This stunning opera house was built in the city of Harbin, known for its winter festivals. The building is located in a formerly marshy area near the Songhua River and blends organically with the surrounding landscape thanks to its flowing and curved lines.
The opera house covers an area of approximately 79,000 square meters (850,349 square-foot,) and consists of two halls: one for 1,600 spectators and another for 400.
Shanghai Tower
View from the Shanghai Tower observatory deck. Image: Wikimedia
Shanghai Tower is a majestic skyscraper in the city of Shanghai. The building stands 632-meter-tall (2,073 ft), with a total area of 380,000 square meters (4,090,300 sq ft). Upon completion, the tower ranked third in the world in height among freestanding structures.
The skyscraper houses corporate offices, entertainment and shopping centers, hotels, fitness studios, barbershops, laundries, shops, and all necessary living infrastructure.
1911 Revolution Museum
1911 Revolution Museum is a themed museum built to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Revolution of 1911 Shouyi, Wuchang. Image: Arch Daily
Wuhan is the largest city in central China by population. It is renowned for its history, which is reflected in the magnificent large museum complex built here in 2011. It attracts numerous visitors not only with its interesting exhibits but also with its unique architecture.
This complex, with a total area of 330,000 square meters, consists of five interconnected buildings. Several lower above-ground levels and one underground level house a shopping and entertainment center, while the 12 upper floors are reserved for office space.
The city of Ordos began construction from scratch in 2003. According to plans, it was designed to accommodate almost a million residents, but currently, it has a population of only about 20,000, leading to its nickname as a “ghost city.” The museum building is its main attraction, drawing tourists from around the world.
This multifunctional sports and entertainment complex is often called the “Bird’s Nest” due to its distinctive appearance. It was created ahead of the 2008 Olympic Games to host numerous sporting events, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. The construction of the stadium cost an estimated 325 million euros.
This hotel is curiously named “Horseshoe,” although it is actually a complete doughnut shape, with its lower segment located underwater, containing two underwater floors.
The building was designed by renowned Chinese architect Ma Yansong and completed in 2013. It cost the Sheraton chain $1.5 billion. The hotel ranks among the ten most expensive hotels in the world.
The National Centre for the Performing Arts is colloquially referred to as “The Giant Egg.” This unusual titanium and glass building is located in the heart of historic Beijing, near the famous Tiananmen Square.
The project by French architect Paul Andreu was chosen through a competition that attracted submissions from 69 of the world’s most famous experts. The large dome of the National Centre houses three performance halls: an opera hall (2,416 seats), a music hall (2,017 seats), and a theater hall (1,040 seats), all interconnected by aerial corridors.
This building is recognized as the largest standalone building in the world. Its total area is 1.76 million square meters, with a height of 100 meters (328 ft), a width of 400 meters (1,312 feet), and a length of 500 meters (1,640 feet).
The building has 18 floors and is almost entirely made of metal and glass.
Inside, there are shopping areas, offices, conference halls, a university complex, two shopping malls, two five-star hotels, an IMAX cinema, and a water park with an artificial beach.
This grand structure in Fushun resembles a ring, with an outer diameter of 170 meters and an inner diameter of 150 meters. At the top, there are observation decks accessible via high-speed elevators.
The Silk Road is a conventional name for trade routes in Antiquity and the Middle Ages that connected China with Western Asia, the Black Sea region, and the Mediterranean. The name is conventional because the most famous product was silk. Moreover, it was not a single road but three different routes:
The southern land route from China through Bactria or Sogdiana (Samarkand), and through the Parthian trading center Merv to Ecbatana, Seleucia on the Tigris, and Syria;
The northern route from China through the steppes of Central Asia, the southern Urals, to the northern Black Sea region;
The maritime route that connected the countries of India and Southeast Asia across the Indian Ocean with Arabia, the Persian Gulf, and Egypt.
Sea navigation in ancient times was coastal, meaning they sailed along the coast. The duration of these routes is known to us from the peripli — navigation guides that describe in detail the coastlines, distances between settlements, their sequence, the character and customs of the local population, and how they treated foreigners. The description of the waters from the modern Red Sea to the eastern regions of India is found in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. This route was fraught with many difficulties and risks, the main ones being storms and pirate attacks.
In ancient times, no attempt to sail continuously around Arabia succeeded, so goods traveling from China to Europe were transferred to other ships at intermediate points. It could take several years for Chinese goods to reach European markets.
A figurine of a Western merchant made in the Chinese state of Northern Wei. 386–534 years. Image: Wikimedia Commons
An alternative was overland routes. One way for Chinese imports to reach Europe was through caravan trade across the steppes. Valuable goods (such as silk, jewelry, and lacquerware) were typically accompanied by more ordinary and practical items (such as dishes and agricultural products). Additionally, the caravan did not travel directly from the point of departure to the final destination; instead, it stopped at several caravanserais where some goods were sold or exchanged.
Camels were the primary draft animals. The ancient historian Strabo wrote that they were used for transporting commercial goods, a fact confirmed by archaeological findings. Camel bones have been found in layers dating back to the 1st century CE in Greek cities of the northern Black Sea region, including Olbia, Panticapaeum, Phanagoria, and Tanais. A loaded camel could cover up to 100 kilometers per day. With the total distance of the route from Southeast Asia to Crimea being about 12,000 kilometers, such a journey could take around six months.
The existence of trade routes between China and Europe in ancient times has been confirmed by archaeological discoveries of Chinese mirrors, silk, and lacquerware found in the northern Black Sea region. In the late 1990s, remains of Chinese lacquered boxes were discovered in tombs from the end of the 1st century CE at the necropolis of the late Scythian Ust-Almin settlement in southwestern Crimea.
Together with gold jewelry, Roman bronze utensils, and other luxury items, they were placed in the graves of local elite women, serving primarily as markers of the high status of the deceased.
Christmas and Christianity have been illegal in China for almost a century, but a secularized version of the holiday has become popular in the country. In recent years, Christmas in China has taken on a Chinese flavor while still including familiar elements like trees and lights. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has banned Christmas on the mainland since 1949 and Christmas festivities of any type, even in houses of worship, are illegal on paper. The reason for this ban is to assist in the “sinicization” of the celebration of Western holidays and customs.
Christmas is not a national holiday in China, but it has been growing in popularity in the country in recent years. More than 20 million Christians in China celebrate Christmas with the same or even more fervor than their Western counterparts. Other (often young) Chinese people also celebrate a tuned-down but still flashy version of this holiday. But outside of the Christian minority, Christmas is not generally observed in China.
A Non-Religious Holiday: The festivities have nothing to do with religion outside of China’s Christian population which is around 2% or 23 million. It’s grown into one of the most anticipated yearly events in China’s metropolises.
It’s a Valentine’s Day: Many young Chinese people celebrate Christmas in the same vein as Valentine’s Day. This is the season for romanticism and dates. Chinese people go to ice skating rinks and amusement parks for Christmas. Japan also sees this holiday in a similar vein.
Marketable Quality: Promotional events are organized at Chinese stores and shopping centers to encourage customers to make purchases during Christmas. On Christmas Eve, you may have a Christmas supper at a restaurant. Many stores are decorated with Christmas trees, lights, and other touches as a Westerner would have come to expect.
Gift-Giving Tradition: One custom of Chinese Christmas is the exchange of apples as presents on Christmas Eve. In Mandarin Chinese, the word for “apple” (苹果 píngguǒ / ping-gwor) sounds very similar to the word for “peace”. This word is used for Christmas Eve and the carol “Silent Night.”
The Chinese New Year vs. Christmas
One other reason Christmas is less popular in China is that the Chinese New Year generally falls between January 21 and February 20. So, it’s hard for China to blend Christmas festivities with New Year’s festivities, unlike many other nations. To not celebrate something twice, China puts more emphasis on the Chinese New Year. The Chinese New Year spans across more beliefs and regions in China than Christmas.
Also known as the Spring Festival, it holds immense cultural significance, is deeply rooted in the country’s history and is tied to the lunar-solar Chinese calendar. It is a time for family reunions, akin to Christmas in Western countries. This tradition, spanning centuries, is the most popular holiday in China, lasting about 15 days.
In contrast, Christmas, a relatively recent introduction, is viewed more as a Western tradition. The practices during the Chinese New Year, such as giving red envelopes (to ward off evil spirits), reunion dinners, and house cleaning for good luck, are observed across the country, while Christmas practices, like decorating trees and exchanging gifts, are less common and mostly found in larger cities and regions with significant Christian populations.
The Chinese government has campaigned against religious observances like this due to its declared state atheism but more people in China continue to celebrate Christmas every year. They celebrate it in a manner distinct from Western customs, giving it a Chinese flavor.
Christmas Eve Instead of Christmas Day
In the West, Christmas Day tends to take center stage, while in China, Christmas Eve takes center stage. It is a time for young couples to exchange presents and organize romantic activities, similar to Valentine’s Day. “Christmas Eve dinners” are offered at restaurants and promotions are staged in stores and malls to encourage spending.
Typical Decorations
In big cities, like Shanghai and Beijing, there are typical Christmas trees, lights, and other decorations on the streets. But just a minority of Chinese households have a Christmas tree, and those that do often choose a plastic one decked up with paper garlands, flowers, and lights. Unlike in the West, stores are open during Christmas.
In China, Santa Claus is known as ‘Sheng dan lao ren’ (聖誕老人, literally “Old Christmas Man”), and he is seen as a secular person who resides in a mythical Arctic Christmas Village at China’s North Pole. A Santa Claus on duty can be seen strolling the aisles of a Chinese shopping mall, accompanied by costumed ladies. Because in China, Santa’s helpers are his sisters. It’s not uncommon for mail carriers in large cities to don Santa suits in the days leading up to Christmas. Even though not many people know about or comprehend carol singing, some individuals still do it.
“Christmas Greeting”
In China, there is a thing called “Christmas greeting.” On Christmas, Chinese people exchange greetings, which are referred to as 圣诞快乐 (shèng dàn kuài lè), simply meaning “Merry Christmas” in Mandarin.
Some Chinese Are Not Fond of Christmas
Over the last two decades, Christmas has been divisive in China, with some nationalists calling for it to be abolished as an incursion of Western soft power. The celebration of this festival, they say, might lead to the erosion of Chinese culture.
Christian influence, other foreign cultural influences, and contemporary globalization all contributed to the establishment of Christmas in China. Former colonial control in China (and the rest of Asia) beginning in the 16th century is responsible for introducing the holiday to several formerly non-Christian regions. For instance, being a former British colony until 1997, Hong Kong celebrates Christmas as a legal holiday.
Thousands of Protestant missionaries arrived between 1840 and 1949 in China, established schools, and introduced new customs, including Christmas. However, the Qing government’s (1636–1912) tense relationship with Christian missionaries resulted in occasional bans and other restrictions.
Christmas was not popularly celebrated until the 1920s, when it was given the name Shengdanjie (literally “birth of a saint”). Slowly rising currency rates after the economic reforms of 1978 sparked a renaissance of Christmas, notably in the 1990s. As the public learned more about the holiday, it was frequently divorced from its religious roots and celebrated primarily for its secular significance.
Shanghai and Beijing were among the first major cities to see Christmas decorations, with smaller towns throughout the nation following suit.
Why Does China Ban Christmas?
Christians have been present in China since at least the 7th century AD, according to the Xi’an Stele. However, after 1949, when the People’s Republic of China was officially established, Christmas was seen as a symbol of Western imperialism and was widely discouraged or openly outlawed. Christmas has been outlawed in China on many occasions in the last few decades.
The Chinese government is fond of banning Christmas in an effort to suppress religious practices with foreign influences. Authorities in the Chinese city of Langfang, Hebei Province, banned public Christmas decorations in December 2018, claiming the need to “preserve equilibrium” and prevent societal turmoil. An official document prohibiting Christmas festivities in schools was released by the Department of Education in Rong’an County, Liuzhou City, in December 2021.
There was a huge crowd waiting to see the mangos. They wanted to reach out and touch them, smell them out. The Beijing Textile Factory came to a halt on that August day in 1968. Hundreds of people filed in silence to the beautifully adorned altar where Mao Zedong had placed his gift. When the employees realized that Mao had really brought them a mango, they bent down before it as a show of their profound gratitude.
They gathered again a few days later. The employees once again formed a queue and waited. This time, a big pot of water was waiting for them upfront, and every one of them got a teaspoon. The liquid could have a hint of mango flavor if you let it linger on your tongue for a while. There was also a whiff of moldiness.
A mango parade. The fruit cult was a boon for the Chinese Communist Party’s propaganda department. Massive papier-mache mangos were wheeled through Beijing as part of the National Day celebration on October 1, 1968.
Many Chinese workers grew to associate the free mangos that Mao gave them with his dedication to the working class.
Mangos became a symbol of the “Great Chairman’s” righteousness, toured the nation like pop singers, were promoted as products, and were worshiped like relics during the brief but bizarre chapter of Mao Zedong’s deadly Cultural Revolution that started in the summer of 1968. Despite the reality that most of them were only dummies.
A bloody decade of torture and killing
Soldiers on the Chinese border examine a wax mango dummy. As this fruit had never been seen in China before, it piqued the interest of many locals. (Credit: Museum Rietberg)
Ten years of mass killing and torture had been unleashed by Mao Zedong’s proclamation of the start of the Chinese Cultural Revolution in 1966. He urged students and schoolchildren to destroy the existing Chinese Communist Party (CCP) structure on purpose so as to build a new one. Using acts of violence against dissidents, traditional cultural places, and religious organizations, the “Red Guards,” as the student groups dubbed themselves, spread “the Red Terror” across China.
The country was on the verge of civil war as “Red Guards” fought violent power battles with one another. Mao was unable to bring them together, so in the summer of 1968, he dissolved the “Red Guards” and established workers’ propaganda squads to carry out the Cultural Revolution in their stead.
When the members of the workers’ and peasants’ propaganda squad took back control of the Tsinghua University from the Red Guards in 1968. Mao rewarded them with 40 mangos.
In an effort to remove the Red Guards from Beijing’s illustrious Tsinghua University, he sent 30,000 manufacturing employees there on July 27. With spears and sulfuric acid, they fought back, killing five and injuring 731. The Red Guards were eventually overwhelmed and surrendered because of the large number of employees.
On August 4, 1968, the foreign minister of Pakistan, Mian Arshad, presented a box of mangos to Mao Zedong during a meeting. Mao decided to reward the worker soldiers at Tsinghua University by presenting them with 40 mango fruits.
Funding for psychedelic fruit consumption
Workers at a Beijing Textile Factory celebrate one of Mao’s mangos in October 1968. (Credit: Rainer Wolfsberger)
Only a small percentage of Chinese people were familiar with mangos. Wang Xiaoping, a contemporaneous witness, spoke about the fruit in 2013: “A few who were very well informed stated it was an extraordinarily rare and valuable fruit, like the mushroom of immortality, […] yet no one had the least notion what this fruit looked like.”
The reception of Mao’s gift was just as enthusiastic. The official party publication Renmin Ribao reported about the euphoria in Beijing on August 7, 1968.
Even though they were typically only wax dummies, mangos transported by special train to the provinces were sometimes anticipated by hundreds of thousands of people.
Almost immediately, a crowd formed around the attendees. They yelled and sang with unbridled fervor. Their eyes welled up with tears, and they prayed over and again that the Great Leader and Chairman Mao may have a long and healthy life. To disseminate the good news, they assembled work brigades and planned a variety of celebrations to last all night.
The propaganda coup was successful since the mangos were sent from the university to all the factories whose employees had participated in the July 27 coup. They saw the mangos as a sign of Mao’s approval and the end of the “Red Terror.” They were literally able to get their propaganda message out to the populace because of this.
To ridicule a mango is to face the death sentence
Soon, factories in Beijing started mass-producing fake mangos like this one so that they could give one to every worker.
Mao’s personal physician, Li Zhisui, said in his 1994 memoirs that when the arrival of the mango was celebrated at the Beijing Textile Factory, “the fruit was sealed in wax, hoping to preserve it for posterity.” Unfortunately, the decaying mango became immediately apparent. As a practical matter, the Revolutionary Committee decided to boil the spoiled fruit in a huge vat. Next, “each worker drank a teaspoon of the water in which the holy mango had been cooked,” as Li puts it.
Li claims that when Mao found out about the workers’ reverence, “he began laughing.” When seen in the context of Mao’s political career, this looks callous now, because just a few years earlier, he had precipitated a famine (the Great Chinese Famine) with the “Great Leap Forward” campaign that killed millions of Chinese and pushed others to cannibalism.
During the height of the Mao Zedong personality cult, buttons bearing images of the “Great Chairman” were widely distributed. From 1966 to 1971, China reportedly manufactured between 2.5 and 5 billion units.
Mangos were responsible for Mao’s rise to prominence in 1968, and he was eventually worshipped for them. Many manufacturers used formaldehyde to preserve their mangos, which were supplied by hospitals. During an interview in February 2016, Zhang Kui revealed that wax mangos, each with its own glass shrine, were created to give to each worker. Numerous fake mangos ended up in Chinese homes by the thousands.
Although many places of worship were demolished during the Cultural Revolution, a new path was being forged out of a yearning for spirituality. According to Li Zhisui, mangos were elevated to the status of holy relics. A warning was given to anyone who handled the waxed mango shrine improperly. According to the Daily Telegraph, in 2013, a dentist from a tiny community was hanged for deliberate disparagement after he compared a mango to a sweet potato.
Mango cigarettes are a hit
Two packs of Chinese mango cigarettes. In 1969, the Mango brand was the most sought after by Chinese smokers for lighting up a smoldering stalk. The company hoped to cash in on the fruit’s reputation as a panacea for longevity. (Credit: Museum Rietberg, Switzerland)
Mango mania quickly spread across the nation. Since September, all provinces have been receiving shipments of phony fruit. The mangos were treated like rock stars and sent on a tour on special trains. On September 19th, half a million people waited in Chengdu for one of the wax mangos to arrive, just as they had in other places.
The leading manufacturer of machine tools in Beijing even hired a plane to transport a mango to its Shanghai counterpart factory. The automobile that transported the fruit to the airport was followed by a crowd of observers and drummers. In Guizhou province, hundreds of armed peasants battled to the death over a black-and-white photocopy of a mango.
The Chinese Communist Party’s propaganda department capitalized on the increasing popularity of mangoes by creating a wide range of mango-themed goods.
The CCP’s propaganda machine benefited from the global mango frenzy. It mass-produced items including mango-patterned enamelware and washbowls, mango-inspired brooches and dressing tables, and mango-scented soap. There was a market for everything from mango cigarettes to mango-themed bedding. In addition, huge papier-mache mangos were wheeled through the streets on October 1 as part of the national holiday parade.
In little over a year and a half, the popularity of the mango cult began to decline. The disillusionment with the prospect of a world free of fear may have been a contributing factor. There was probably nothing more to it than mangos simply losing their exotic allure. Some employees even found a new use for the waxed mangos by turning them into candles.
A mango movie in 1976
Large parades honoring Mao Zedong’s mangos were held all around China in October 1968, not just in Beijing.
The ailing Chairman Mao, now in his dotage, made fewer public appearances as his health deteriorated. An effort to resurrect the mango cult in 1974 failed when Imelda Marcos, the wife of the Philippine dictator, delivered a box of mangos on a state visit to Mao, who was already wildly ill. Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing, had previously supplied fruit to the Chinese laborers and did so again. The expected excitement, however, never materialized; the mango’s formerly potent symbolic significance had long ago worn off.
Jiang made one last effort. She financed the 1975 film The Song of the Mango, about twins who join opposing “Red Guards” at the height of the mango craze. They came to terms with the fact that they must still acknowledge the proletariat’s authority, and, as a result, they welcomed the arrival of mangos with a joyous procession through Beijing’s streets.
As a member of the influential “Gang of Four,” Jiang was detained by the Communist Party’s left-wing within a week of the film’s 1976 debut, and all copies of the mango film were banned. Unfortunately, Mao did not survive to witness the mango show’s debut. His death occurred in Beijing on September 9, 1976, not much earlier.
Mao’s tomb was the subject of an architectural contest. The idea that the chairman should be buried under a massive concrete mango stood out.
Raging mad, Jiang Qing yelled into the microphone. Her eyes sparkled spitefully from behind her rimmed spectacles as she repeatedly clenched her fist. The Cultural Revolution in China was initiated by Chairman Mao Zedong in 1966. Jiang Qing, his wife, also had ambitions of seizing power. After proclaiming herself Mao’s “mouthpiece,” the lady promptly unleashed a public campaign of devastation.
Born in 1914, Jiang Qing tried her hand at acting first. In the 1930s, she became active in the communist movement and by 1939, she was married to Mao Zedong. She was a leading figure in the new administration that emerged after the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949, and she was much admired for her radical views and harsh stance on a variety of topics.
In addition to persecuting intellectuals, artists, and others who were seen as threats to the state, she was also responsible for the wholesale destruction of cultural and historical relics. Traditional operas and plays were forbidden, and books were burned at the stake. Many scholars, academics, and educators were publicly flogged to death.
Originally named Li Shumeng, Jiang Qing had been married to Mao for over 30 years at that point. Third-rate actress or not, her extramarital escapades were enough to make waves in Shanghai. Eventually, she had even Chairman Mao under her spell at the Communist Party headquarters in Yan’an. That day, all the other ladies in the room had short hairstyles and combat attire. Jiang Qing, on the other hand, decided to put on cosmetics and go dancing because she wanted to have fun.
Jiang Qing on the cover of a film magazine.
The other comrades found the young actress to be an annoyance. But Mao was already in her grasp. He ended his marriage to his first wife and married the stunning beauty in 1939. Jiang Qing, which translates to “green river,” was the name Mao chose for her. Mao was about twice her age since she was just 24.
Jiang Qing actually looked up to Mao like he was her real father. Her biological father was an alcoholic who was aggressive toward his children. She has been looking for acceptance ever since. She used every means necessary to get other people’s attention.
Mao’s betrayal
Jiang Qing’s agreement to the marriage was a huge bargaining chip for the communists in Yan’an. Together, she and her husband were banned from making public appearances for a minimum of two decades. She was also forbidden from engaging in any kind of politics. At least after then, dancing was tolerated at the Communist headquarters. During that, they also played a few love songs from Hollywood movies. But her husband, Mao, didn’t give a hoot about her. He slept with other ladies instead.
As a result of this humiliation, Jiang Qing acquired a ravenous appetite for power and a deep-seated hatred of her female rivals. She was not cut out to be Mao’s submissive second wife, particularly as Mao increasingly ignored her. Her feelings had long ago faded by the time the 1950s rolled around.
But there was nothing she could do; she was trapped. Beijing was her ultimate home. And she was stuck in her marriage to Mao Zedong, for better or worse.
A Cultural Revolution in retaliation
Jiang advocating the arts during the Cultural Revolution, carrying Mao’s Little Red Book, as seen on a poster.
However, Mao soon found that Jiang Qing was a useful tool in consolidating his influence in the state. His attempt to rapidly industrialize China had failed miserably. Up to 40 million people perished in the Great Chinese Famine caused by the “Great Leap Forward” effort in 1958. As a result, Mao stepped down from his presidency, while he remained a powerful figure behind the scenes.
During the Cultural Revolution, Jiang Qing was supposed to assist Mao to destroy his enemies. Qing was a key figure in the radical group known as the Gang of Four. She realized her time had arrived to emerge into the political limelight as Mao’s ally. She did this by obliterating the heritage that had once meant so much to her.
She said that anybody who appreciated classical forms of art, including opera, theater, music, and movies, was not a worthy communist. In the early 1960s, she started writing “model operas.” In each and every one of these dramas, the communist heroes ultimately prevailed over the capitalist antagonists. However, she reportedly kept watching Hollywood movies behind closed doors, as reported by witnesses in the present day.
“Sex is engaging in the first rounds”
The picture of Mao with a young Jiang Qing in Yan’an, 1940s.
Jiang Qing’s absolute dominance over Chinese culture finally earned her the respect and acclaim she had long craved. Even when Mao’s interest waned, she nonetheless continued what she was doing. “Sex is engaging in the first rounds, but what really sustains attention, in the long run, is power,” Qing offered her thoughts on the matter.
At Mao and Jiang Qing’s orders, the “Red Guards” terrorized the populace. A lot of people who used to be “comrades” but had fallen on hard times were put to death by the couple’s Summary Courts. By 1976, it was believed that two million individuals had been killed in these persecution efforts.
Ye Yonglie, a Chinese biographer, admits, “I once called Jiang Qing a ‘goddess of vengeance.’” In every aspect of her life, she was petty and vengeful. When she gained control, she made amends to all of her creditors.
White-boned demon
Jiang Qing’s blind animosity extended to the wife of Liu Shaoqi, who succeeded Mao as head of state in 1959. In Beijing, Wang Guangmei was shown to an angry crowd while dressed in the same outfit and high heels she had worn on a state visit. The ping pong balls were strung together to form a necklace that she wore around her neck. Wang Guangmei spent the next twelve years behind bars after her husband passed away while in police custody.
Jiang Qing, Mao Zedong’s widow, is shown here on December 5, 1980, sitting in the defendant’s box during her trial for crimes committed during the deadly Cultural Revolution that swept China from 1966 to 1976.
Even though she was widely despised, “Madame Mao” (Jiang Qing) rose through the ranks to become the first female member of the Communist Party’s ruling Politburo. She had hoped to succeed in her late husband’s position in the office, but that did not happen. Jiang Qing fell prey to her enemies after Mao’s death on September 9, 1976, the most prominent of whom was Deng Xiaoping, who would control China until 1997.
The former first lady was now widely seen as a “white-boned demon” by the general public. She was found guilty of many things, including murder, and condemned to death in a high-profile trial that was seen by millions across the world on television in 1981. However, the punishment was reduced from death to life in prison in 1983 because of the sensitivity involved in executing Mao’s widow.
Jiang Qing’s whole life was spent obeying Mao Zedong, and she stood trial in front of 35 judges, all of whom found her guilty. “I was Chairman Mao’s dog. What he said to bite, I bit.”
Jiang Qing was transferred from jail to house arrest in 1991. Cancer debilitated her and left her hopeless. For her, the country she had controlled was now an alien place. She made a noose out of handkerchiefs and hung herself in her bathtub ten days later.
As a result of the revolution, China is now a unified nation, no longer subject to the Western dominance that had been a source of turmoil since the late 19th century. But the conflicts inside Mao Zedong’s (1893–1976) ideology—between Marxist philosophy and a denial of modernity, between the building of a totalitarian regime and the wish to see the people rule themselves via a continual kind of activism—led to actual disasters. As a result, the Great Leap Forward sent the nation into the worst famine of the 20th century, which directly resulted in the deaths of tens of millions of people. The Cultural Revolution rapidly deteriorated into a bloody civil war. But even now, some thirty years after his death, the man who dubbed himself “The Great Helmsman” continues to reap the rewards of the personality cult he created. It is still difficult to tell the difference between the mythic fate of a legendary politician and the actual life of an authoritarian dictator.
Mao Zedong as a young man: From privileged peasantry to communist activism
Mao Zedong in 1927.
On December 26, 1893, in the town of Shaoshan, Hunan Province, west-central China, Mao Zedong entered the world. He was raised by a prosperous family of peasants. Nationalist ideals abounded in his locality, much as they did in China, which was experiencing a crisis at the same time. Mao Zedong, all 1.80 meters of him, wanted to join the nationalist army when he was eighteen years old. But the trial period ends up being too short, and he decides to enroll in Changsha’s standard school instead.
There was evidence to suggest that a young Mao had conflicts with authority figures, but this did not prevent him from graduating and becoming an assistant librarian at Beijing University in 1919. Upon moving to a city, a hub of learning, he educated himself independently in Western philosophy, in particular Marxism. But he also had strong ties to classic Chinese culture and drew inspiration from the past more than anything else. In Beijing, he came across literature and student activists.
Indeed, Mao was sympathetic to the revolutionary cause and took part in the Changsha uprising of May 4, 1919. The teenager wavered between socialism, nationalism, and communism. The last political hue to win his support was this one. So, he went to the inaugural Chinese Communist Party conference in Changsha on July 23, 1921, and spoke for his faction. He was a staunch supporter of these views and faithfully followed Soviet theory, but for practical reasons he declared his support for an alliance with the Guomindang (Chinese Nationalist Party). From 1923 forward, he served in the executive office during the United Front (an alliance between the Guomindang and the Chinese Communist Party).
Towards a new communist thought
This photo is the third version of the standard portrait of Mao Zedong taken by Hou Bo and Meng Qingbiao on the eve of the National Day in 1959. After the photo was taken, for various reasons, the picture could not meet the requirements for making a standard portrait, so it took a lot of post-processing to make the photo present to the public, and this became the only standard portrait of Mao Zedong without both ears showing.
For Mao Zedong, 1927 was a watershed year. In fact, the United Front was dissolved after a failed workers’ rebellion in Shanghai in April 1927, which provided an opening for Chiang Kai-shek, a leading figure of the Kuomintang. Following this, the Guomindang launched a massive onslaught against the CCP. The fighting between the two sides was the culmination of tensions that had been building for almost a year. However, the Guomindang proved to be an overwhelming force. Mao attempted to organize a peasant army to quell the rebellion, but his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.
After his failure, he was shunned by the CCP. Then, in the Jiggang Mountains, he established the first Chinese Soviet, where he could try out a different party structure and organizational model. A report Mao made that year, “Report on the Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan Province,” served as the impetus for the formation of this group. The CCP’s political policy at the time agreed with Moscow’s by making the proletariat the revolution’s backbone. Nonetheless, China’s industrial landscape was still in its infancy, making students a more fertile ground for revolutionary Marxism-Leninism than the working class.
Mao Zedong developed a peasant-based philosophy of communist revolution, focusing on the rural areas where he was raised. He had a romantic view of the peasant revolts and said they might form the backbone of a revolution to restructure food production. This was one of the major differences between Maoism and Russian Marxism-Leninism, which had never placed a premium on rural life. Expelled from the CCP for a year, he was eventually readmitted. Up until 1934, he assisted Zhu De in expanding his system across the area. But when the Guomindang army advanced, Mao had no choice but to retreat and launch the Long March.
This particular one takes place between October 1934 and October 1935, covering a distance of around 10,000 kilometers. Mao, weakened by malaria, hobbled along with the help of a nurse and a secretary. On several occasions, four men would carry him on a litter while an oilcloth shielded him from the elements. The Communists were able to escape the encirclement of the nationalists thanks to this treacherous and fatal adventure, which became a true myth later on. It also served as a vehicle for the communist message to reach the rural populace. In 1935, Mao’s leadership of the CCP was bolstered by this.
The proclamation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949
Mao Zedong proclaiming the new China. Source: /AP/SIPA
After years of experimenting with guerilla warfare, Mao Zedong bolstered it to its furthest extent, but the situation shifted in 1937 with the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War. From that point on, the civil war was halted to some extent, and the Communists gained valuable guerilla warfare experience by stopping the Japanese. During this time, Mao used his rising stature within the CCP to win over more people to his rural-based vision of communism. The peace treaty with the Guomindang that had been in place since Japan’s surrender in 1945 quickly crumbled. The Guomindang, still under Chiang Kai-shek’s leadership, withdrew and eventually crumbled in 1949, eventually fleeing to Formosa (Taiwan). The People’s Republic of China was officially established by Mao on October 1.
Now that he was at the pinnacle of authority, Mao set about reforming the nation thoroughly, although with some trepidation. He made an effort to improve relations with the Soviet Union, which he initially viewed with suspicion, and even embraced some of its policies. Despite China’s diplomatic isolation during the Korean War, Mao permitted Chinese “volunteers” to help the nation establish its military might. His paradigm of thinking is rooted in the peasants, but it has nothing in common with Soviet bureaucracy.
The announcement of de-Stalinization by Khrushchev accelerated Mao’s drift away from the USSR. The “Hundred Flowers” campaign, begun in 1957, was an attempt to win the hearts and minds of the educated elite. Everyone was encouraged to speak out against the CCP. At the same time that the opening was taking place, Mao was secretly putting in place a plan to increase his personal authority at the cost of the Party. Mao elevates himself above the latter by calling for its denigration, establishing a direct line of communication between himself and the revolutionizing masses. This same principle would justify the Cultural Revolution.
Mao’s Great Leap Forward
Sending government officials to work in the countryside, 1957.
The “Great Leap Forward,” Mao Zedong’s first major intervention, occurred in 1958. The goal was to completely restructure society by employing everyone in communal settings. This was envisioned as a replacement for the family unit and a means of increasing output. One further objective was to stop relying so much on the Soviet Union’s economy. However, the Great Leap Forward was overly ambitious, and it threw the economy, particularly the agricultural sector, into disarray. The catastrophe that Mao’s program became was made worse by the fact that he refused to admit it had failed. There was a horrible famine since production was inadequate. Mao Zedong was deposed by Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping 10 years after the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949.
Mao’s Red Book: The chaos of the Cultural Revolution
Cover of the first edition English version of the Little Red Book circa 1966.
Mao Zedong, however, would not surrender and instead made plans to return to the spotlight with his wife, Jiang Qing. Starting in 1966, they criticized an entrenched party for turning into a sclerotic adversary of the people and called on the young to rise up in a coup. The revolution must continue indefinitely if the rights of the people were to be preserved. This was the fresh insight Mao wished to impart to the populace. With the release of the Little Red Book, a genuine political education for Mao, hundreds of images of him were posted across the country. He became famous by riding the CCP to prominence. As he overthrew Deng Xiaoping, he also solidified the cult of his ego. However, until 1969, considerable unrest was generated by the Red Guards, an army of students. Mao personally called in the troops to quell the unrest and prevent a civil war.
Declining power against a backdrop of a cult of personality
Chairman Mao en route to Anyuan.
Mao Zedong’s political activities and communist beliefs earned him the nickname “The Great Helmsman” beginning in the 1970s. As an added bonus, the cult of personality was institutionalized for a considerable period of time. Portraits of the leader were widely disseminated, and anybody caught defacing one faced the possibility of a short jail sentence or possibly execution. From 1949 through 1962, Mao was never without his lone official photographer, Hou Bo, whose pictures were used to spread communist party propaganda.
The “Official Portrait of Mao Zedong at Tiananmen Square” by Zhang Zhenshi was printed in two billion and two hundred million copies during the Cultural Revolution and distributed all throughout the country. The 900 million copies of Liu Chunhua’s 1967 artwork “Chairman Mao en route to Anyuan” There was also an artwork by Dong Xiwen named “The Founding Ceremony of the Nation” and a song praising Mao titled “The East is Red“. This one depicts Mao’s proclamation of the new Republic, but Xiven paints over it whenever a major player in Chinese politics dies. The “Little Red Book” also contributes to Mao’s personality cult.
A large portrait of Mao at Tiananmen.
The leader’s influence, however, was waning. Therefore, Zhou Enlai, his Prime Minister, was responsible for restoring order and enforcing a more practical policy. More peace and order might be established as a result. Timonier’s influence dwindled as he declined in health, and he left politics in 1974.
Mao Zedong’s death
A state funeral is being held for Mao Tse-tung, and members of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army are paying their respects. Source: Associated Press
On May 11, 1976, Mao Zedong had a heart attack. On September 9 of that year, he passed away from Parkinson’s disease. Even though he had requested cremation, his remains were embalmed at the request of his political office. Afterward, on May 24, 1977, he was laid to rest in a mausoleum erected in his honor from November 24, 1976, until the present day in Beijing’s Tian’anmen Square. His political blunders led to genuine tragedies, including the deaths of nearly 80 million people, and his ideology led to the foundation of a totalitarian regime. The irony is that he is still revered in China since he was the catalyst for the country’s modernization and regaining of its independence.
Mao Zedong and his family
Mao with Jiang Qing and daughter Li Na in the 1940s.
Mao Zedong had four marriages. To begin with, he had a relationship with Luo Yixiu, whom he wed against his will when he was 13 and she was 17. Unfortunately, she passed away just three years into their married life. He married Yang Kaihui but eventually divorced her for his third wife. During the 1930s, nationalists had Yang Kaihui put to death. Among Mao Zedong’s wives, He Zizhen was the third and last. Jiang Qing (formerly known as Lan P’ing) was a 24-year-old actress when she married the leader in 1939; she remained by his side until his death and was a pivotal figure in the Cultural Revolution.
There were a total of 12 children born to Mao Zedong; just three of them are still alive and well now. He has three daughters, Mao Anying, Mao Anqing, and Mao Anlong, from his second marriage. And then, in his third marriage, he produced three males and three females. Then, in 1940, Mao’s beloved daughter, Li Na, was born to him and Jiang Qing. She had a prominent role in the Chinese Communist Party, but after suffering from despair, she withdrew from view.
In his latter years, Mao Zedong was no longer living with Jiang Qing and was heavily influenced by his numerous mistresses, particularly Zhang Yufeng. Mao Zedong’s family consisted of three members: brothers Mao Zemin (1896–1943) and Mao Zetan (1905–1935), as well as an adopted sister, Mao Zejian (1905–1929). When the civil war broke out, the Guomindang had all three of them put to death. Mao Yuanxin, born in 1941, was an important participant in the Cultural Revolution. He was the son of Mao Zemin and the nephew of Mao Zedong.
TIMELINE OF THE MAO ZEDONG
December 26, 1893: Born in Shaoshan, a village in Hunan province
Raised in a wealthy peasant household as the son of Mao Yichang and Wen Qimei.
1911: Mao Zedong joins the army
To help overthrow the Manchu monarchy and create the Republic, Mao Zedong enlisted in the nationalist army during the height of the revolution. But he didn’t like being a soldier, so he got out of it as soon as he could.
1918: Graduates from Changsha Normal School
But even though he struggled with authority, he was able to complete his education.
1919 : Mao was hired at the university library in Peking
As a self-taught person, he used this time to learn more. He studied Marxist ideas and Western philosophy, but he stayed true to Chinese customs.
July 21, 1921: First meeting of the CCP
Participating in the inaugural congress of the Chinese Communist Party, activists from different Chinese Marxist parties converge on Shanghai. Since the turn of the twentieth century, revolutionary groups in China have proliferated in response to student and public hopes for more freedom and modernization. Before turning against the Guomindang nationalists and achieving victory in October 1949, the CCP first collaborated with them. The future leader of the Chinese Communist Party, a youthful Mao Zedong, is among the participants. He was a very small player for a Changsha-based organization.
April 12, 1927: The Guomindang launched the offensive against the Shanghai insurrection
Chiang Kai-shek began his first large-scale battle against communism in response to a worker rebellion in Shanghai. The Nationalist leader’s fight against the Communists was successful and violent, just like this insurrection that was brutally put down. During the Northern Expedition, Chiang Kai-shek split with the Communists and successfully defeated the “warlords.” Mao led the Communist Party into conflict with Chiang Kai-shek’s authoritarian military regime beginning in 1934 and lasting for the next 22 years.
November 1, 1927: Mao settles in the Jinggang Shan
The Chinese Communist Party ousted Mao Zedong after the failure of the harvest uprising (Autumn Harvest Uprising) he organized. His first soviet was founded during his time spent in exile in the Jinggang mountains. Contrary to the Marxist-Leninist doctrines that had previously governed the Chinese CP, Mao turned to the peasants. His “Report on the Investigation of the Hunan Peasant Movement” was written during this period. His ban would end after a year. But what really gives him pause is the juxtaposition between the collapse of the urban insurrections and the stability of his rural soviet.
October 15, 1934: Beginning of the Long March
As Guomindang (Nationalist Party) forces advanced, communists fled Jiangxi. At that point, they would have to travel approximately 12,000 kilometers to reach Shaanxi. Mao Zedong became chairman of the Communist Party of China during this time.
October 20, 1935: End of the Long March
Rebel Communist forces commanded by Mao Zedong finally made it to Yenan in northern China after a year-long march across the country. Out of an estimated 100,000 soldiers at the outset, just 8,000 made it to the end. This trip not only saved the Communists from being captured by the Nationalists, but it also boosted the reputations of the survivors, most notably Mao. The communists would be able to relocate to other areas and keep fighting the nationalists.
October 1, 1949: Foundation of the People’s Republic of China
The People’s Republic of China was declared by Mao Zedong on the balcony of the Forbidden City in Beijing. After years of fighting between nationalists and communists, Mao, head of the Chinese Communist Party, finally ended the conflict. The “Great Helmsman” was elevated to head the government’s Central Committee. This advancement extends the Cold War into Asia. From 1949 until his death on September 9, 1976, Mao ruled China with an iron fist.
February 27, 1957: Launch of the Hundred Flowers Campaign
In a public address, Mao declared the commencement of an initiative to expand citizens’ rights to free speech. Since May 1956, he had been working on this effort to promote criticism of the ruling party. Ideally, he’d win over some smart people. However, this independence soon worked against the CCP, as they were seen as a new ruling class grabbing control. Unhappiness runs deep throughout the nation, giving weight to Mao’s calls for criticism and forcing the administration to back down. A short time later, persecution and mass deportations to work camps put a stop to the movement. The size of the Hundred Flowers movement foreshadowed that of the Cultural Revolution.
May 5, 1958: Mao’s Great Leap Forward
On the occasion of the Communist Party’s Eighth Congress, Mao declares radical changes in Chinese society. The CCP wanted to forsake the Soviet-inspired industrial program, so it embarked on a massive collectivization effort centered on people’s communes, which were more essential than any of the existing models at the time. One of the goals was to “stand on both feet,” or to boost manufacturing and farming. However, the worst famine in a century was caused by a genuine catastrophe. Between 15 and 30 million lives would have been lost in this one.
August 18, 1966: Beginning of the Chinese Cultural Revolution
Lin Biao, the Army’s commander, led a massive protest against President Liu Shaoqi’s revisionist policies on the streets of Beijing. Red guards, most of whom were students, marched with copies of Mao Zedong’s Little Red Book by the thousands. They damaged “bourgeois” institutions and vandalized monuments to the past as a way of rejecting Western influence. All of China’s major metropolises would be hit by this proletarian Cultural Revolution. As a result, it would have an impact on numerous communist nations.
September 9, 1976: Mao Zedong died in Beijing at the age of 82
Known as the “Great Helmsman,” he has been China’s leader since 1949. His death brought together the ultra-maoist “gang of four,” including his widow, and the reformists headed by Deng Xiao Ping. He was the theorist and practitioner of a unique communist approach, completely distinct from his great communist brother. The September 13 funeral would not be open to any foreign delegations.
Bibliography:
Wilkinson, Endymion (2018). Chinese History: A New Manual (5th paperback ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 978-0998888309.
Ng, Yong-sang (1963). “The Poetry of Mao Tse-tung”. The China Quarterly13: 60–73. doi:10.1017/S0305741000009711.
MacFarquhar, Roderick; Schoenhals, Michael (2006). Mao’s Last Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674027480.
Dikötter, Frank (2010). Mao’s Great Famine: The History of China’s Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62. London: Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0802777683.
Industrial robots are advancing at a rapid rate on a global scale. More than 3.5 million of them were present in 2021, and 500,000 more were added only in the previous year. China, whose robot density per employee has for the first time surpassed that of the USA, is seeing a particularly high increase in automation. Germany, ahead of Italy and France in Europe, has the most industrial robots per capita.
It has long been difficult to picture many industries—whether in the automobile industry, metal processing industry, or chemical industry—without robots. The majority of tasks that assembly line employees traditionally completed are now carried out by adaptive, machine-based assistants. Along with traditional robot arms, autonomous transport robots, and computerized manufacturing lines, they also include mobile 3D printers and robotic recycling assistance.
Country-specific robot density per 10,000 workers. (Credit: World Robotics Report 2022, IFR)
Record expansion despite the pandemic
According to Marina Bill, president of the International Federation of Robotics (IFR), robot density is a critical sign of how automation is developing in industrial sectors globally. Her team assessed how the overall number of industrial robots and their density, computed per 10,000 workers, changed in 2021 compared to earlier years for the World Robotics 2022 Report.
As a consequence, the surge in robots and automation has not halted, despite the Corona epidemic. 517,385 new industrial robots were deployed globally in 2021, an all-time record and a 31 percent increase over the year before. Annual robot deployments have more than quadrupled during the last six years. Another record-breaking average of 141 robots per 10,000 employees already exists globally.
In the top five is China
One in every two new industrial robots deployed globally was utilized in China in 2021, where the number of robots increased especially quickly. Nearly 270,000 new robots were placed in the country. In China’s industries, there are now more than a million industrial robots in use. The high level of investment in China is reflected in its quick robotic expansion, and there is still a lot of room for automation.
China has now officially become one of the top five most automated nations in the world, surpassing even the USA in terms of robot density. In 2021, there were 322 operating robots for every 10,000 workers in China’s industrial sector. China now ranks fifth in terms of the density of robots, after South Korea, Singapore, Japan, and Germany. With 274 robots per 10,000 workers, the United States comes in ninth place.
Despite this, South Korea continues to have the most automated sector, with 1,000 industrial robots for every 10,000 workers. The electronics industry and a robust automobile sector are the main drivers of this.
Germany has the largest robot density in Europe, yet even in this nation, 23,000 additional robots were added to companies in 2021 despite the epidemic. This is the second-highest number after 2018—a record year in which the automobile sector made significant investments—and it represents a 6% rise in new installations. In Germany’s industries, there are now more than 345,000 industrial robots in use.
This indicates that Germany has the fourth-highest robot density globally and that no other nation in Europe has as many industrial robots in operation as this one. The industrial sites between Flensburg and Munich are home to around 33% of the industrial robots in Europe. Around 38% of robots are employed in the automotive sector, which is followed by the metalworking sector, the chemical processing sector, and the plastics and chemical processing sectors.
More than half a century after the race to the moon, space is once again the venue for a rivalry. China is doing everything it can to become a superpower in space as well. Already, manned and unmanned Chinese missions have passed a number of milestones. But what does this mean for the rest of the world and the previously leading space nations?
The first landing of a space probe on the far side of the moon, a rover on Mars, and a manned space station in orbit: In recent years, China has caught up tremendously in space travel and is getting closer and closer to the previous leader, the USA. China’s government leaves no doubt that it is also striving for supremacy in space—whether in Earth orbit, on the moon, or on Mars.
At the same time, however, the political divide between China and Western countries seems to be widening, at least in terrestrial matters. As a result, a new competition for space may be brewing in spaceflight as well.
China as a new space nation
China has launched more probes and satellites in 2021 than any nation before.
Until just a few years ago, the U.S., Russia, and the EU were the undisputed pioneers in space travel. They launched the most rockets, sent space probes through the solar system, and carried the lion’s share of the International Space Station (ISS). But the skies have become more crowded in the meantime. More and more countries are launching their own satellite and space programs.
Enormous progress in a short time
At the forefront of this is China. President Xi Jinping is striving to make his country a superpower in space as well, and is well on his way to achieving this. After lagging behind the two major space nations, the United States and Russia, for a long time, China has now caught up. No other country has made so much technological progress in space in such a short time and in so many different areas. And no other country has such ambitious plans and such a good chance of implementing them.
“It’s becoming more and more clear how dominant China wants to be with regard to space and the space economy,” says Steve Kwast, a U.S. Air Force veteran and space strategist. “They see the profit margin, they see the economic revenue stream, and they see the national security implications.”
To achieve this, the Chinese government is investing huge amounts of money in the largely state-run space industry; more than 300,000 people are said to work for the Chinese space agency alone—far more than for NASA. In addition, there are semi-private companies working on behalf of the state.
From orbit to Mars
And the successes are impressive. Within a few years, China completed its own global satellite navigation system, Beidou, and set a new record for satellite launches in 2021. In one year, Chinese launchers put 55 satellites into orbit; the record previously held by the U.S. was 51 satellites in one year. The Chinese space agency is also already working on its own mega-constellation of some 13,000 Internet satellites.
China has also reached new milestones in the exploration of the moon and Mars. Chang’e 4 was the first space probe to land on the far side of the moon in 2019. In 2020, its successor, Chang’e 5 brought back to Earth the first lunar rock samples since the Apollo missions. In May 2021, China became the only country after the United States to successfully land a Mars rover on the Red Planet with its Tianwen-1 mission. The Zhurong rover has since been exploring an area in Utopia Planitia, a plain northeast of the landing area of NASA’s Perseverance rover.
China’s Mars probe Tianwen-1 with the Zhurong rover. (Image: China News Service)
China is now also competing with the U.S. and Russia in manned spaceflight. After launching its first astronaut in 2003, the country now operates a space station in low-Earth orbit, becoming the third nation after Russia and the U.S. to do so. In April 2021, the core module of the Tiangong station was launched into orbit, followed by the first laboratory module, Wentian, in July 2022. The second laboratory module, Mengtian, followed in October 2022. 14 Chinese astronauts have already spent time at the station as part of its construction and testing.
Just the beginning
For Xi Jinping and China’s space agency, however, this is just the beginning. They see an expanding space presence and space technology as an essential part of China’s development. “To explore the vast cosmos, develop the space industry, and build China into a space power is our eternal dream,” Xi stressed in a recent “white paper” on China’s space program. The space industry is a crucial element of the national strategy, he said.
Competition for space supremacy
For decades, things in space were largely cooperative and peaceful. Exploration of the solar system and research in Earth’s orbit were primarily characterized by cooperation rather than competition. Even old archenemies like Russia and the United States worked together on joint projects like the International Space Station (ISS).
However, this was not the case for China. Unlike Russia, which did maintain close relations with the Western space nations, the country remained relatively isolated even in space. For example, the U.S. blocked its participation in the ISS out of fear of industrial espionage by the Middle Kingdom or China. There was also little interest in cooperating on space probes.
Rival blocs
But the former pariah, China, has become a full-fledged rival. Thanks to its technological advances, China has also become a power in space that other spacefaring nations can no longer ignore. China’s undisguised striving for power, but also the Ukraine war and the associated conflicts between Russia and the West, have drawn new fronts—a new cold war is brewing.
As was the case a good 70 years ago, superpowers are vying for records, technologies, and resources in space. And as in the first “Space Race” in the 1950s and 1960s, two blocs with largely contrasting ideological and political views are facing each other. “One bloc includes more authoritarian states led by China and Russia, and the other is made up predominantly of democracies allied with the U.S. and “like-minded” countries,” Alanna Krolikowski of Missouri University tells The Guardian.
A new eastern alliance?
After decades in which Russia and China barely cooperated with each other in space, a new rapprochement between the two formerly communist states now seems to be on the horizon. There are declarations of intent for future joint projects on the moon and demonstrative mutual visits by Putin and Xi to their national spaceports. An alliance would bring advantages to both: China benefits from Russia’s greater space expertise and experience; Russia, in turn, could benefit from China’s greater financial strength and more advanced technology.
However, it remains to be seen how close this cooperation will actually be.
After all, Russia and China have another thing in common: Their governments are striving for global supremacy and a new old greatness for their empires. This also implies a more rivalrous than cooperative attitude with potential competitors. Some experts are therefore rather skeptical about the new “bromance” between Putin and Xi. The techno-nationalist attitudes of both states could stand in the way of genuine cooperation in space.
Return of the Sputnik trauma
For the U.S., long the undisputed leader in all areas of space, new rival China is a problem: “We are back to where we were in 1957. This is not a Sputnik moment in the strict sense, but it comes very close to its spirit,” U.S. intelligence expert Mike Rogers recently stated. “China is racing ahead in space, while we are unfortunately resting on our laurels, impressive as they may be.”
General David Thompson, vice chief of the U.S. Space Force, takes a similar view: “We are absolutely in a strategic competition with China, and space is a part of that,” he told in early 2022. China, he said, is expanding its space capabilities twice as fast as the United States. “If we don’t start accelerating our development and delivery capabilities, they will exceed us.”
The new space rivalry could become particularly problematic for the closest celestial body to us, the moon.
China’s plans for lunar missions
The lunar rover Yutu-2 and its mother probe Chang’e 4 completed the first landing of a man-made vehicle on the far side of the moon. (Image: CSNA/Siyu Zhang, Kevin M. Gill/CC-BY-SA 2.0)
Everyone wants to go to the moon. After a break of almost 50 years, the Earth’s satellite has once again become the focus of interest in space travel. The moon also has great strategic importance as a stopover to Mars, as a location for space telescopes, and as a lucrative destination for space tourists.
And here, too, China is playing a major role. China’s lunar program initially relies on unmanned probes to test and develop technologies and locations for later manned lunar missions. The first major success came in 2013 with Chang’e 3, the first landing of a Chinese space probe and small rover on Earth’s satellite. Chang’e 4 followed in 2019 with the first landing on the far side of the moon—the first space probe ever to do so. A satellite placed at lunar Lagrange Point 2 will serve as a relay for the radio signals; a second relay satellite is to be added in 2024.
Lunar South Pole as a priority target
This means that China is present even before the USA in a lunar region that is considered particularly suitable for future lunar stations. This is because data from orbital probes suggests that there could be 3-foot-thick layers of water ice in the deep shadows of some craters in the South Pole-Aitken depression located at the lunar south pole, an important resource for future lunar astronauts. Metals and other resources could also be found in the regolith of this region.
China plans to use the Chang’e 6 lunar probe to determine whether this is actually the case. It is scheduled to launch in 2024 and take samples from the South Pole basin and bring them back to Earth. The two follow-up missions, Chang’e 7 and 8, are also to land in this region and conduct geological investigations and technical tests there. Among other things, experiments are planned on the use of regolith as a building material.
But China also wants more than just robotic flying visits to the Earth’s satellite; its long-term goal is a manned lunar base. According to current plans, the unmanned construction phase for such a station is to begin around 2030, and the first Chinese astronauts could then land in 2036. According to the Chinese space agency, the lunar base will primarily serve research purposes and will also be open to other nations.
A joint lunar station between Russia and China
The first partner for this venture could be Russia. In the summer of 2021, the Chinese and Russian space agencies signed a memorandum of understanding for a joint International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). In July 2022, Roscosmos head Dmitry Rogozin told Russian broadcaster Russia-24: “We are now almost ready to sign the contract for a joint lunar base with China.”
In parallel, Russia has resumed its Luna program, which had been paused for nearly 50 years. In September 2022, the Luna-25 spacecraft was scheduled to initiate the Russian return to the moon, also landing in the lunar south polar region. The piquant thing about this is that the newly launched Russian Luna missions were originally planned in cooperation with the European Space Agency (ESA). However, the latter terminated the cooperation after the start of the Ukraine war. Luna 25 is scheduled to launch no earlier than 2023.
Dispute over the Artemis Accords
According to the report, lunar exploration is also seeing a new edition of the old space race, with the Chinese-Russian ILRS on the one side and the Artemis program of the U.S. and Europe on the other. The latter plan is to land astronauts on the Earth’s satellite again as early as 2025 and to launch a lunar space station into lunar orbit. This could threaten a conflict over lunar sites and resources, in part because space law has so far not contained any clear regulations for this scenario.
To change this, the U.S. has drawn up the so-called Artemis Accords, a set of agreements intended to regulate the dealings of various players on the moon. In the Accords, signatories agree to abide by the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, avoid mutual interference, share information, and use the most compatible technologies possible. “What we’re trying to do is make sure that there is a norm of behavior that says that resources can be extracted and that we’re doing it in a way that is in compliance with the Outer Space Treaty,” Bridenstine says. In addition to the U.S., 20 countries have signed the treaty so far.
But China’s government sees the Accords as an attempt by the U.S. to impose regulations on other space-faring nations, and China, in particular, that unilaterally benefit U.S. interests. “The Accords are an attempt to seize the moon for themselves and colonize it,” criticized Chinese military expert and commentator Song Zhongpin in the Global Times in 2020. Reports on Chinese state broadcaster CGTN were in a similar vein. However, there are also Chinese experts on space law who concede that international guidelines for lunar exploration and exploitation are needed and that the primarily bilateral accords could at least be a precursor to those.
In any case, one thing is clear: The next few years will see competition for lunar milestones, sites, and resources, and China will be at the forefront.
China’s new Tiangong space station
The Chinese space station Tiangong in July 2022, with the core module Tianhe in the center and the laboratory module Wentian on the left. Also docked outside are a freighter on the right and the manned Shenzhou space capsule below.
In parallel with the new race to the moon, the balance is also shifting in manned spaceflight in Earth orbit. After Russia and the USA as leading operators of space stations, China now also has its own space station in Earth orbit.
In principle, there was little else for the country to do because, in 2011, at NASA’s instigation, China was expressly excluded from participating in the International Space Station (ISS) because industrial espionage was feared.
Tiangong is modular and as big as Mir
Like the Russian Mir space station and the ISS, the Chinese Tiangong station has a modular design and is gradually being added to orbit. It orbits in low Earth orbit between 340 and 450 kilometers above the Earth, roughly the same range as the ISS. When it was completed in October 2022, the station consisted of a core module and two laboratory modules and weighed around 80 to 100 tons. In terms of size and weight, it is roughly equivalent to the former Russian Mir space station but has only one-fifth of the mass of the ISS.
The station’s core module, Tianhe, was successfully launched into orbit by a Long March 5B launch vehicle on April 29, 2021. The module, which is nearly 17 meters long, contains a service section with life support systems, a power supply, propulsion systems, and systems for position and navigation. The second part contains quarters for three astronauts, computer and control systems, and communications equipment. In addition, the Tianhe module has a docking system and a robotic arm.
The laboratory modules
On July 24, 2022, another mission brought the first of two laboratory modules to the station. This initially docked to the docking site located at the forward end of the core module so that the two modules are in line. However, subsequent transposition gave the approximately 20-ton laboratory module its final position transverse to the core module. Wentian contains quarters for three additional astronauts and space for scientific experiments, as well as a second robotic arm and backups for key core functions such as navigation, propulsion, and attitude control.
The Wentian laboratory module also contains the station’s future main airlock. Astronauts will disembark through it when they need to perform outboard missions. These will be necessary, for example, to maintain and service measuring instruments attached to the outside of the station in the future. The laboratory module has special holders for this purpose, into which large instruments can also be latched. These could include a small reflecting telescope from 2023 and, from 2027, a four-ton instrument for measuring cosmic radiation, which was developed with the participation of European scientists.
In October 2022, the basic structure of the space station was completed with the second Mengtian science module. This module contains additional space for experiments as well as an airlock for supplies and other payloads. Unmanned supply capsules of the Tianzhu type can dock with it. It is unclear to what extent the docking mechanism, which is based on the Russian system, is also compatible with the systems of the ISS and the space capsules of other countries, as, with many technical details, China’s space agency is keeping a low profile.
First ion propulsion system in manned space flight
Test of a Hall-effect ion thruster at NASA. Tiangong is the first manned space vehicle with ion propulsion. Image: NASA
The Tiangong station’s propulsion system is a major feature. In addition to classic thrusters, the Tianhe core module also has an ion propulsion system—the first manned space vehicle ever to do so. The four Hall-effect thrusters generate their thrust from a stream of positively charged particles, presumably xenon ions, accelerated by an electric field. A ring current of electrons controlled by a magnetic field provides additional thrust and neutralizes the ion current after it exits the propulsion nozzle.
The advantage of such ion drives is their small size and long operating life. They can generate less thrust than chemical thrusters, but a small amount of xenon gas is sufficient to propel them. On the Tiangong space station, the Hall thrusters are expected to operate for at least 15 years and maintain the station’s orbital altitude at a stable level. One disadvantage of ion propulsion, however, is the highly corrosive effect of the accelerated ions. To prevent them from damaging the thrusters and the space station’s hull, they are surrounded by an additional shielding magnetic field and a protective ceramic shell.
Other nations may also join in
At present, China’s new Tiangong space station is mankind’s second “outpost,” alongside the ISS, but it could soon be the only one. That’s because the ISS is already relatively old, and its funding is on the line. In the wake of the Ukraine war and increasing conflicts with Western countries, Russia has announced the end of its participation in 2024. Whether the International Space Station will continue to be operated then, and in what form, is still unclear.
In the future, however, Tiangong—the “Heavenly Palace”—could also become a place of international cooperation, the Chinese government emphasizes. Some of the scientific experiments currently installed on the space station are already being carried out in cooperation with other countries or were developed entirely by research institutions in Europe. Among others, Norway, Belgium, Switzerland, and Germany are involved. There is also particularly close cooperation between China and the Italian Space Agency. It is developing the cosmic ray measurement instrument, which is expected to be installed in 2027.
“After our space station is completed in the near future, we will see Chinese and foreign astronauts flying and working together,” Ji Qiming of China’s manned spaceflight agency said in a recent press conference. The participation of astronauts from other countries is guaranteed, he added. Whether and in what form this participation will take place, however, remains to be seen.
What also seems clear, however, is that if China’s rapid development in space travel continues at this rate, most other countries may have little choice but to join in. “The exploration of space will go ahead, whether we join in it or not,” said then-U.S. President John F. Kennedy in 1962 during his famous moon speech in Texas.
When the twentieth century began, China was suffocating beneath the weight of the major Western powers. To be sure, the nation was compelled to open up economically, politically, and spiritually to other countries following the Opium Wars and the Sino-Japanese War. In addition, a secret organization, whose members were termed “Boxers” by Europeans, revolted in 1899 in an effort to free the nation. The growth of Chinese nationalism would hasten the fall of the Qing dynasty’s Manchu monarchy and bring about more foreign involvement in China.
Why Did the Boxer Rebellion Break Out?
The Manchu Empire’s economy went into a deep slump in the middle of the nineteenth century, mostly because its administration had not kept up with the changing demographics and had instead stuck to its old ways.
As the rest of the world was swiftly modernizing, China retreated inside, clinging to practices and institutions that were hundreds, if not thousands, of years old. Canton was the only place in China where trading with other nations was legal, and even then only if a Chinese firm was involved.
After fifty years of unfair treaties between the Chinese Empire and foreign countries, the Boxer Rebellion broke out. In 1839, the emperor of China was so concerned about the impact of opium on his country’s people that he had British supplies in Canton destroyed. As a direct result, the British immediately began attacking, setting off the First Opium War.
China was ultimately defeated in the war, and as part of the Treaty of Nanking, five of its ports were opened to international commerce, and Hong Kong was ceded to the enemy. However, despite these benefits, the British were not content, and thus the Second Opium War erupted in 1856.
After being beaten this time, China agreed to let Christian missionaries and international delegations set up shop in 11 previously closed ports. As a result, a war was being planned against Japan while China, already weakened by the Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), found itself more influenced by the West. As expected, Japan has progressed and become more advanced.
Thus, it did not think twice before attacking its neighbor to assert its supremacy over Korea. In April 1895, China signed the unfavorable Treaty of Shimonoseki, ceding even more territory to its enemies. The Movement of the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, or the Boxer Rebellion, emerged from this time of crisis, submission, and discontent among the Chinese people.
Why Did the Hundred Days’ Reform Fail?
At the conclusion of these wars, the Russians, the French, the Germans, and the English split up China into spheres of influence.
In light of this embarrassment, the youthful emperor Guangxu surrounded himself with reformist intellectuals.
They convinced him that the only way the Empire could survive was to modernize. Although their changes were based on Western ideals, they were not well received by Empress Cixi or many other court officials.
They were set in their ways and would have none of the Western ways imposed upon them. Cixi staged a coup d’état and had the emperor locked up to put a stop to the uprising. This period is called the Hundred’ Days Reform. Guangxu was imprisoned at the Summer Palace when the empress took over the regency, and he died there in 1908.
How Does the Boxer Rebellion Start?
The empress’s actions and the ensuing outrage at the nation’s collapse served as the catalyst for the Boxer uprising. Members of the Yihetuan, a covert organization known as the “Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists,” were known as boxers by Westerners due to their involvement in holy boxing. Invading foreign delegations and missions at Cixi’s covert request, they murdered clergymen and ultimately the German envoy, Clemens von Ketteler, in June of 1900. The imperial authority soon declared war on the Westerners and publicly backed the uprising.
What Was the Reaction of the Western Powers to the Boxer Rebellion?
Germans, Italians, French, English, Austrians, Russians, Americans, and Japanese quickly assembled an invasion force.
The forces, led by the German von Waldersee, recaptured Tianjin with relative ease and then marched on to seize Peking on August 14, 1900. The insurrection was put down after 55 days, and the empress and her court departed the city.
What Were the Results of the Boxer Rebellion?
On September 7, 1901, the imperial government signed the Peking Protocol, agreeing to compensate the Western countries to the tune of 450 million taels (about 1.6 billion gold francs) for their involvement in the revolt. The popular Boxer insurrection, which had its roots in resistance to Western economic colonialism, ultimately failed.
For China, whose economy became more dependent on Western aid, the consequences were disastrous. The Qing dynasty’s reputation was damaged even more as a result of this occurrence. All the government changes that followed were too little, too late for China, and the traditionalists and the conservatives who had been the backbone of the country’s politics for so long. It was 1911, and the revolution was about to begin.
TIMELINE OF THE BOXER REBELLION
17 April 1895 – Treaty of Shimonoseki
In the Treaty of Shimonoseki (Japan), China accepted defeat after a short war with Japan. As a result of this pact, China gave up some territory in South Manchuria, the Pescadores, and the island of Formosa (later called Taiwan). In addition, it acknowledged Japan’s de facto rule over Korea and paid hefty indemnities to the defeated nation.
At the time, Japan was planning an assault on Russia in retaliation for Russia’s obstruction of Japan’s colonial ambitions. The stage for the twentieth century’s major conflicts was set in Asia. Starting next year, the area would be divided into zones of influence by the big powers (France, Russia, the UK, and Germany).
June 11, 1898 – Beginning of the Hundred Days’ Reform
Throughout his reign as China’s emperor, Guangxu was advised by a group of reform-minded scholars and intellectuals. In an effort to fight European countries’ attempts to divide China into zones of influence, these reformers overhauled the country’s government, schools, and economy.
With her considerable court power, she stymied her nephew and emperor’s initiatives while secretly supporting the work of groups like the Yihetuan, or “Boxers.”
June 20, 1900 – Boxer Rebellion in Beijing
As a result of the presence of foreigners in China, members of the secret organization Yihetuan, “Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists,” also known as “Boxers,” rose up in rebellion. Invading Catholic missions, besieging embassies, murdering priests, and ultimately taking the life of the German envoy, von Ketteler, were all tactics used by these men.
The colonial powers that had been in China since the Opium War of 1840 responded swiftly, prompting the departure of Empress Dowager Cixi from the capital.
July 14, 1900 – The Western army recaptured Tianjin
When the Boxer Rebellion broke out, the world powers with economic ties to China banded together to send an expeditionary force led by the German General von Waldersee to put down the uprising.
French, American, British, Russian, Austrian, German, Italian, and Japanese soldiers were also there. As an added bonus, the alliance faced little resistance when they invaded Tianjin on July 14, 1900. A month later, it would invade Beijing and put a stop to the uprising.
August 14, 1900 – End of the Boxer Rebellion
A multinational expeditionary army led by German commander Alfred von Waldersee landed in Tianjin and eventually captured the Chinese capital. After 55 days, it ended the siege of the European embassies in China by the Chinese nationalists.
The uprising that had begun against the alien presence two months earlier had finally come to an end. Cixi, the imperial grandmother, and her entourage escaped. However, a massive war indemnity was imposed on the imperial administration.
September 7, 1901 – China must compensate foreign powers
After the Boxer Rebellion gained momentum, the imperial government of China was pressured into accepting the terms of the Peking Protocol.
It had to make hefty compensation payments to hostile governments.
