetime.
The Talisman of Charlemagne is a 2.9-inch (7.3-cm) long, golden talisman in Carolingian style, set with pearls and red and green stones, perhaps rubies or spinels, and emeralds. It is an encolpion, or portable reliquary, that dates back to the 9th century. This talisman is one of the pieces from the Reims Cathedral Treasury in France that has been kept in the Palace of Tau in Reims. The Talisman of Charlemagne is the only artifact that can be reliably linked to the Frankish king, unlike the Crown of Charlemagne and the Sword of Charlemagne.
The Talisman’s Origin
The Talisman of Charlemagne is on display in the Palace of Tau, Reims, France.
Charlemagne is supposed to have received this talisman in 801 as a gift from Harun al-Rashid (d. 809), the Caliph of Baghdad. The caliph also sent a water clock, the white elephant Abul-Abbas, and Chinese silk to the emperor.
The goldsmithing of the talisman is not in Arabic style. In 1166, when Charlemagne’s coffin was opened at Aachen in Germany, the talisman was supposedly discovered on the emperor’s chest.
It is made of gold using a highly intricate casting technique that was challenging during the Early Middle Ages. It is adorned with precious gemstone cabochons of round and rectangular shapes, as well as pearls. The absence of any figural or animal ornamentation is seen as further evidence of the talisman’s Arabic origin.
Design of the Talisman of Charlemagne
On one side of the Talisman of Charlemagne is a central sapphire of roughly 190 carats (1.34 oz; 38 g), opaque and of quite coarse size, concealing a relic of the True Cross that was transparently apparent through a glass cabochon that was definitely substituted in the 19th century.
Two pieces of wood, shaped like a cross, are housed in this talisman’s cabochon “heart.” These wood pieces are said to have originated from Jesus’ crucifixion on Calvary Hill. This inclusion has been believed to increase the talisman’s enchantment.
The True Cross inside the Talisman of Charlemagne. The glass cabochon is filled with air bubbles, visible in both reflected and transmitted light (left and right, respectively). The wooden cross and silk thread can be seen clearly in both pictures. (Image credit: G. Panczer).
Gold is worked in filigree and granulation techniques, and all the precious stones are mounted in bezel settings. We can make out pearls, garnets, and emeralds set at the four corners of the jewel’s face and its edge.
The stones on the Talisman of Charlemagne are cabochon-cut and polished, bringing out their color rather than their shine. The 53 gems and pearls have been carefully placed in a harmonic pattern that takes into account their form and color.
Contradictions Regarding the Talisman of Charlemagne
The talisman itself is from the 9th century, but the gold chain is more modern. It’s possible that one of Charlemagne’s successors, not the emperor himself, ordered the talisman. During the late Middle Ages, many items were eventually linked to Charlemagne, despite having been created between the seventh and eleventh centuries.
The art historian Jean Taralon claimed that the Talisman of Charlemagne originally contained the Virgin Mary’s hair and milk. But it was later replaced with a piece of the holy cross in 1804 and then by the stone in 1870. However, this idea is at odds with the testimony that Marc-Antoine Berdolet, Bishop of Aachen, presented to Napoleon Bonaparte on 23 Thermidor, Year XII (or 1804).
According to that, the reliquary “contains a small cross made of the wood of the holy cross, found on the neck of Saint Charlemagne when his body was exhumed from his sepulcher in 1166.” Berdolet was testified to under penalty of excommunication, and his description excludes any substitution of the Talisman of Charlemagne.
Two engravings, published by Gerhard Altzenbach (left, 1664) and Jacobus Harrewijn (right, 1711), both represent the treasury of Aachen Cathedral. The Talisman of Charlemagne appears in the center of both engravings.
A few historians mention an engraving by W. Hollar that features a reliquary bearing the Virgin Mary’s hair. The engraving displays a part of the Treasury of Aachen from the 17th century. According to that, the Treasury of Aachen did not include the Talisman of Charlemagne.
Gemological Analysis of the Talisman of Charlemagne
Under the direction of the gemology professor Gérard Panczer, two campaigns (2016 and 2018) of on-site gemological analyses employing spectroscopic methods were conducted on the Talisman of Charlemagne for the first time. Geoffray Riondet, an expert in antique jewelry and a lawyer, was of particular assistance.
In particular, they allowed the provenance of the colored gemstones to be identified. Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) was formerly known for its sapphire mines. The center sapphire, which did not have any enhancement treatment by heating, was one of the biggest sapphires known in Europe before the 17th century.
Bernard Morel claimed that the relics with such large gemstones could not be produced until Philip II of France returned from the Third Crusade (1189–1192). Because gemstones of this size were very unusual in Europe at the time of Charlemagne and could only be obtained from the East.
This theory of origin also holds true when examining the remarkably large gemstones adorning the Crown of Charlemagne.
The blue cabochon made from glass is doped with cobalt, which supposedly reveals a relic of the True Cross, and it had originally replaced a stone. Garnets were mined in southern India and Sri Lanka for the most part.
The emeralds have a similar chemical fingerprint to those found in Egypt’s Djebel Zabara. During the 1964 repair of the Talisman of Charlemagne, one of the stones was replaced with an emerald that currently displays the features of the Habachtal deposit in Austria.
History of the Talisman of Charlemagne
Felix Cottreau’s 1834 portrait of Hortense de Beauharnais, wearing the Talisman of Charlemagne.
Caliph Harun al-Rashid supposedly sent this reliquary to Charlemagne of the Frankish Kingdom as a gift in 801. The keys of the Holy Sepulcher, the flag of Jerusalem, an ivory hunting horn, a saber from Damascus, and finally the Talisman of Charlemagne were all stored in the same treasury collection.
After being preserved in the Aachen Treasury until the early 19th century, the Talisman of Charlemagne is said to have been found at the exhumation of Charlemagne’s remains, either under Emperor Otto III in 1000 or under Frederick Barbarossa on January 8, 1166, but this is rather speculative.
According to others, the Talisman of Charlemagne was really crafted much later, in the 12th century. The earliest documentation of the talisman dates back to the 12th century; however, it wasn’t given the name “Talisman of Charlemagne” until 1620.
Charlemagne’s ownership of the talisman is not attested to in any historical records. Still, the scholar-abbet Alcuin (735-804), a contemporary of Charlemagne, wrote of the growing practice of carrying reliquaries with bits of saints’ relics around one’s neck.
This practice caught on and persisted in Catholicism for centuries, leaving room for the possibility that such a talisman was created much later.
During her coronation in 1804, Napoleon’s wife, Empress Joséphine, wore the Talisman of Charlemagne. It was later inherited by her daughter, Hortense de Beauharnais, who passed it on to her son, Napoleon III.
Later, Napoleon III gave it to Empress Eugénie de Montijo, who donated the talisman to the city in 1919 to help restore the cathedral in Reims, which had been bombarded during World War I.
The Talisman of Charlemagne at a Glance
What is the Talisman of Charlemagne?
The Talisman of Charlemagne is a 2.9-inch (7.3-cm) long, golden talisman in Carolingian style, set with pearls and red and green stones, possibly rubies or spinels, and emeralds. It is a portable reliquary dating back to the 9th century and is currently displayed at the Palace of Tau in Reims, France.
What is the origin of the Talisman of Charlemagne?
According to historical accounts, the Talisman of Charlemagne was supposedly gifted to Charlemagne in 801 by Harun al-Rashid, the Caliph of Baghdad. It is said to have been discovered on Charlemagne’s chest when his coffin was opened in 1166. However, there are contradictory theories suggesting it may have been crafted later, possibly in the 12th century.
What is the design of the Talisman of Charlemagne?
The Talisman of Charlemagne features a central sapphire of approximately 190 carats that conceals a relic of the True Cross. The talisman is adorned with pearls, garnets, and emeralds, and it is made of gold using filigree and granulation techniques. The gemstones are cabochon-cut and the overall design is devoid of figural or animal ornamentation.
Are there any contradictions regarding the Talisman of Charlemagne?
Yes, there are contradictions surrounding the talisman. While it is from the 9th century, the gold chain attached to it is more modern, suggesting a possible replacement. Additionally, there are differing accounts regarding the original contents of the talisman, with some claiming it contained the Virgin Mary’s hair and milk, while others suggest it held a piece of the holy cross.
The Crown of Charlemagne is a crown worn by French kings upon their coronation. Many French kings simply named their imperial crowns the “Crown of Charlemagne,” just like Napoleon Bonaparte did in 1804. When the king’s crown was destroyed for some reason, the queen’s crown would be used in royal ceremonies, including the coronation of the new king. And there were two pretty similar crowns of Charlemagne, which were formerly part of the regalia of the French monarchy but were lost when the first one was melted by the Leaguers in 1590, and the second Crown of Charlemagne was destroyed during the French Revolution in 1793. Before that, it remained in use until the coronation of King Louis XIV in 1775, and the Treasury of Saint-Denis subsequently received it as a donation.
History of the Crown of Charlemagne
Michel Félibien’s 1706 engraving of one of the Saint-Denis treasure boxes, with the Crown of Charlemagne at the bottom right and the Sword of Charlemagne on the left wall.
The Origin of the Crowns and Their Gemstones
Among the Ancien Régime regalia, the Sword of Charlemagne, Joyeuse, also survived to this day. There is no written evidence that would allow us to pinpoint when the first Crown of Charlemagne was made or even whether both crowns were a matched set or just two comparable pieces, of which one would have been a later replica.
According to one theory, the origin of the Crown of Charlemagne lies with Charles the Bald (d. 877 AD), Charlemagne’s grandson. A simple circlet of four curving rectangular jeweled plates was crafted for the king in the 9th century.
The Crown of Charlemagne by Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)
Given the significance of the gemstones and their quantity, Bernard Morel claimed that the crowns could not be produced until Philip II of France returned from the Third Crusade (1189–1192). In fact, at the time, stones of this size were very unusual in Europe and could only be obtained from the East.
Therefore, the French king could not have had two crowns so lavish in gems, particularly valuable stones of various sorts, fashioned before the Third Crusade on the Levant (See also: Crusades).
The Crown of Charlemagne Over Time
The Crown of Charlemagne, also known as the Crown of Saint Louis. A painting by Dom Michel Félibien.
Crowns worn during the coronations of Philip II of France and his Danish bride Ingeborg are almost indistinguishable from one another and have been variously referred to as the Crown of Charlemagne (or sometimes as the Crown of Saint Louis):
The second marriage of King Philip II of France to Ingeborg of Denmark took place on August 14, 1193. It was a holy day the day after, so the king put on the Crown of Charlemagne. In 1223, Philip II left his and the queen’s crowns to the Treasury of Saint-Denis through a will, which also included the Sword of Charlemagne at the time.
The two crowns were later presented to Louis VIII and Blanche of Castile shortly after their coronation at Reims in 1223. Instead of honoring his father’s request, the king chose to pay the monks a substantial quantity of money in exchange for the return of the two crowns.
The Restoration of the Crowns
The reign of Louis IX began in 1226. In 1261, he chose to permanently restore the two crowns to the Abbey of Saint-Denis, with a scroll explaining that they were created for the coronation of kings and queens and are displayed above the morning altar during solemn feast days.
This is how the crowns of both the king and queen became part of the church’s collection. All kings and queens up to Henry III of France (d. 1589) were crowned with the Crown of Charlemagne. The only exceptions were John II (d. 1364), who had himself crowned with the holy crown, and Charles VII (d. 1461), who did not have the treasury when Joan of Arc took him to Reims.
The Catholic League (1576) was funded in part by the dukes of Mayenne and Nemours, who in 1590 seized the throne and established it in their names. As time went on, the almost identical crown owned by the queen was used during coronations. Those two crowns were successively dubbed the “Crown of Charlemagne”.
Originally crafted for the Holy Roman Emperor Otto the Great’s coronation in 962 at the imperial monastery of Reichenau, the Reichskrone was later recognized as the Crown of Charlemagne and featured prominently on the escutcheon of the Holy Roman Empire‘s Arch-Treasurer and atop the coat of arms of the Habsburg emperors, as seen in the Hofburg Palace in Vienna.
The Design of the Crown of Charlemagne
The exact description of the crowns of Charlemagne was recorded in an inventory conducted in 1534 by the treasury. The inventory noted in Latin that there was a striking similarity between two crowns.
Circlets
Both crowns of Charlemagne were made of pure gold, with the king’s weighing approximately 9 lb (4 kg) with all the stones of the cap and the silver chains. They were made up of a wide band and four rectangular plates joined together at the base by systems of hinges to form the base circle.
The engraving of the crown by Dom Michel Félibien and a watercolor painting by Montfaucon allow us to determine that each of these four rectangular plates had a huge and exquisite fleur-de-lis at their center, the decorative symbol of French heraldry.
The circlet and the fleurons comprised a total of 48 gemstones, distributed as 16 balas rubies (spinel), 16 emeralds, and 16 sapphires. Each element (a plate and a fleuron) was decorated in the same way.
Three rubies framed the emerald-studded base of the fleur-de-lis. Each rectangular plate has four sapphires at its corners, a ruby in the middle, two emeralds on each side, and a third emerald positioned below.
The two crowns of Charlemagne looked almost similar, with the exception that the queen’s was somewhat smaller, lighter, and adorned with smaller, less uniform jewels.
Cap
A 200-carat ruby and 112 pearls decorated the crown’s conical inner headpiece, which belonged to the king. King John II (d. 1364) ordered this regal velvet headgear, which had a crimson tint.
The ruby was placed on a square pillar, and the headpiece had 12 strands of 9 rosette beads. The pillar’s collar was fastened to the cap using four gold bands and four more pearls, making a cross. Around the pillar’s base is an inscription in Latin that honors the benefactor of the crown.
Henry II had the satin-lined velvet cap of the Crown of Charlemagne recreated in 1547.
Did Charles Martel really save western Europe from the Arabs? Psychologists would undoubtedly have a fit if they knew Charles was at a disadvantage in every way while his half-brothers flourished under their father’s reign. In fact, not even the court historians paid attention to him. In the end, his father disinherited him, and his stepmother sent him into captivity. He probably would have been executed if he hadn’t escaped. No one knows for sure what effects this had on the young Charles’ mind. Charles Martel (ca. 688/91–741), the prince who slayed his opponents like a hammer, did everything he could from that point on to live up to his moniker.
Charles owed his delay to his mother Alpaida, who was likely simply a concubine of his father Pepin, whom Charles met long after Pepin’s marriage to the power-conscious Plectrude. She gave birth to Drogo and Grimoald, who went on to hold the greatest posts in the Frankish Empire.
Pepin of Herstal was the Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, which was the name of the eastern part of the empire. After his victory over the western Neustrian nobles, he ascended to the position of the most influential man in the region. The Merovingian monarchs’ reign was at best nominal. The household emperors, who served as ministers, were wielding the actual power.
However, Drogo and Grimoald both passed away before their father, prompting Plectrude to do all in her power to ensure that their grandchildren would maintain the typical status of the Arnulfing clan members—later renamed the Carolingians. However, Charles’ stepmother was no match for the nobles of Neustria, who successfully declared war on her. After Charles’s jailbreak in Cologne, several prominent Austrians came to his aid. He overcame his Western opponents and coerced Plectrude into giving him the Merovingian royal riches. From that point on, it was one hit after another.
Charles began by confronting the princes who had supported his stepmother. The Carolingians had an uncompromising desire for power, and their troops plowed through the entire empire year after year, causing misery for the Frisians, Saxons, Bavarians, Alemanni, and, eventually, Neustria and Aquitaine. His political acumen was on display in the way he skillfully played on the animosity between the various families.
The expanding Carolingian territories and the reclaimed royal property supplied the funds for his military endeavors. Similarly, Charles had no qualms about seizing church property. He presumably didn’t care much about learning or culture. The sword became his preferred method of command.
Charles Martel’s Legendary Battle of Tours
Bataille de Poitiers (Battle of Tours), table of Charles de Steuben (1837).
The legendary campaign that Charles led to Poitiers (Tours) in the west in 732 is often recognized as his greatest achievement. Abd al-Rahman, the Muslim governor of Al-Andalus, opposed him. Al-Andalus was a province of the Arab Empire that had been founded on the Iberian Peninsula following the Arab defeat of the Visigoth Empire in 711.
The Umayyad caliphs of Baghdad had repeatedly sent invading troops to Gaul, only to be beaten back each time. Because of the poor condition of the sources, the nature of the assault in 732 has not been resolved yet. Some historians have assumed the invasion was a regular invasion due to the importance of their commanders, while other medievalist historians assume it was one of the customary attacks, which were merely for plunder.
The onslaught continued nevertheless, and the Duke of Aquitaine was powerless to halt it. The prosperous Loire Valley city of Tours appeared to have been the Muslims’ next target. The fact that Charles’ army was bolstered by Lombards, Saxons, Frisians, and Aquitanians indicates how dangerous the Frankish Empire was seen to be. On and around October 25, 732, the two sides fought between Poitiers and Tours for seven days. Abd al-Rahman gave the command to strike on the seventh day.
From what little information we have, it appears that the Franks and their allies battled on foot, while the Arabs and Berbers rode horses. By forming a phalanx, Charles’ troops were able to fend off the onslaught and eventually wipe out the weaker, less well-equipped foe. When Abd al-Rahman was mortally wounded and fell from his horse, the morale of his troops plummeted:
“Prince Charles boldly drew up his battle lines against them [the Arabs] and the warrior rushed in against them. With Christ’s help, he overturned their tents and hastened to battle to grind them small in slaughter. The king Abdirama having been killed, he destroyed [them], driving forth the army, he fought and won. Thus did the victor triumph over his enemies.”
Fouracre, Continuations of Fredegar, p. 149
Was Charles Martel Really the Savior of the West?
Charles Martel divided the realm between his sons Pepin and Carloman.
His reputation as the “savior of the West” has grown in prominence through subsequent generations. A popular saying goes that if Charles Martel hadn’t won, London and Paris wouldn’t have church steeples but minarets, and Oxford would have taught the Koran instead of the Bible.
However, many historians of the present day view the Al-Andalus ascendancy as nothing more than a preliminary step. And according to others, those preliminary steps could eventually lead to the occupation.
Some medievalists like Johannes Fried offers a fresh take on the meaning of this claim. He defends the fact that Pepin’s son Charles fought against the Saracens and that Duke Eudo of Aquitaine’s triumph formed the foundation of the narrative of the magnificent, all-decisive victory at Poitiers in 732.
Whatever the case may be, Carolingian Charles became the appropriate figure of redemption after his army’s victory over foreign “infidels.” This let people forget the savagery of his early years as “king.” Due to his high status, he was able to administer the Frankish Empire as king following the death of Merovingian shadow king Dagobert Theuderic IV in 737 until his own death in 741. Pepin the Short, Charles’s son, was tasked with expanding the empire and establishing the Carolingians as the second ruling dynasty.
Interestingly, another Arab invasion is more commonly mentioned in conjunction with Charles Martel’s triumph at Poitiers (Battle of Tours). This other one may have altered the path of European history as well: The Caliph Sulaiman launched an attack on Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, in 717. The Muslims’ invasion was repelled by the Greeks’ fire, leading to their ultimate defeat.
It is stated that the Arab Empire’s offensive might was permanently weakened by this defeat. While this is true, it ignores the reality that in 751, its soldiers nonetheless penetrated deep into Central Asia and halted Chinese westward progress at the Battle of Talas. When the Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads in 750, relocated the seat of their empire from Damascus to Baghdad, which was located in the east of their territory, Byzantium and the rest of Europe disappeared from view from that point on.
References
Fouracre, Paul (2000). The age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 0-582-06475-9. OCLC 43634337.
Kreiner, Jamie (2014). The Social Life of Hagiography in the Merovingian Kingdom. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-107-65839-4. OCLC 1089392785.
Charlemagne, also known as Charles the Great, founded the Carolingian dynasty and lived from 742 to 814. He was a king of the Franks and eventually an emperor of the Western Roman Empire. After the death of his brother Carloman in 771, this oldest son of Pepin the Short ruled over an empire that included all of Gaul and a portion of Germania. When he declared himself king of the Lombards in 774, he embarked on a program of expansion and led multiple military expeditions.
During his 46 years at the helm, the Frankish kingdom expanded to become the biggest in Europe since the collapse of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne was anointed Emperor of the West on Christmas Day, 800, with the support of the church since he had forced Christianity on the subjugated peoples. The author of The Life of Charlemagne, Eginhard, gave him the nickname “the emperor with the flowery beard” after describing him in detail around the year 830.
There was some debate regarding exactly when Charlemagne was born. According to Eginhard, an abbot and scholar from the ninth century, the date was April 2, 742. Not once was a birthplace specified. A number of scholars argue that Austrasia, in what was then the northeastern part of France, was the site of his birth.
Charlemagne would have been born illegitimately as the son of Pepin the Short and Berthe the Great. More than a year after he was born, in 743 or 744, his parents tied the knot in a religious ceremony. It’s all fuel for the debate among historians over when and where he was born.
Extension of the Carolingian Empire under Charlemagne. Blue: The death of Pepin the Short (768), Orange: Conquests of Charlemagne (768-814), Yellow: Kingdoms paying tribute.
In 754, when Pope Stephen III was visiting his father, he was baptized. When Charlemagne was a kid, he never took the time to learn to write. His maturity as an adult would make up for his immaturity as a child. But he could read, and he even knew a little Latin.
However, materials that reflect his boyhood and childhood are so few, if not nonexistent, that it is impossible to paint a clear picture of young Charlemagne. However, he was particularly close to his younger, more ostentatious sister, Ghisla. Most of what happened in their youth is a mystery.
Charlemagne’s wives
The church recognized six of Charlemagne’s spouses. Casually, he was having many affairs at once. Physically, he was described by his biographer Eginhard as follows: “He stood at a lofty 6’3” (1.90 m) tall, and his frame was both wide and sturdy. His face was round, and his eyes were big and bright. His nose was a bit larger than typical. His hair was gorgeously white.
His overweight body, short neck, and bulging stomach were hardly noticeable. In terms of appearance, he was confident and macho. The voice was distinct, but a little too high-pitched for his frame.” Given that the average male of the time stood 1.67 m tall, the man appeared to have an advantageous body and exceptional size.
He tied the knot for the first time in 768. He married Himiltrude, the duke’s daughter, in Burgundy. He stayed with her for two years and had two children with her before leaving her for Desiderata, the daughter of Desiderius, king of the Lombards. This political marriage ended rapidly due to sterility issues. Charlemagne, being about 30 years old, married a 13-year-old named Hildegard. She had nine children until she miscarried and died in 783.
Charlemagne, Carolus Magnus, Mary Evans Picture Library.
Charlemagne found solace in his marriage to Fastrada, which resulted in the birth of their two daughters two months later. In 794, she passed away, and her successor was Liutgard, the daughter of the Count of Alsace. After her passing in 800, our Carolingian Dom Juan began a concubinage with Gersuinda, the Saxon king’s daughter. She gave birth to his daughter when he was sixty-six.
Charlemagne had multiple relationships outside of his formal marriages, including one with his sister Ghisla around 771. To top it all off, she conceived a child. Fearing public disgrace, Charlemagne swiftly found her a husband, Roland, and also passed a capitulary outlawing incest. Overall, Charlemagne was blessed with seventeen offspring.
The sum of these marriages was not meaningless. In other words, Charlemagne did not choose his wives at random. These were, first and foremost, political moves designed to earn the support of his adversaries. This was what he admitted: “I alone have the duty and the right to take a wife. In a family like ours, marriage should only serve to conclude alliances, pay debts, or ensure an heir to the throne.”
Charlemagne: A well-surrounded monarch
Insight into Charlemagne’s private life may be gleaned from the available materials. The only companions we really know about were his brothers in arms, with whom he went on campaign. Roland (736-778), also known as Roland the Valiant, was one of his best-known comrades. Roland, a Frankish warrior and the namesake of the immortal ballad, was the nephew of Charlemagne. Count of the March of Brittany, he was also very close to his uncle.
During the Battle of Roncesvalles (778), where he died, when Charlemagne’s army was retiring, Roland and his troops were ambushed between two cliffs. After that, Roland drew his sword, Durandal, and engaged in combat.
After finding himself quickly outnumbered, he blows his breath to summon his friend Charlemagne for assistance. It was too late by the time the latter showed up. When he saw his nephew’s body, he hugged it tightly and said, “There will never be a day when I will not suffer thinking of you.”
Charlemagne installed in all the empire the “counts,” descended from the aristocracy or confirmed warriors, to help him manage his vast domain from the palace of Aix la Chapelle. They presided over homogeneous regions and were responsible for administering the territory in the name of the sovereign. Because of the great distances involved, the counts soon began to take liberties that were inappropriate.
Charlemagne used “missi dominici” to assert his dominance over the situation. A priest and a layman, these “messengers of the master” ceaselessly crisscrossed the kingdom to spread the word about royal decrees and see to it that they were carried out as intended. Rather than achieving its original goal, the system would swiftly evolve into the foundation of the feudal order.
There were a lot of smart people hanging around at the Carolingian king’s court. The emperor relied heavily on the counsel of Alcuin of York. He oversaw the Palatine Academy, the premier educational institution in the Roman Empire. According to Eginhard, his contemporaries regarded him as “the most knowledgeable man of his day.”
The Irish monk Dungal of Bobbio served as Charlemagne’s official astronomer. He laid the groundwork for ideas that Nicolaus Copernicus would refine 700 years later. Eginhard, Theodulf, and Raban Maur weren’t the only scholars vying for a place at court; the Carolingian Empire was a hive of intellectual activity.
Bertrada of Laon, Charlemagne’s mother, was very important to him. She even meddled in her son’s political career. Some have speculated that Bertrada would have urged Charlemagne to marry Desiderata, the daughter of the Lombard monarch, in order to cement an alliance.
For the record, the day Charlemagne branded his mother a “whore” was the day their tight bond deteriorated. This person would have snapped back, “My son, do not evoke my infidelities, that could return to you in full face.”
Emperor Charlemagne: A man of war
Charlemagne, King of The Franks, A print from La France et les Français à Travers les Siècles, Volume I, F Roy editor, Saint-Antoine, 1882-1884.
When Charlemagne’s father, Pepin the Short, died in 768, he left his kingdom to his two sons, Charlemagne and Carloman, effectively beginning Charlemagne’s “political” career. As a result of their animosity, the two brothers ended up fighting over who would rule. With Carloman’s death in 771, Charlemagne was left as the sole ruler of the Frankish kingdom.
By the middle of the eighth century, after the fall of the Roman Empire and the invasions of barbarian tribes, the Frankish kingdom was the only stable and viable state in Europe.
The Muslims had destroyed Visigothic Spain, the Lombards and the Byzantines had split up Italy, and central and northern Europe were split up into a plethora of barbarian kingdoms and nations with unclear borders. Charlemagne’s kingdom was formidable, but it faced formidable enemies on all sides.
Frankish society was hierarchical and clientelist, with strong traces of feudalism already present. The landowner lords became emotionally attached to their vassal free men by providing them with shelter, food, and numerous costly gifts in exchange for their armed service.
In spite of this, the economy at the time was not in a particularly promising position. The industry sector fled the cities and settled in the countryside, clustering around farms established in Roman-style villas and operating in a state of semi-autonomy.
Since the Roman peace no longer guarantees the security of commercial exchanges, currency has been scarce. Since land was the only commodity available, appropriating neighboring plots was a necessary evil for sustaining the system.
Why was Charlemagne a great conqueror?
Charlemagne began his campaigns against the Saxons as early as 772; by 804, after much struggle, he had ultimately won. In 785, he issued the Saxon capitulary, which mandated baptism for all Saxons and made the practice of pagan rituals a capital offense. The Lombard throne had been vacant since Desiderius’ deposition in 774, when he conquered Pavia and assumed the kingship.
His conquest of the area that is now known as the Spanish March (present-day Catalonia) occurred between 785 and 801. The Basques ambushed Charlemagne’s rearguard as they were returning to Roncesvalles after a successful journey over the Pyrenees.
Charlemagne’s strength was his able army and his brutal, even barbaric, approach to battle. In this kingdom, serving in the army was obligatory for all adult males. Despite this, the total number of forces was still manageable, with 36,000 light cavalry, 5,000 heavy cavalry, and numerous infantrymen.
The victory was due to the army’s superior training; its armored cavalry quickly overpowered the opposition. Each campaign was a resounding success because of the lightning-quick maneuvers and the pincer technique.
Charlemagne’s united realm extended from Saxony in the north to Navarre, or Rome, in the south, and from Aquitaine in the west to Carinthia (Austria) in the east.
A few historians credit him with creating a “new Rome.” The fact that Charlemagne wanted to restore the Roman Empire is shown by the fact that he had the phrase “renovatio Romanorum imperii” written on multiple seals soon after becoming king.
And a man of faith
As emperor, Charlemagne made it his mission to spread Christianity. The conversion to Catholicism that followed all of his victories was usually coerced. The fact that the people of the empire were united in their religion was the empire’s true bedrock. In this hypothetical “State,” Emperor Charlemagne’s job is to save his people.
As a means of doing this, Charlemagne often stepped in when it came to defining orthodoxy. In 794, he spoke out against a heresy sweeping across Spain at the Council of Frankfurt, a gathering of church leaders for discussion and debate. His fierce opposition to the 787 Council of Nicaea prompted him to commission the disputed Libri Carolini from the churchman and scholar of the Carolingian age, Theodulf.
After Charlemagne conquered a region, he granted capitularies to the conquered populace, which encouraged conversion. The “famous” Saxon capitulary of 785 mandated mandatory baptism for all Saxons and made it a capital offense to practice any of the previous pagan rituals.
This document, which enforces Emperor Charlemagne’s legislation, is modeled after the ancient code of Hammurabi and is stated as follows: “Those who force their way into a house of worship shall face the ultimate penalty. For the murder of a bishop (…), the penalty is automatic execution. Any unbaptized Saxon who hides among his people today and refuses to be baptized because he wants to keep practicing his pagan religion shall be executed (…).”
Who crowned Charlemagne?
Coronation of Charlemagne. Illumination by Jean Fouquet, Grandes Chroniques de France, Paris. The costumes of the characters reflect the fashion of the mid-fifteenth century. On December 25, 800, at St. Peter’s in Rome, Charlemagne was crowned emperor by Pope Leo III.
In 800, when Charlemagne was crowned Western Roman Emperor, he was installed as ruler on the foundation of religious philosophy. As his empire grew, so did the reach of the Church. Charlemagne’s life’s work was to unite the peoples of Western Europe under a unified empire, which he saw as an extension of the Church. So it was on December 25, 800, in St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome that he graciously permitted Pope Leo III to crown him Emperor of the Romans.
A cultural propagator
Charlemagne, now firmly established in his new capital of Aachen, which benefited from being centrally located in his empire and having game forests, attracted and sometimes appointed a number of intellectuals, artists, and scholars, including many Italians, the poet and historian Paul Deacon, the grammarian Peter of Pisa, and the Englishman Alcuin, the most learned of his time, to lead the schools in the capital.
He pushed for the spread of Latin, which resulted in an influx of copyists and illustrators into the monasteries. Known as the “Carolingian Renaissance,” this period of cultural and religious flourishing was crucial to the establishment of a Christian and Romanesque Europe.
Just what was it that made Charlemagne so significant? Regarding this matter, many people would name the holy Charlemagne as the one who first established a school.
While evidence of schools may be traced as far back as 3000 BC in Egypt, the Carolingian monarch was the first to legislate on the construction of a school system. Admonitio Generalis (also known as the “Great Exhortation”) was composed in 789 and is the most important document.
There was a strong recommendation in the text for the clergy to get higher education so that they may better educate the populace in the Christian religion.
As it spread the seven liberal arts, the Admonitio spawned a number of schools whose teachings would become the bedrock of the Middle Ages’ educational system and university culture. One early goal was to revive Latin so that sacred scriptures might be translated into other languages.
Charlemagne’s approach made it considerably simpler for Christians to promote their beliefs. The arts flourished under the Carolingian emperor, and the resurgence of Greco-Latin culture and cultural interchange among Europe’s literati took place, particularly at the royal court. The term “Carolingian Renaissance” was often used to describe this time of artistic rebirth.
Charlemagne, Father of Europe
In reality, the Empire consisted of a wide variety of peoples that spoke a wide variety of languages and followed a wide variety of laws and traditions, with the only thing they usually had in common being that they were all subject to the Emperor.
In fact, at the time, his participants were rarely conscious of the fact that they shared a common identity. Their designation and identification as Europeans, in contrast to the “infidel” Muslims of the south and the Slavic pagans of the east, started to take hold, however.
Attracting many Italians, including the poet and historian Paul Deacon, the grammarian Peter of Pisa, and the Englishman Alcuin, the most learned of his time, to whom he entrusts the schools in his new capital, Aachen, which had the advantage of occupying a central position in his Empire and having the advantage of the game forests, Charlemagne attracts around him many intellectuals, artists, and scholars, sometimes placing them in key positions.
His advocacy for the spread of Latin resulted in a proliferation of copyists and illustrators in monasteries throughout the region. This explosion of culture and faith, known as the “Carolingian Renaissance,” was crucial to the establishment of a Christian and Romanesque Europe.
Was there a major political plan on the side of the man known as “Pater Europae,” the father of Europe, and “Europa vel regnum Caroli,” Europe or the kingdom of Charlemagne, a very individualistic assessment of his accomplishments? Charlemagne seems to care more about his own legacy than the longevity of his work. After his death, the Empire was divided among his sons and grandchildren in accordance with ancient barbaric Frankish tradition, and it promptly disintegrated into a plethora of independent entities that would engage in bloody conflict with one another for the next 900 years.
The romantic image of a united Christian Europe under Charlemagne is a relatively recent creation, popularized in the 19th century, especially by Victor Hugo, and it bears little resemblance to historical fact.
Despite its brief existence, the Carolingian Empire served as a crucial link between classical antiquity and the rise of medieval Europe, planting the seeds of a political, cultural, and religious legacy to which the vast majority of modern Europeans can lay claim.
It was obvious that Charlemagne did not stop spreading Christianity throughout Western Europe at any point throughout his exceptionally lengthy reign. Even though he is regarded by some as the “Father of Europe” today, it is likely that he never saw himself in that light.
Both politically and spiritually, he was preoccupied with two primary goals: the restoration of the Roman Empire and the propagation of Christianity. Charlemagne left his own indelible stamp on history by prioritizing his kingdom. He passed away on January 28, 814, and his son and successor, Louis the Pious, was unable to stop the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire.
The Life of Charlemagne: The Oldest Biography of the Emperor and His Reign
Who was Charlemagne?
The Vita Karoli Magni, by the Frankish historian Eginhard, was written in Latin between 830 and 836. It was heavily influenced by Suetonius’ “About the Life of the Caesars“, especially the section on Augustus’ life. Eginhard’s story, following the format of the Latin work, starts with the Carolingians’ ascension to the position of mayor of the palace before moving on to the reign of Charlemagne himself.
The victories of the Carolingians were extensively described, as was Roland’s death in the famous battle of Roncesvalles. Specific details about Charlemagne’s reign may be gleaned through accounts of his empire’s internal governance and the diplomatic contacts he established with neighboring kings.
During the final twenty years of Charlemagne’s reign, Eginhard worked as the emperor’s personal attendant and was able to get near enough to him to paint a picture. Charlemagne was a “broad and strong” guy who was also very religious, supportive of the arts and literature, and intellectually curious enough to study Latin.
Eginhard’s goal, at a time of succession conflicts, was to highlight Charlemagne’s imperial rule. This eulogy lavishes praise on the monarch, calling Charlemagne “a good ruler,” “intelligent,” “courageous,” and “a superb strategist.”
Given the large number of manuscripts that have survived to the present day, it is obvious that Eginhard’s contemporaries valued the Vita Caroli Magni highly. It was in Cologne, in 1521, that the first edition of the Life of Charlemagne was printed.
Joyeuse: The sword of Charlemagne
There was no proof that Charlemagne had this sword. According to the chansons de geste, Charlemagne had a sword named “Joyeuse“, although it seems that he really had many. This crown, which had been housed in the Abbey of Saint-Denis’ treasury (Treasury of Saint-Denis) and impeccably behaved throughout the years, was worn during the crowning of French monarchs up until 1825. This item, currently housed in the Louvre, may have been used to crown Napoleon Bonaparte as emperor as well.
THE KEY DATES OF CHARLEMAGNE
September 25, 768: Death of Pepin the Short
The first monarch of the Carolingian dynasty, Pepin the Short, known as “Pepin the Younger,” was buried at Saint-Denis. The kingship he inherited through his father, Charles Martel, and his marriage to Bertrada of Laon was eventually passed on to their sons, Carloman and Charlemagne. The dispute between the two brothers centered on how to divide the property.
Charlemagne inherited a kingdom (Austrasia, Neustria, and maritime Aquitaine) that encircled the territories of his younger brother (Alemania, Alsace, Burgundy, Septimania, and another part of Aquitaine). When Carloman died abruptly on December 4, 771, Charlemagne seized the possessions of his older brother and dispossessed his nephews. He rose to the position of Western Emperor.
December 4, 771: Charlemagne gains authority
Carloman I, King of France, passed away at Samoussy. The death of his brother gave Charlemagne the opportunity to grab the estate he had planned to leave to his sons.
He established himself as the sole ruler of the Franks with the assistance of Archbishop Wilcharius of Sens. On December 25, 800, Pope Leo III crowned him “Emperor of the Romans” in St. Peter’s Basilica, changing his name to Charlemagne.
774: Charlemagne confirms the Papal States
Charlemagne, the son of Pepin the Short, maintained the temporal power of the pope over the Papal States established in 756. Thereafter, the Papal States would progressively grow at the pace of contributions and conquests.
August 15, 778: Death of Roland at the Pass of Roncesvalles
Roland, an ally of Charlemagne, perished during a surprise assault by the Vascons (Basques), at the pass of Roncesvalles (Pyrenees). He was returning from Spain with his troops, having fought the Arabs there. His heroic deeds, as described in “La chanson de Roland,” would make him an inspiration to readers.
781: Alcuin assumes control of Charlemagne’s academy
In his desire to impart education to the men in his administration, Charlemagne built the Palace School. He put his faith in Alcuin, the famous British scholar, to lead the group. A number of secondary schools with an ecclesiastical foundation were later established. This was the beginning of a great cultural renaissance in the Carolingian Empire.
Charlemagne annexes Dalmatia
Defeating the Avars, a nomadic force from Asia, was crucial for Croatia’s survival on the frontier between the Eastern Empire and the eventual Western Empire.
After pushing them back and leaving it to Charlemagne to subjugate them, the Croats were now caught in the middle of a power struggle between the Carolingians and the Byzantines. As a result, the Croatian territories would be split apart. The Franks ruled Dalmatia, which was the largest region of the new Western Empire.
December 25, 800: Coronation of Charlemagne
In St. Peter’s Basilica, the Pope, Leo III, crowned Charlemagne “Emperor of the Romans” in the Byzantine rite. By the time he was 58 years old, the king of the Franks and the Lombards had amassed an empire that stretched from the Atlantic to the Carpathians and from the North Sea to Italy.
January 28, 814: Death of Charlemagne
During his 72nd year, the Western Emperor Charlemagne passed away in the city of Aachen. Louis, the Pious, his son, became Emperor after him.
References
Lewers Langston, Aileen; Buck, J. Orton Jr., eds. (1974). Pedigrees of Some of the Emperor Charlemagne’s Descendants. Baltimore: Genealogical Pub. Co.
Riché, Pierre (1993). The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe. Middle Ages Series. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1342-3.
Fried, Johannes (2016). Charlemagne. trans. Peter Lewis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674737396.
Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, was able to depose the last Merovingian monarch and establish a new dynasty at the head of the Frankish realm because of his position as mayor of the palace and the renown of his family. However, his son, the illustrious Charlemagne, whom the Pope crowned Emperor of the West in 800 after a string of military triumphs in favor of Christianity, was the one who gave this dynasty its name. The Carolingian Empire was short-lived, however, collapsing in 843 with the partition of Verdun between Charlemagne’s three grandchildren. The imperial title lasted until 924, and when Louis V of France passed away in 987, the Carolingian dynasty came to an end.
When and How Did the Carolingian Dynasty Begin?
Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours, depicted in the Grandes Chroniques de France.
The Frankish aristocracy of the Merovingian period suffered the same fate as the other barbarian kingdoms established after the fall of the Roman Empire in the 7th century. As time went on, the legitimate Merovingian kings, who were called “lazy kings” (Roi fainéant), lost power and were replaced by the noble mayors of palaces.
Even though they were originally just the kings’ stewards, they eventually grew so powerful that they could actually remove and replace the kings themselves.
Childeric III, the last representative of the Merovingians, was deposed in 751 by Pepin the Short, mayor of the palace of Neustria and son of the famous military leader Charles Martel who had stopped the Muslim expansion in Poitiers in 732 (See: The Battle of Tours and The Reconquista).
Pepin the Short, also known as Pepin III, founded the Carolingian dynasty after Pope Zachary officially crowned him king of the Franks. He left the kingdom to his son Charlemagne, also known as Charlemagne, who expanded it into an empire after his death in 768. Between 751 and 771, Charlemagne and his brother Carloman I ruled jointly.
Key Dates in the Carolingian Empire
Charlemagne at dinner; detail of a miniature from BL Royal MS 15 E vi, f. 155r (the “Talbot Shrewsbury Book”)
During the first three decades of his reign, Charlemagne expanded the Frankish empire through a series of military victories, mainly against the Saxons and the Lombards, with the assistance of the pope. In 800, he was anointed emperor in Rome under the name Charlemagne after rescuing Pope Leo III from an assassination attempt. He then set about reconstructing the Western Empire.
After the death of Charlemagne in 840, the so-called Carolingian Empire (a name derived from Charles Martel and Charlemagne) was split into three parts. Louis I, also known as Louis the Pious, inherited it from his father in 814. The three surviving sons of Louis (Charles the Bald, Lothair I, and Louis II) negotiated a violent division of the Carolingian Empire and signed the Treaty of Verdun in 843.
The Carolingian Empire collapsed when it was divided into three separate kingdoms. Nevertheless, the Emperor of the West title survived until Berengar I’s death in 924, at which point it was no longer used.
Territories Conquered by Charlemagne
When his father, Pepin the Short, passed away in 768, Charlemagne had already completely incorporated the duchies of Aquitaine and Gascony into the realm.
Charlemagne, at the invitation of the pope, launched an offensive against the Lombards in 773 and soon prevailed, eventually annexing the northern part of Italy up to Rome. He used this victory to launch an all-out assault on the Saxons in 776, the last indigenous pagan group in the area.
To finally defeat them in 785, several military campaigns were necessary, one of which Widukind led. Charlemagne’s 778 campaign against the Saracens resulted in a crushing loss at the hands of the Christians in the Battle of Roncesvalles Pass.
Later conquests, however, created what is now known as the “Spanish March,” and efforts against the Frisians, Bretons, Bavarians, and Avars in the years 780–800 pushed the Carolingian Empire even farther west.
When Charlemagne passed away in 814, the area of the imperial dominion was about 385.000 square miles (1 million sq km), having doubled during his period.
How Was the Territory of the Carolingian Empire Ruled?
Vita Sancti Martini by Sulpicius Severus; manuscript of the 8th century, composed in Carolingian minuscule. (Source: Paris BnF).
Charlemagne was not only a conqueror and military genius, but also a reformer and highly productive king. 300 provinces made up the Carolingian Empire. Charlemagne’s religious and secular commands were carried out over his vast realm by “missi dominici” (Latin for “envoy[s] of the lord [ruler]”) which were institutions with two heads (a count and a bishop).
Mathematics and grammar were taught in schools set up in each bishopric, and a uniform form of medieval Latin script was introduced.
The Carolingian minuscule, a new kind of writing, was developed to make books easier to read. Additionally, a monetary reform was implemented to switch from gold to silver as the metal of choice for coinage. The goal was to make it simpler for business deals to be done, allowing commerce to flourish.
Roads were kept in good shape, and farmers’ markets were given the green light, among other things. Libraries, artworks, and monuments flourished under Charlemagne’s reign, ushering in a period known as the “Carolingian Renaissance.”
What Language was Spoken in the Carolingian Empire?
Karl von Blass (1815–1894) painted a scene in which Charlemagne warns several careless students.
The Salian Frankish nobles, initially from the Rhine River but later moving southwest, established the Carolingian Empire after establishing a foothold in Gaul after the collapse of the Roman Empire. The Franks, under Clovis’ rule, soon adopted aspects of Gallo-Roman culture and eventually abandoned their pagan religion in favor of Christianity.
Even though the Merovingians spoke Old Frankish, the Carolingians under Charlemagne adopted a close dialect called Rhenish Frankish, which became the official language of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire at Aachen.
What Was the Place of Religion in the Carolingian Empire?
The Coronation of Charlemagne by Friedrich Kaulbach (1822–1903).
The covenant struck between the Carolingian monarchs and the pope to support each other was a defining feature of the Carolingian Empire and its long partnership between politics and religion.
Charlemagne ordered the baptism of all infants under the age of one in the bishoprics, instituted the payment of tithes across the kingdom as early as 779, and founded several monasteries.
Paganism was outlawed, and Christian conversion was mandated in the conquered areas, particularly in Saxony. Charlemagne, against Rome’s opposition, commanded the addition of the Filioque (a Latin term meaning “and from the Son”) to the Nicene Creed during the ensuing dispute between the Roman and Greek churches over the doctrine of the Trinity. Theology developed strongly during the period of Charlemagne.
How Did the Carolingian Empire End?
When Charlemagne’s heir, Louis the Pious, died, his sons fought over who would succeed him. The sons intended to split up the Carolingian Empire, while the clergy wanted to keep it as one.
Louis’ oldest son, Lothair, believed he would rule on his own. Charles the Bald received West Francia, Lothair I received Middle Francia, and Louis II received East Francia according to the Treaty of Verdun signed in 843, which ended years of civil strife.
There was a de facto dissolution of the state their grandfather Charlemagne had established. These three realms were not self-sustaining due to external factors like the untimely assaults of the Vikings and the Arabs, the squabbles between brothers and their offspring, and the frequent and unexpected deaths of rulers. The Carolingian dynasty and its royal line ended in the middle of the 10th century.
What Do the Byzantine Empire and the Carolingian Empire Have in Common?
Both the Byzantine and Carolingian empires were Christian and ruled from Constantinople and Aachen, respectively. In both instances, the emperor led the armed forces and ensured the country’s religious harmony by means of military conquest. The governors, sometimes known as missi dominici, were responsible for implementing policies in several regions. The two dynasties had similar priorities when it came to the advancement of culture and learning.
KEY DATES OF THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE
October 22, 741 – Death of Charles Martel
Charles Martel was a notable person in the 8th century, serving as mayor of the palaces of Neustria and Austrasia and also as a prominent statesman and military commander. After defeating Umayyad forces attempting to take over Francia at the Battle of Tours (also called the Battle of Poitiers) in 732, he gained international renown and the papacy’s attention. When he passed away, he was given the honor of being buried in the royal church of Saint-Denis.
November 751 – Pepin the Short, King of the Franks
Pepin the Short, Charles Martel’s son, ousted Childeric III, king of the Merovingians, and assumed the throne following his father’s death. This was ten years after Martel’s own death. The pope, Zachariah, supported his claim to the throne, and he became king of the Franks in 751. The Merovingian Dynasty came to an end with this event, ushering in the new Frankish bloodline known as the Carolingians.
July 28, 754 – Pepin the Short was Once Again Crowned
Pepin the Short, at the behest of Pope Stephen II (who succeeded Zachary in 752), launched a victorious military expedition in Lombardy. Land was donated by Pepin, and the Papal States were officially established when the Treaty of Quierzy was signed in 754. The pope recognized his loyalty by reinstating his position as king of the Franks and bestowing upon him the title of Patrice of the Romans. During this time, the ties between the pope and the new monarchy were tightened even further.
September 25, 768 – Death of Pepin the Short
Pepin the Short, who died at the age of 54 due to sickness, spent the last years of his reign consolidating the kingdom in the South through the conquests of Septimania in 759 and Aquitaine in 768. He was laid to rest at Saint-Denis, much like his father. Carloman and Charlemagne, his sons, argued over how to divide the realm when he died.
December 4, 771 – Charlemagne Took Power
Charlemagne took full control of the realm after Carloman’s sudden death in 771, and taking the opportunity to oust his infant nephews, who were eventually imprisoned for life in a monastery. The Archbishop of Sens, Wilcharius, recognized him as the only ruler of the Franks.
774 – Charlemagne Confirmed the Papal States
Charlemagne formally acknowledged Pepin’s contribution to the Roman Catholic Church before the newly installed Pope Adrian I in Rome. The papacy’s temporal rule over the Papal States was recognized. The latter will continue to grow via further gifts and invasions.
August 15, 778 – Death of Roland at the Pass of Roncesvalles
It was in 778 when the famous warrior Roland, who had been guarding the Frankish border with Brittany, was tasked with leading an expedition against the emirate of Cordoba in Spain. At the Battle of Roncesvalles, this close friend and rumored nephew of Charlemagne was killed by an unexpected assault by the Vascons (Basques).
In 781, while visiting Rome, the English philosopher and theologian Alcuin met Charlemagne, who asked him to live in Aachen, the imperial capital. He rose rapidly to become the most trusted counselor to the Emperor and the leader of the Palatine School, which Charlemagne had created to educate his top officials. As a result, many episcopal schools and libraries were established across the enormous realm, ushering in the “Carolingian renaissance.”
799 – Charlemagne Annexed Dalmatia
Dalmatia was a crucial province of Croatia because of its location between the Byzantine and Carolingian empires. Charlemagne invades in 799 and firmly conquers the region by 803. This invasion by the Franks leads to a naval conflict with Constantinople that is only resolved with the signing of the Pax Nicephori in 812.
December 25, 800 – Coronation of Charlemagne
As a result of Charlemagne’s repeated victories, the Carolingian empire came to cover almost the whole Christian West. Political and religious leaders began to consider the possibility of an empire as a result of the ruler’s absolute authority. Charlemagne was proclaimed Emperor of the West in 800 after a failed coup against Pope Leo III in 799. The Byzantine Empire did not acknowledge this coronation because it saw it as illegitimate.
January 28, 814 – Death of Charlemagne
The Western Roman Emperor Charlemagne passed away at the age of 72 in the city of Aachen from what was likely a case of severe pneumonia. His son Louis the Pious took the imperial title after him, but that only sparked a battle of succession for power.
June 22, 841 – The Division of Charlemagne’s Empire
The Auxerrois area was the site of the war between Charlemagne’s grandchildren for control of the Empire. The true successor, Lothair, was defeated by his brothers, Louis the German and Charles the Bald. In 843, he was forced to sign the Treaty of Verdun, which gave the French-speaking half to Charles and the German-speaking part to Louis. It was during this war that the seeds for Germany, France, and Italy were planted.
February 14, 842 – Oaths of Strasbourg
Charles the Bald and Louis the German, Charlemagne’s grandsons, exchanged “Oaths of Strasbourg.” They joined forces to take on their elder sibling, Lothair, Emperor of the West, and they did so with this covenant of mutual help. This is the first official document to be written in a vernacular other than Latin.
Both Louis the German and Charles the Bald take the oath, but Louis does it in Romance while Charles does it in Tudesque, the ancestor of German. Lothair was defeated on June 25, 842, by the two allied brothers at Fontenay-en-Puisaye in modern-day Burgundy.
843 – The Belgian Territory Divided by the Treaty of Verdun
It was officially split between France and Lotharingia the day after the treaty was signed. Northern Flanders fell to Charles the Bald, while southern Wallonia was added to Lothar I’s realm. However, a few years later, the Holy Roman Empire would be given credit for the latter.
November 22, 845 – Independence of Brittany
Near Redon, the Breton Nominoe triumphed in a ball battle against Charles the Bald’s Carolingian army. This loss meant the end of the king’s attempt to conquer Brittany. Brittany broke away from the monarchy and established its own government. It would remain so for nearly 7 centuries.
April 10, 879 – Death of Louis the Stammerer
After a long illness, the 33-year-old monarch of West Francia passed away at Compiègne. King of France for only 16 short months, Louis the Stammerer was also known as King Louis II the Lazy. Louis III and Carloman, two of his sons, would go on to rule as monarchs of Neustria and Aquitaine, respectively.
November 28, 885 – Beginning of the Siege of Paris by the Normans
Parisians had been fending off the Vikings since the mid-9th century, who were not afraid to ravage the city as they did in 856. The Normans tried something new this time around and laid siege to the city. Because of Eudes, Paris was able to hold out for over two years. It wasn’t until Charles the Fat paid a huge ransom that fighting stopped.
January 13, 888 – Death of Charles the Fat
As a result, Charles the Fat, King of the Franks and Emperor of the West, passed away at Neidingen without a direct successor. As a reward for his bravery in repelling the Norman invasion of West Francia, Robert the Strong named his son Eudes as his heir. On February 29, he was anointed king of the West Franks, and he ruled until 898.
July 20, 911 – Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte
A century after racking up victories and establishing a foothold in Neustria, the Normans were beaten at Chartres by Charles the Simple. The latter was able to exert his authority and initiate talks with the “invaders” as a result of the changing circumstances. The end result was the establishment of the duchy of Normandy. In return for the King of France’s acknowledgment, the Norman Rollon gained control of this area. Additionally, he said that he would become a Catholic. The Normans quickly expanded their area after becoming French, which at the time included roughly what is now Upper Normandy.
October 7, 929 – Death of Charles the Simple
The French monarch passed away while in Herbert of Vermandois’ captivity at Peronne. Although he had reigned as king since 893, the Robertians had ousted him and thrown him in jail in 922. Robert I took over after him.
March 2, 986 – Death of Lothar III
Following a fulgurating pandemic, the Frankish king died at the age of 45. The cathedral of Saint-Rémy in Reims served as the site of his burial. Louis V, his son, took over after him. There was just one year under his rule.
References
Davis, Jennifer (2015). Charlemagne’s Practice of Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-1316368596.
Joanna Story, Charlemagne: Empire and Society, Manchester University Press, 2005 ISBN 978-0-7190-7089-1
King, P. D. (1987). Charlemagne Translated Sources. p. 124. ISBN 978-0951150306.
Kramer, Rutger (2019). Rethinking Authority in the Carolingian Empire: Ideals and Expectations During the Reign of Louis the Pious (813-828). pp. 31–34. ISBN 9789048532681.
