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  • Charles V of France: Military Reforms and Diplomatic Genius

    Charles V of France: Military Reforms and Diplomatic Genius

    Charles V, known as “the Wise,” was King of France from 1364 to 1380 during the dark times of the Hundred Years’ War. The son of John II the Good, he became regent of the kingdom during his father’s captivity in England. He faced peasant revolts (the Jacquerie), a Parisian uprising led by the provost of the merchants, Étienne Marcel, and had to contend with the ambitions of Charles the Bad, King of Navarre.

    Amid these multiple dangers, he was forced to negotiate the Treaty of Brétigny (1360) with England, resulting in significant territorial losses. Once he became king, well supported by the constable Du Guesclin, he restored peace, reestablished royal authority, and managed to recapture almost all the English-held territories on the continent. Charles V is considered one of the “great” kings of France.

    A Difficult Beginning to Charles V’s Reign

    Born in Vincennes on January 21, 1338, the future Charles V was the eldest son of John II the Good and Bonne of Luxembourg. He was the first heir to the French throne to bear the title of “Dauphin” (in 1349). After John II was captured by the English at the Battle of Poitiers (1356), in which Charles participated, he became regent of the kingdom and had to confront the Parisian revolt, led by Étienne Marcel, and the Jacquerie in 1358.

    In this disastrous context, he was forced to negotiate the Treaty of Brétigny (1360) with the English.

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    This treaty stripped the royal domain of the southwest and several northern territories but did not bring peace, as unemployed or unpaid bands of mercenaries ravaged the kingdom.

    After his father John II died on April 8, 1364, Charles’s legitimacy was contested by both the English and supporters of his rival, Charles the Bad.

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    The latter was defeated by Du Guesclin at the Battle of Cocherel, marking the beginning of Charles V’s reign and ensuring the continuity of the Valois dynasty. The new king was then crowned in Reims on May 19, 1364.

    Charles V: The First “Most Christian” King

    Coronation of Charles V
    Coronation of Charles V

    Despite his frail health and unremarkable appearance, the new king was a wise man. His admirers, starting with Christine de Pisan, praised his moderation, virtues, and love for literature and the arts. He enjoyed discussing political theory with figures such as Nicolas Oresme, Philippe de Mézières, and Raoul de Presles.

    At the height of his power in 1376, he asked a jurist, Évrard de Tremaugon, to write Le Songe du verger, a treatise on the theory of the state presented as a dialogue between a cleric and a knight. Initially written in Latin, it was later translated into French. This desire to make knowledge accessible led the king to commission numerous translations of classical authors, including Aristotle’s Politics and St. Augustine’s City of God.

    To implement his policies, he adhered to these principles, which required the monarch to govern according to reason for the common good. In addition to these “natural laws” governing the “body politic,” the king was bound by the duties imposed by his coronation oath. More than his predecessors, Charles V was attuned to his religious responsibilities: he was the first king of France to be called “Most Christian.” He even commissioned a Carmelite, Jean Golein, to write a treatise extolling the coronation ceremony and the king’s healing powers.

    Charles V’s piety guided all his political actions, yet he remained firm in his dealings with the pope and bishops. Authoritative and methodical, his adversaries dubbed him “the lawyer.” In reality, he skillfully employed propaganda to appeal to the emerging public opinion. He also surrounded himself with capable advisors, mostly from Parliament and trained in canon or civil law.

    A Well-Supported Monarch

    Men like chancellors Guillaume de Dormans and Pierre d’Orgemont, Hugues Aubriot (provost of Paris), constable Bertrand Du Guesclin, and admiral Jean de Vienne, and later, Bureau de La Rivière, already saw themselves as part of a body serving the state. General advisors on taxation helped manage the collection of taxes, introduced since 1360.

    In the royal administrative regions, numerous officials implemented royal orders and dispensed justice, while tax collectors and elected officials gathered revenues, which still constituted extraordinary finances.

    By expanding the presence of the king and the state, these officials helped create national unity. Only the principalities, whether ancient like Brittany or the county of Foix, or new like those granted to the king’s brothers as apanages, resisted. These great princes were also appointed lieutenant generals in parts of the kingdom where they exercised all powers. This was less a sign of weakness than a form of power that continued to grant the close royal family a vital role in governance.

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    Blood ties remained as important in politics as the king’s wisdom and his officials’ loyalty.

    Time of Reconquest

    Until 1367, although the ransom payments were slow, the Treaty of Calais was generally respected. The two sovereigns tried to deal with the mercenaries and fought through intermediaries. The advantage seemed to be with the English. In Brittany, John IV of Montfort defeated the French-backed candidate, Charles of Blois, at Auray in 1364. In Spain, the Black Prince won at Najera in 1367. In both cases, Du Guesclin was captured. However, the contentious issue of sovereignty stemming from the Treaty of Calais, which involved renunciations that had not yet been exchanged, remained.

    Who held sovereignty over Guyenne, governed by the Black Prince? The prince expanded its administration and, to pay his troops, demanded new taxes. The numerous and unruly Gascon nobility invoked their “liberties.” Blood ties between the Albret family and Charles V played a role. Appeals began, addressed simultaneously to the king of England and, secretly, to the king of France. On September 8, 1368, a public appeal was made to Charles V. A year later, when Edward III resumed his title of King of France and Guyenne was “confiscated” from him, the war resumed.

    This time, however, the advantage lay with France, which had transformed its army and adopted a new strategy. Du Guesclin, appointed constable in 1370, preferred small, incremental offensives, capturing towns and castles one by one. Meanwhile, the scorched-earth policy cut off enemy supply lines and made large raids pointless.

    This strategy paid off. It succeeded not only because of well-paid, motivated troops but also due to the fortifications built by towns and villages. In four years, the English lost everything except Calais, Bayonne, and Bordeaux, while Charles the Bad had to abandon his Norman possessions in 1378. Only Brittany, which rebelled against the French king, remained under John IV’s control.

    Time of Revolts

    Taxes, renewed year after year, had effectively become permanent. The population, though reduced and “tempered” by hardship, persevered. There was even a recovery in the rural economy, as land previously abandoned returned to cultivation. Those who survived the mid-14th-century crisis lived better. However, this recovery soon led to population growth, which brought renewed pressures. By 1375, southern France faced bad harvests, famine, and epidemics.

    In both rural and urban areas, increasing poverty fueled population movements and swelled the labor market. Revolts, like the Tuchins uprising that began in Auvergne in 1363, spread. Between 1378 and 1382, this unrest spread across Europe, seemingly without direct connections between the different centers of rebellion.

    The insurgents, largely composed of common people joined by marginalized groups and “vagabonds,” had no clear program. They primarily demanded the abolition of taxes. Charles V’s decision to abolish hearth taxes on September 16, 1380, on his deathbed, only increased the unrest.

    Legacy of Charles V

    Despite everything, Charles V had overseen the kingdom’s recovery, strengthened royal authority, and stabilized the currency. He implemented financial reforms, extended the privileges of the University of Paris, and built or beautified several palaces (including the Hôtel Saint-Pol and the Louvre). In 1367, Charles V founded the Royal Library (the future National Library of France), which would gather a significant collection of manuscripts. Free of religious fanaticism, he protected the Jews and sought to curb the activities of the Inquisition in Languedoc. Toward the end of his life, he contributed to the start of the Great Schism by recognizing the antipope Clement VII over Urban VI.

    Married in 1350 to his cousin Jeanne of Bourbon, Charles V was succeeded by his son, Charles VI. The latter’s reign would undo much of his father’s political achievements, and the kingdom would again be plunged into the turmoil of the Hundred Years’ War.

  • Holy Roman Empire: Summary and History

    Holy Roman Empire: Summary and History

    Founded in 962 by Otto I, the Holy Roman Empire was a political union of states in Western and Central Europe (initially the kingdoms of Germany, Italy, and Burgundy). Built on the ruins of the Carolingian Empire, it emerged from the desire to resurrect the Western Roman Empire, which had fallen in 476. Spanning from the end of the Early Middle Ages to the beginning of the modern era, this complex entity evolved significantly over the centuries. Under the reign of Charles V, the religious unity of the Holy Roman Empire was shattered by Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation. This led to religious conflict, culminating in the devastating Thirty Years’ War.

    After losing much of its influence, the elective monarchy did not survive the Napoleonic Wars. Facing Napoleon Bonaparte, Francis II renounced his title as Emperor of the Romans. On August 6, 1806, after more than 800 years of existence, the Holy Roman Empire disappeared. It left behind a cultural and political legacy shared by many modern countries. This period is also known as the First Reich.

    Who Founded the Holy Roman Empire?

    When the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, it was replaced by a multitude of barbarian kingdoms. In Gaul, Clovis I founded the Kingdom of the Franks, which quickly expanded toward Central and Southern Europe. The Carolingian dynasty succeeded the Merovingians, with Pepin the Short ascending to the throne in 751. Under his son, Charles I, known as Charlemagne, the Carolingian Empire reached its peak. Determined to revive the ancient Roman Empire, the King of the Franks embarked on a campaign to conquer Europe.

    By the end of 800, the monarch was crowned Emperor of the West by Pope Leo III in Rome—a first in three centuries! After the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the Carolingian Empire was divided among three of Charlemagne’s grandsons. Charles the Bald inherited West Francia (the future France), Louis the German received East Francia, and Lothair was given Middle Francia and the imperial title. This marked the end of Charlemagne’s unified empire, which officially ceased to exist in 924 after the assassination of Berengar I. The imperial title remained vacant until the coronation of Otto I, King of Germany, who created the Holy Roman Empire in 962.

    What Are the Dates of the Holy Roman Empire?

    A political union of states in Western, Central, and Southern Europe, the Holy Roman Empire lasted from 962 to 1806, disappearing at the dawn of the modern era. Initially, the Holy Roman Empire encompassed territories of the former East and South Francia, including the Kingdom of Germany, Bohemia, and Italy. By 1032, the Kingdom of Burgundy had joined the empire. Modeled after Charlemagne’s empire, Otto’s dream was to restore the Roman Empire on the remnants of the Carolingian realm.

    At its height, it covered much of Central Europe, including modern-day Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, and parts of France and Italy. By the 18th century, however, the regional influence of the Holy Roman Empire had waned in favor of Prussia. It finally collapsed during the Napoleonic Wars. After the signing of the Confederation of the Rhine treaty, Francis II renounced his title as Emperor of the Romans on August 6, 1806, marking the end of the First German Reich.

    What Was the Empire Like During the Middle Ages?

    The Ottonian dynasty ruled the Holy Roman Empire from 962 until the death of Henry II in 1024. During this period, the empire prospered, developing a thriving merchant economy. Close to the Church, Otto and his descendants dreamed of uniting all of Christian Europe under one empire. To strengthen their authority, they ensured the loyalty of many bishops through the “imperial clientele” system. Christianity played a central role in the Holy Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.

    The Church was a privileged partner of the rulers and formed the backbone of the imperial administration, serving as a counterbalance to secular powers. The Ottonians were succeeded by the Salian dynasty, which reigned from 1027 to 1125 and worked to preserve peace. With the decline of the Hohenstaufens in the 13th century, central authority weakened, while the power of the prince-electors grew. By the end of the Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Empire had shrunk to mainly German territories and abandoned its universal ambitions. In 1452, the imperial title passed to the House of Habsburg.

    How Was the Empire During the Modern Era?

    Under the reign of the Habsburgs, the Holy Roman Empire experienced a revival and regained influence. In 1495, Maximilian I undertook a profound reform of the elective monarchy. Between 1517 and 1570, the empire faced Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation, which tested its unity. The Peace of Augsburg, signed on September 25, 1555, suspended hostilities between Catholic and Protestant states. At the end of the 16th century, the process of confessionalization began, which solidified the divide between Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Catholicism.

    In 1618, tensions between the two camps escalated, marking the start of the Thirty Years’ War. The conflict ended with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia on October 24, 1648. Ratified by the various belligerents, these treaties deeply reshaped the political and religious balance across Europe. From 1740 onward, Prussia and Austria emerged on the European stage, and their rivalry intensified. In the face of these rising powers, the Holy Roman Empire gradually faded, continuing its inexorable decline…

    What Was the Constitution Like Under the Holy Roman Empire?

    The Holy Roman Empire was governed by a set of laws and customs, many of which were inherited from the Middle Ages. Over the centuries, the elective monarchy established a number of institutions to ensure its functioning. Among them were the Imperial Diet, the Imperial Circles, the Imperial Chamber Court, the Aulic Council, and the Imperial Estates. These entities designated the individuals and corporations eligible to sit in the Imperial Diet.

    The constitution of the Holy Roman Empire was largely based on written and unwritten legal foundations, some of which held the status of fundamental laws. This was the case with the Golden Bull of 1356 and the Diet of Worms in 1495. Other examples include the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 and the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. In the modern era, despite his status, the King of the Romans held little actual power. To implement effective policies, he had to collaborate with the seven prince-electors, who had the privilege of electing the emperor. These electors would play a major role in the empire’s politics until the end of the Thirty Years’ War.

    What Were the Flags and Symbols Related to the Holy Roman Empire?

    Upon his coronation in 962, Otto I adopted the eagle as his emblem, a symbol of imperial power dating back to the Roman Empire. However, it wasn’t until the 12th century that the eagle truly became the figure of the elective monarchy. It was replaced by a double-headed eagle in the 14th century, which soon became the dominant figure in imperial heraldry. The most famous flag of the Holy Roman Empire featured a black eagle on a gold background. During the Crusades, this was often accompanied by a red flag with a white cross.

    Many cities adopted the eagle symbol in their coats of arms, signifying the allegiance of their population to the emperor. In addition to these heraldic symbols, the elected sovereign also had a collection of ceremonial regalia: the imperial regalia. Among these consecrated objects, some dating back to Charlemagne, were the imperial crown, the scepter, and the imperial orb. Other notable items included the Holy Lance, the sword, the imperial blade, and the coronation mantle.

    What Did Charles V Do During the Holy Roman Empire?

    Charles V, often known as Charles Quint, was emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 1520 to 1556. King of Spain from 1516, he inherited the possessions of the Habsburg family upon his father’s death. He became the most powerful monarch of the first half of the 16th century. His reign was marked by wars against Suleiman the Magnificent’s Ottoman Empire and against France, under Francis I. However, he primarily had to deal with the Protestant Reformation, which threatened to fracture the unity of the Holy Roman Empire.

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    In the spring of 1521, he condemned Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms. This did not prevent a religious war that lasted until the Peace of Augsburg was signed on September 25, 1555.

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    This treaty ended hostilities between Lutheran and Catholic states and officially recognized the presence of Protestantism in the empire, signaling the end of religious unity. Faced with this bitter failure and setbacks against both France and the Ottomans, Charles V abdicated in 1556. He handed over his imperial title to his younger brother Ferdinand I and retired to Spain.

    What Were the Consequences of the Holy Roman Empire?

    The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire during the Napoleonic Wars reshaped the geopolitical map of Europe. On July 12, 1806, sixteen German states founded the Confederation of the Rhine and seceded. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, these states regrouped into the German Confederation. Some, primarily those established by Napoleon Bonaparte, were dissolved, allowing Prussia to gain territories. Prussia then emerged as a major power in Central Europe, eventually leading to the formation of the German Empire in 1871.

    Before relinquishing his title as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Francis II became Emperor of Austria. This decision led to the creation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1867, which, like the German Empire, disappeared after World War I. Over nearly 1,000 years of history, the Holy Roman Empire left behind a significant political and cultural legacy. This common heritage, shared by many current nations, remains an integral part of the European construction.

    Key Dates of the Roman Empire

    September 4, 476 – Fall of the Western Roman Empire

    Since 455, the Roman Empire has seen a chaotic succession of emperors due to coups. After assassinating Julius Nepos, General Orestes places his son, Romulus Augustulus, on the throne. Less than a year later, the young boy is deposed by the barbarian leader Odoacer. Unlike his father, who is executed, the boy is spared and exiled. Odoacer, then king of the Heruli, becomes the new ruler of Italy. After a slow decline, the fragmented Western Roman Empire, which had been weakening since the 4th century, disappears on September 4, 476.

    843 – The Belgian territory divided by the Treaty of Verdun

    Following the treaty, the territory is divided between Francia and Lotharingia. Flanders in the north goes to Charles the Bald, while Wallonia is integrated into Lothaire I’s territories. However, these lands will later be part of the Holy Roman Empire a few years later.

    February 2, 962 – Otto I crowned emperor

    In peril due to the powerful Roman aristocratic families, the Papal States once again require external assistance. Otto I of Germany comes to their aid and is crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope John XII in exchange for his protection. From that moment, the Papal States fall once again under imperial control. Otto I becomes the first ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, a territory that includes both Germany and Italy.

    January 25, 1077 – Henry IV confesses at Canossa

    Amidst the Investiture Controversy, Henry IV, King of the Romans, travels to Canossa to kneel before the pope and beg for forgiveness. Having been excommunicated the previous year, his legitimacy as emperor is threatened by rebellious German princes. He waits for three days for the pope’s response, who finally agrees to lift the excommunication.

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    Humiliated, Henry IV soon embarks on a campaign to conquer Rome and is excommunicated once again.

    February 11, 1229 – Frederick II signs the Treaty of Jaffa

    To honor his promise to the pope, Frederick II, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, embarks on the Sixth Crusade in 1228. Very brief, it ends with the signing of the Treaty of Jaffa on February 11, 1229. Sultan Al-Kamil returns Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth to the Italian ruler. In return, Frederick agrees not to take control of Islamic holy sites.

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    On March 18, 1229, Frederick II crowns himself King of Jerusalem before returning to Europe. His methods provoke hostility from parts of Christendom.

    July 17, 1245 – Pope Innocent IV deposes Frederick II

    While the struggle between the Papacy and the Holy Empire continues, Innocent IV, exiled in Lyon, convenes the 13th Ecumenical Council. In front of the assembly, he deposes the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. For several years, Frederick had been trying to assert his authority over all of Italy. The conflict grows considerably, especially in the confrontation between temporal power and spiritual authority. Following this event, Frederick II faces several revolts and conspiracies, eventually dying suddenly in 1250. His death brings an end to the struggle between the Papacy and the empire, from which the papacy emerges stronger.

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    January 21, 1398 – Death of Frederick V of Nuremberg

    Born 65 years earlier, Frederick V of Nuremberg dies on January 21, 1398. The son of John II of Nuremberg and Elisabeth of Henneberg, Frederick V succeeded his father as burgrave of Nuremberg, Bayreuth, and Ansbach in 1357. He spent part of his life defending the Nuremberg Castle, a strategic stronghold for the Holy Roman Empire.

    January 18, 1701 – Birth of the Kingdom of Prussia

    After receiving Emperor Leopold I, Frederick III, then Elector of Prussia, crowns himself in Königsberg and establishes his capital in Berlin. This marks the birth of the Kingdom of Prussia within the Holy Roman Empire. When the empire falls due to Napoleon’s conquests, it is the Kingdom of Prussia that will rise to prominence, reaching its peak at the end of the 19th century and achieving German unification.

    August 6, 1806 – End of the Holy Roman Empire

    The Holy Roman Empire is dissolved when Francis II of Habsburg renounces the imperial crown. This empire, founded by Otto I in 962, initially encompassed the kingdoms of Germany, Italy, and Burgundy. It lost many of its territories over the centuries and could not withstand Napoleon’s conquests. Francis then takes the title of Emperor of Austria and gives his daughter, Marie-Louise, in marriage to Napoleon.

  • Eleanor of Austria: Second Wife of Francis I

    Eleanor of Austria: Second Wife of Francis I

    Eleanor of Austria (1498-1558), widow of the King of Portugal, became the second wife of Francis I in 1530. An instrument of negotiation for her brother Charles V and of revenge for the King of France, she would struggle to find her place at the court of her tempestuous husband. During the seventeen years of her life as a French wife and queen, this sister of the enemy would feel the animosity of the king and his sons.

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    Rejected for being a foreigner, Eleanor of Austria would return to her country upon her husband’s death and would be “erased” from French memory, not even being admitted to the Basilica of Saint-Denis!

    Youth of Eleanor of Austria

    Eleanor of Austria, the first child of Philip the Handsome and Joanna the Mad, was born on November 15, 1498, in Louvain, obtaining her patronym from her grandfather Maximilian of Austria, with Margaret of York, the widow of Charles the Bold, as her godmother. Eighteen months later, her brother Charles of Ghent, the future Charles V, was born, and upon their parents’ death, they were entrusted to their aunt Margaret of Austria.

    A smiling, cheerful young girl, skilled in horseback riding and hunting, she learned music, painting, and letters. Her simple tastes, modesty, and feelings made her “a fool without ambition.” At eighteen, she fell in love with a penniless younger son, the Palatine Prince Frederick, son of Philip of Bavaria; Charles V disapproved and sought a “proper” suitor, at least a king… of France, England, or Poland, thus ruling out the Duke of Lorraine, the King of Denmark, and the King of Navarre.

    Queen of Portugal

    He finally opted for the King of Portugal, Manuel I, born in 1469, ugly, old, hunchbacked, and widowed for the second time. Eleanor of Austria was offered to him in 1517, and in September, she left Flanders accompanied by her brother for a long journey fraught with obstacles: burning ships, storms, crossing the Asturias towards Madrid, which was an arid and desolate country. On July 13, 1518, considered “a masterpiece, so wise, joyful, honest, and gentle in all things,” she married by proxy Emmanuel the Fortunate, becoming Queen of Portugal for three years, and would have a boy who died young and a little girl named Maria whom the Portuguese would want to marry off as they saw fit.

    Upon the king’s death in 1521, she left Portugal to join Charles V in Spain. Promised to Charles de Bourbon, on the condition that he manage to recover Provence or part of Italy, Charles V still hesitated. Bourbon was a traitor since he had entered the service of Spain. It’s not exactly clear what the young woman thought of this, but it’s certain that she wasn’t in favor of it.

    Eleanor of Austria, Queen of France

    In 1525, Francis I was imprisoned in Spain and signed a pact to be released: among other things, he would marry Eleanor (snatching her from Bourbon!). Charles V accepted (better to hold than to chase), but his sister would remain in Spain with the royal children until all the terms of the agreement were fulfilled, including the donation of French provinces. Eleanor and Francis I got to know each other during his illness, and she was even happy to hear that the Treaty of Madrid “gave her” to the King of France.

    A marriage promise was thus signed on January 19, 1526; the future spouses were allowed to correspond and met for the celebrations given in their honor, but everyone remained on guard. Eleanor was sincere, devoted real affection to the King of France, but was torn between the two men: she took care of the future Philip II (her brother’s child) and tried to soften the conditions of captivity for Francis I’s children.

    After the Ladies’ Peace signed in 1529, Eleanor became the new queen but found herself in a strange situation: sister of the enemy, a pledge of not-so-honest friendship, a sort of instrument for her brother. She finally joined her husband in 1530, accompanying the young hostages, but it was Cardinal de Tournon who welcomed her on July 1… the king waiting in Bordeaux, only coming to meet her on July 4.

    Testimonies in favor of Eleanor are numerous: “she was the most joyful lady ever seen.” Pretty, she was blonde with dark eyes, still fresh despite her thirty-two years, dressed in dark velvet, she adopted a white dress and a triple necklace of pearls, rubies, and diamonds around her neck. Nevertheless, she had the too-strong lower lip of the Habsburgs, and Brantôme added, “under a giant’s body, sloping downwards, she appeared a dwarf, so short were her thighs and legs”! Finally, on July 6, the king could embrace his children, greet the queen, and go to bed, for the next day was the wedding and the exchange of consents.

    A Neglected Foreigner

    They set out to travel up to Saint-Denis for the queen’s coronation on March 5. Arriving fifteen days late, she received as a gift from the city a pair of candlesticks topped with a phoenix with her motto “unica semper avis,” a bird that is reborn from its ashes, a symbol of her double royalty and her faithful love. She triumphed… but would quickly be sidelined, as her aunt Margaret of Austria had warned her: “it is necessary that she conduct herself according to the King’s will, that she act according to his desire… she will gain more through gentleness than by pressing too much.

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    ” Gentleness and docility!

    She thus expected consideration from the king… but she was quickly disappointed, even hurt: Francis I displayed his official mistress, which he had not done with Claude. He showed her no marks of affection, was not ready to give her a child (he already had some and did not want a half-brother for his sons). This marriage was part of the treaty that had to be obtained, the king harbored a great grudge against Charles V, and could not forgive: Eleanor was the sister of his enemy!

    Moreover, she was shy, reserved, and the king preferred strong-willed women. A maternity would have given her a place beside the king, but he didn’t want it, she wouldn’t have it. She turned to her “stepchildren” but received a very cold welcome: Henry still had not forgiven either. Only Francis showed her a little kindness: Eleanor was a foreigner!

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    Louise of Savoy was already dead, there remained Margaret her sister-in-law, with whom she had formed a bit of friendship in Spain during Francis I’s detention. But Margaret had just married Henry of Navarre in 1527 and had returned to Navarre. Of superior intelligence to Eleanor, they did not have the same culture, nor the same ambitions: there was a gulf between the two ladies.

    An Instrument of Parade

    At court, clans formed around the royal mistress, but not around the queen! She thus confined herself to her role of parade, following the king on his travels without difficulty, being in good health, holding her place in ceremonies, not always as Queen of France, but: as sister of Charles V!

    She would not succeed, however, in reconciling these two sovereigns! It was not for lack of trying in 1532 when she appealed to her sister Mary, widow of the King of Hungary, or again in 1535 during the talks at Cambrai. And when war resumed in 1536, Eleanor took it as a personal failure, especially as on this occasion the Dauphin Francis caught cold and died: Charles V was accused of assassination. She resumed her role as intermediary in 1538-1539 for negotiations between the two sovereigns and Pope Paul III to stop the wars in Italy… to no avail! These two men would never manage to reconcile, it was mission impossible!

    Her services were still needed in 1544 after the signing of the Treaty of Crépy to lead an important delegation (the young Duke of Orléans, the Duchess of Étampes) to the festivities in the Netherlands.

    Eleanor of Austria After the Death of Francis I

    Then came the coup de théâtre: Francis I died in March 1547. Informed two days later, Eleanor sincerely mourned him, even if some ambassadors took her tears for “propriety.” Good and pious, she had been his wife for seventeen years! With no one loving her, rejected, she could no longer stay in France. She returned the crown jewels (as was customary), Henry II offered her financial compensation (as was also customary), but there were no ceremonies, no farewells, no escort to leave the country for Brussels where she arrived in December 1548.

    She ended her life as a dowager, among her own (her sister, her nephew Philip, Maximilian II). In 1556, when Charles V abdicated and ceded the throne to his son, Eleanor and her sister accompanied him and settled near his retreat at the monastery of Yuste, in Spain. It was on her return from meeting her daughter Maria at the Portuguese border that she was struck by a violent asthma attack, so much so that she died in mid-February 1558, shortly before her brother, who would have a funerary monument erected for her at the Escorial.

    Eleanor of Austria never felt at home in France, as Anne of Austria would experience a few years later… except that Anne would have children! She did not have this chance! Worse: she would not be installed at Saint-Denis beside Francis I! Eleanor is truly a rejected queen, almost “erased” from French memory!

  • History of the Spanish Nobility in the 16th Century

    History of the Spanish Nobility in the 16th Century

  • Since When Do Westerners Use Cutlery?

    Since When Do Westerners Use Cutlery?

  • Henry VIII: Founder of Anglicanism and six-wife King of England

    Henry VIII: Founder of Anglicanism and six-wife King of England

  • Charles V: King of Spain and Germanic Emperor

    Charles V: King of Spain and Germanic Emperor

    Charles V (1500-1558) is famous for being one of the most powerful rulers in Europe, reigning over the Netherlands, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. Master of an immense empire over which “the sun never set,” the history of Charles V is unlike any other. Not only was he the first monarch to have a colonial empire in the newly discovered Amerindian continent, but he also benefited from a series of inheritances that placed him at the head of an immense domain in Europe. Throughout his reign, Charles V had to fight against France in the Italian Wars, the Ottoman Empire which invaded Eastern Europe, and the Protestant Reformation emerging in Germany.

    The Inheritances of Charles V

    The future Charles V was born in 1500 in Ghent, Flanders, not favored by nature but with a silver spoon in his mouth. French-speaking, he was steeped in the Burgundian tradition of the wealthy states of his father, Philip the Handsome, Duke of Burgundy, whose inheritance he received in 1506—Belgium, Artois, Luxembourg, southern Holland, and Franche-Comté. His maternal grandparents were none other than Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, the “Catholic Monarchs,” renowned for completing the Reconquista of Spain from the Moors, ruling over the Mediterranean, and overseeing the conquest of the New World initiated by Christopher Columbus in 1492.

    Charles V definitively inherited their lands in 1518, adopting the title Charles I of Spain. After sidelining his depressive mother, Joanna the Mad, he also faced resistance from the Spanish, who were not pleased with the arrival of a Burgundian ruler.

    To top it all off, upon the death of his grandfather, Emperor Maximilian I, he became Archduke of Austria, paving the way for his succession to the crown of the Holy Roman Empire, a crown he secured through considerable bribes to the prince-electors in 1519. His rivals, Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England, clearly saw the danger that this too well-born Charles posed to the balance of power in Europe and did not give him much respite.

    Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire

    Undoubtedly the most powerful ruler in Christendom, Charles V dominated a vast territory including the Spanish kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, the Italian states of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, the conquered territories in the Americas and Africa, the Netherlands, Flanders, Artois, Alsace, Franche-Comté, as well as the entire Habsburg possession. Faced with this new Habsburg power, the French ruler feared for his encircled lands.


    In reality, the unity of such an empire was only theoretical, as Charles, whose education was steeped in French and Catholic tradition, remained a foreigner in Spain, and even more so in Germany. This difficulty in uniting such vast possessions under one name was quickly understood by Francis I, who sought to exploit Charles V’s weakness.

    Charles V versus Francis I

    Charles V, who married Isabella of Portugal in 1526, ruled both the New World and the Old. His possessions and origins made him, above all, a European monarch. It was said that he spoke to men in French, to women in Italian, to God in Spanish, and to his horse in German.


    Crowned Emperor in 1520 in Aachen, likely dreaming of a universal empire based in Europe, with his motto—”Always further”—reflecting his ambition. However, his ambition was soon thwarted by numerous obstacles.

    To begin with, there was the obstacle of Francis I of France, a “thorn in his side,” as Charles had to traverse exhausting land and sea routes to reach his empire or move his armies. A fierce struggle ensued between the encircled French sovereign and the ambitious Emperor, lasting four decades. Despite some military victories—such as Pavia in 1525—the tenacious king of France did not give in, despite signing the Treaty of Madrid (1526), and both sides exhausted themselves in a series of wars that brought no lasting advantage to either.

    Francis I did not relent, and he struck back at Charles V by allying with Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, who posed a serious threat to Habsburg possessions by besieging Vienna in 1529. Charles found solace in adding Bohemia, Milan, and the Netherlands to his possessions but failed in his attempts to establish a foothold in North Africa against the Turks. In 1529, a precarious peace (known as the “Ladies’ Peace”) was negotiated by Louise of Savoy on behalf of the French king and Margaret of Austria for the Emperor, and signed in Cambrai.

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    Threats to the Empire

    During each conflict with France, Charles V sought to hasten peace to focus on defending the Empire from the Ottoman threat, in addition to dealing with internal religious wars. Sultan Suleiman I, after subjugating the Balkan Peninsula, declared war on Hungary in 1526 and won the Battle of Mohács the same year. Three years later, the Turks besieged Vienna. In 1535, the Genoese admiral Andrea Doria, in the service of Charles V, led an expedition in Africa, routing the Turks in Tunis and liberating approximately 20,000 Christian slaves.

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    In 1538, the Holy League was formed by Pope Paul III and the Republic of Venice. The alliance did not last, and in 1547, Ferdinand I, king of Bohemia and Hungary, Charles V’s brother, had to sign a peace treaty with the Turks.

    Another threat to the unity of his empire was the religious Reformation, which began and spread under his reign. Since 1517, the ideas of Martin Luther, followed by Calvin, had been spreading throughout Europe, aiming to profoundly change the practices and dogmas of the Church. The Reformation found support among German princes eager to resist the Emperor, who was constantly eroding “Germanic liberties.” They united in 1529 in the Schmalkaldic League. As Holy Roman Emperor and a devout Catholic, Charles V fought fiercely against the Reformation.

    Despite a military victory at Mühlberg (1547) over the rebellious Lutheran princes, who were conveniently supported by Francis I, Charles V was powerless to stop the spread of the Reformation in Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. This was even more true because papal authority was very weak at the time, an issue to which Charles himself contributed in his continuous struggles against France in Italy (the sack of Rome in 1526 during the pontificate of Clement VII).

    Ultimately, during Charles V’s reign, only the Netherlands experienced a period of growth, largely due to the commercial expansion of port cities such as Amsterdam and Antwerp. A political evolution also took place, with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 recognizing the existence of the Seventeen Provinces as an “indivisible and inalienable” entity.

    During his reign, Charles V ruled his territories in the spirit of humanism, with figures like Erasmus, Andreas Vesalius, and Pieter Bruegel the Elder. However, a dark episode occurred when a revolt broke out in Ghent in 1539, incited by the French monarch, and was followed by harsh repression.

    A Difficult End to the Reign of Charles V

    Little by little, Charles V sees his dream of a Universal Christian Empire fade away. Despite the fabulous riches his ships bring back from the Americas, France prevents him from geographically unifying his empire, whose borders are threatened in the Balkans by the Turks, and he watches helplessly as religious division takes permanent root in Europe. In 1555, weary and worn out by the incessant wars he must fight on all fronts, sick and embittered, Charles V shocks the entire European continent by announcing his intention to abdicate.

    It is a rare event, with the last precedent dating back to the Roman Emperor Diocletian. Clear-headed, he divides his vast empire between his brother Ferdinand and his son, the future King of Spain, Philip II. Having left his mark on the 16th century, he withdraws from world affairs to the Monastery of San Jerónimo de Yuste in Extremadura. He dies there on September 21, 1558, of malaria, taking his dream with him…

    As a side note, Emperor Charles V almost married Renée of France, daughter of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany, in his youth. One wonders what the fate of Europe might have been if, through the fortune of another fortunate inheritance, Charles V had added France to his collection of crowns through this union…

    KEY DATES OF CHARLES V

    March 11, 1517: The Emperor Maximilian, Charles of Habsburg, and Francis I Ally in the Treaty of Cambrai

    On March 11, 1517, Emperor Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire signed the Treaty of Cambrai with King Francis I of France and Charles V, King of Castile. This alliance stipulated that they would mutually guarantee their possessions and that they would fight together against the Turks. However, the latter clause remained very vague, indicating that none of the three sovereigns were ultimately willing to commit to a war that would have proven very costly against the Turks.

    August 3, 1518: Opening of the Diet of Augsburg

    The Imperial Diet held in Augsburg began on August 3, 1518, under the reign of Maximilian I. During this session, the emperor unsuccessfully attempted to have his grandson, Charles V, elected King of the Romans. He died a year later, in 1519, and was therefore unable to propose this idea again at subsequent Diets. Emperor Maximilian wanted to propose his grandson because his only son, Philip I of Castile, had died in 1506, apparently of typhoid fever.

    June 28, 1519: Charles V Becomes Emperor

    Charles I of Spain, aged 19, was proclaimed Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, under the name Charles V. This event marked the beginning of a long rivalry between the Kingdom of France and the Habsburg Empire. The emperor, who ruled an immense territory on which “the sun never set,” would abdicate in 1556 and retire to the monastery of Yuste (Spain). His empire would then be divided between his brother Ferdinand, who would become Emperor of Germany, and his son Philip, who would become King of Spain.

    June 7, 1520: The Meeting at the Field of the Cloth of Gold

    King Francis I of France and King Henry VIII of England met near Calais (Pas-de-Calais). This meeting was mainly about maintaining the balance of power in Europe and deciding what stance to take regarding the Holy Roman Empire, with Charles V having been elected emperor a year earlier. Now encircled by the emperor’s possessions, Francis I hoped to convince the King of England to form an alliance with France. To achieve this, he displayed all possible luxury and prestige to receive him at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. However, Henry VIII’s rapprochement with Charles V two weeks later erased all the benefits Francis I hoped to gain from this encounter.

    February 7, 1522: Treaty of Brussels

    On February 7, 1522, the Treaty of Brussels was signed, complementing the Treaty of Worms signed the previous year (1521). This treaty, initiated by Charles V, King of Castile and the Holy Roman Empire, recognized his brother Ferdinand’s possession of the five Habsburg states (Austria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tyrol, and Styria). Ferdinand was then appointed governor of Southern Germany, Tyrol, and Upper Alsace.

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    April 27, 1522: Francis I’s Defeat at Bicocca

    The troops of Francis I, under the command of Lautrec, were defeated by the forces of Charles V at Bicocca. France was then forced to abandon the Duchy of Milan to its worst enemy.

    June 19, 1522: Treaty of Windsor

    On June 19, 1522, the Treaty of Windsor was signed between Charles V, King of Castile and the Holy Roman Empire, and King Henry VIII of England. This treaty came at the height of the Sixth Italian War (1521-1525), mainly pitting the Kingdom of France against Italy, Spain, and England. It revealed an agreement between the two signatories to invade France.

    October 26, 1524: Francis I Takes Milan

    The French army, led by King Francis I of France, seized Milan, which belonged to Charles V. The next day, the French laid siege to Pavia, where Francis I would be taken prisoner on February 24, 1525.

    February 24, 1525: Francis I is Captured at Pavia

    While the French cannons of Genouillac severely damaged the Spanish enemies at Pavia, the king, in his haste and impatience to win, charged at the enemy ranks on horseback. Fearing to injure the king, the French artillery immediately ceased firing. The Spaniards took advantage of this and surrounded the monarch. Francis I’s army was completely massacred, while the king was taken prisoner along with several of his generals. Francis I was imprisoned at the Charterhouse of Pavia and then transferred to Spain, where he became a hostage of Charles V. Thanks to the signing of the Treaty of Madrid on January 14, 1526, he was released in exchange for Burgundy and after renouncing Italy.

    January 14, 1526: Francis I Signs the Treaty of Madrid

    Prisoner of Charles V since February 1525, Francis I signed the Treaty of Madrid to gain his release. He agreed to cede Burgundy and renounce all his claims to Italy. However, the day after his release, in March 1526, the King of France would disregard all the treaty’s clauses, even though he had left his two sons as hostages in Spain.

    March 17, 1526: Francis I’s Release

    Prisoner of Charles V since his defeat at Pavia, the King of France was released from his prison in Madrid. The treaty negotiating his release required him to cede Burgundy to the emperor and to send his two sons, Francis and Henry, as hostages. Francis I would quickly renounce this agreement and ally with the Italian princes and the pope in the League of Cognac against Charles V. The war would immediately resume until the Peace of Cambrai in 1529.

    May 22, 1526: League of Cognac

    On May 22, 1526, under the initiative of Louise of Savoy, mother of King Francis I, who was then imprisoned, a league was formed against Emperor Charles V. This league included Pope Clement VII and Henry VIII of England, as well as the cities of Florence, Milan, and Venice. The League of Cognac marked the beginning of the Seventh Italian War, which would last nearly four years.

    May 6, 1527: The Sack of Rome

    The troops of Emperor Charles V invaded Rome in retaliation for Pope Clement VII’s alliance with Francis I. For eight days, the city was looted and pillaged.

    August 3, 1529: Signing of the Peace of Cambrai

    To end the war between France and the Habsburgs, Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of Charles V, signed the Peace of Cambrai, or “Ladies’ Peace.” To seal this agreement, Francis I, a widower for several years, agreed to marry Eleanor of Habsburg, the emperor’s sister. Additionally, he regained Burgundy but again promised to renounce Italy. Finally, in exchange for a large ransom, the king’s two sons were released. However, the king’s resentment would lead to another conflict in 1536.

    January 1, 1530: Meeting between Titian and Charles V

    Titian was introduced to the emperor during one of his stays in Italy. He then painted his first portrait of the emperor. This meeting marked a turning point in the artist’s career. It was during this period that he devoted himself to creating many portraits, with great innovation and talent. He also had the immense honor of being appointed Count Palatine (the “Counts Palatine” were the only nobles of the Holy Roman Empire with the right to vote in the election of the emperor) and Knight of the Golden Spur by Charles V.

    February 23, 1530: Charles V is Crowned by the Pope

    On February 23, 1530, Pope Clement VII presented Charles V with the Iron Crown, one of the symbols of the kings of Italy. The next day, Charles V was crowned Emperor of the Romans in Bologna, and he would be the last Roman emperor to be crowned by the pope following the Carolingian tradition. A year later, in January 1531, his brother Ferdinand of Habsburg would be elected King of the Romans.

    June 25, 1530: Augsburg Confession

    On June 25, 1530, the Augsburg Confession was presented to Charles V during the Diet of Augsburg (the Imperial Diets in Augsburg were assemblies of various leaders of the Holy Roman Empire). This confession was a text that laid the foundations of Lutheranism, initiated by the monk Martin Luther, which gave rise to Protestantism. Written by Philip Melanchthon and Camerarius, the Augsburg Confession contained 28 articles. It was ultimately rejected on August 3, 1530, by Catholic theologians who refuted the text.

    February 27, 1531: Formation of the Schmalkaldic League

    The Schmalkaldic League was formed on February 27, 1531. The German Protestant princes, led by Philip of Hesse and later by Elector John Frederick of Saxony, revolted against Charles V and the implementation of the Edict of Worms, which sought to ban Lutheranism. Francis I, the great rival of Charles V (allied with the Turks against Austria), signed an alliance treaty with this league, which would lead to the Schmalkaldic War in 1545.

    July 23, 1532: Signing of the Peace of Nuremberg

    On July 23, 1532, the Peace of Nuremberg was signed, symbolizing victory for the Protestants of the Holy Roman Empire. These Protestants, united under the Schmalkaldic League, obtained Charles V’s agreement not to impose the Edict of Worms, thanks to this peace treaty. Signed at the end of the Diet of Regensburg, this peace agreement was intended to maintain the unity of the empire against Turkish invasions. This was yet another political compromise that had to be made by Charles V.

    February 4, 1536: Francis I Allies with Suleiman the Magnificent

    The King of France signs the treaty known as the “Capitulations” with the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. At war against Emperor Charles V for the possession of Savoy and Turin, Francis I relies on this unprecedented alliance—between a Christian nation and a Muslim nation at the time—to confront his enemy on the Central European front.

    June 18, 1538: Peace between Francis I and Charles V

    Pope Paul III signs the Peace of Nice on June 18, 1538, between Francis I and Charles V. The King of France and the Emperor of Spain had entered into conflict to seize the lands of the Duchy of Milan after the death of Francesco II Sforza. Paul III urges the two sovereigns to form a bond and launch a crusade against England and the Turks.

    January 2, 1553: The Setback of Charles V in Metz

    January 2, 1553, marks the failure of Charles V and his defeated army in Metz. Charles V had laid siege to the city of Metz since September 1552, aiming to reclaim it from the King of France, Henry II, who had made his formal entrance into the city on April 18, 1552. However, Charles V is defeated by the resistance led by François de Guise. This is a bitter setback for the Holy Roman Empire’s army, 60,000 strong, which is forced to retreat to Thionville.

    October 25, 1555: Charles V Abdicates

    On October 25, 1555, the German Emperor, King of Spain and Sicily, and Lord of the Netherlands, Charles V decides to abdicate. The ceremony takes place in the Coudenberg Palace in Brussels. He bequeaths the County of Burgundy and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II. Afflicted by gout and worn down by his conquests, Charles V had begun his gradual withdrawal from power starting in 1540. He retires to a monastery and dies of malaria in 1558.

    September 21, 1558: Death of Charles V

    As Emperor of Germany, Prince of the Netherlands, and King of Spain, Charles V dies at the age of 58 in Yuste, Spain. Since his abdication in favor of his son Philip II, he had lived in seclusion in the monastery of the Order of Saint Jerome in Extremadura. Son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna the Mad, he had inherited Spain and Latin America through his mother and the territories of the Holy Roman Empire through his father. He ruled this vast empire “where the sun never set” from 1519 to 1556, while waging incessant struggles to impose his hegemony and ensure the triumph of Catholicism.