In the parable known as the Blind leading the Blind Jesus uses the image of a blind person leading another blind individual, and both fall together into a pit. This parable is recounted in the Gospels of the New Testament in the Bible, both by Matthew (15:14) and Luke (6:39). It is hence assumed that both evangelists found the saying in the Q source, a hypothetical common source. The saying is also present in the Gospel of Thomas (Logion 34).
Content
In the version from the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is questioned by the Pharisees about why his disciples do not wash their hands before eating. Jesus responds that it is not what enters a person through the mouth that makes them unclean but what comes out of the mouth. When his disciples point out that these words offended the Pharisees, he tells them to leave the Pharisees alone, as they are “blind guides.” He states that if a blind person leads another blind person, both will fall into a pit.
In Luke’s version, the parable is presented in a completely different context within a sequence of various sayings of Jesus. Unlike Matthew, here, the statement is phrased as two rhetorical questions and is introduced by a short introductory sentence (“He also told them a parable: …”). Some interpreters consider the version with two questions as the more original form of the saying.
The Gospel of Thomas presents the saying in the form of a conditional clause, similar to Matthew.
Interpretation
According to Fritz Rienecker, blindness symbolizes the lack of spiritual understanding among the Pharisees. Following them and their deficient spiritual ideas leads to falling into a pit, signifying not entering the Kingdom of God.
” In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus demands that leaders of the disciple community must have sight, as only the sighted can show the way.
Artistic Reception
Various artists have interpreted the parable, with the most famous work being “The Blind Leading the Blind” (1568) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, displayed at the Museo di Capodimonte in Naples.
Elias Canetti, the Nobel laureate in literature for 1981, provides a description of this painting in the chapter “Simson’s Blindness” in the second volume of his autobiography, “The Torch in My Ear” (page 111). This painting, like Simson’s blindness, serves as a key motif in his novel “Auto-da-Fé.
Writer Gert Hofmann presented a narrative titled “The Blind Leading” (Darmstadt 1985), creating a masterful story inspired by Bruegel’s painting.
Similar Parables in Other Cultures
According to Wiefel, the image of the blind leading the blind has a proverbial character in antiquity and is already known to Plato.
Similar parables about the blind leading the blind are found in Indian religious scriptures. In the Katha Upanishad, it is stated, “So the fools, like the blind led by one who is himself blind, keep running in vain.”
Early Buddhist Sutras in the Pali Canon also employ the parable: “Suppose there were a row of blind men, each in touch with the next: the first sees nothing, the middle sees nothing, and the last sees nothing. In the same way, Bharadvaja, the talk of the Brahmins turns out to be a row of blind men.”
Modalism is a term coined in the 19th century (by Trinitarian opponents) to describe a position, as its followers claim, that is strictly monotheistic. In this view, God is defined as a unique and indivisible Spirit who manifests Himself to humanity in various ways (Hebrews 1:2; 1 Timothy 3:16; 2 Corinthians 5:19; John 14:8-9). God was manifested in the flesh as Jesus Christ for the purpose of redeeming humanity (1 Timothy 3:15-16). Before the term “modalism” was invented, this doctrine was known by terms such as Monarchianism, the belief in a single King or Monarch who is God, or Sabellianism, the heresy that St.
Basil the Great fought against in the 4th century. Oneness Pentecostals adhere to modalistic theology but prefer to use the term “Oneness of God.”
Modalism asserts that God is not an essence shared by three persons but rather one being in three modes at different times. Oneness Pentecostals, unlike Sabellius’ position, believe that in the Old Testament, God manifested as the Father, in the New Testament during the incarnation as the Son, and since Pentecost as the Holy Spirit.
Debate
Studying the spread of modalism in the post-apostolic age faced a major challenge due to the fact that the Catholic Church accepted the doctrine of the Trinity as a fundamental tenet of faith at the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. This doctrine remains crucial for Orthodox and Protestant churches today.
According to current followers, modalistic ideas likely gained notable traction among Christians in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Tertullian, an early Trinitarian, wrote one of his major theological works, “Against Praxeas,” specifically to refute this doctrine. It was in this document that Tertullian first used the Latin term “trinitas,” meaning Trinity.
It’s important to note, however, that earlier, Theophilus of Antioch had used the Greek word “Τριας” (triad) to express the union of the three Divine Persons.
In the work “Against Praxeas,” Tertullian remarks that “the simple,” whom he notes always constitute the majority of believers, are surprised by what he terms the “dispensation” (One God in Three Persons). Many modalism supporters interpret this as an acknowledgment that their belief was prevalent in the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries.
Praxeas asserted that Jesus is the only God who was manifested in the flesh to bring salvation to humanity and claimed that the only God is the Father. “The Son—and consequently, the Holy Spirit—are nothing more than names, forms of speech with which we refer to one being” (“vox et sonus oris”: Adv. Praxeam, 7).
The Council of Nicaea rejected opposition to the Trinity dogma, primarily confronting a conception fundamentally different from modalism, that of Arius. Arius argued that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was not the same as God the Father; instead, the one true God adopted Him as a Son in anticipation of His merits (Athanasius, Oratio contra Arianos I, 5-6). According to Arius, the Father is the only person of the Creator God, and he claimed that this was the original belief of the early Christians (Arius, Thalia).
Modalistic Monarchianism and Dynamic Monarchianism
Coronation of the Virgin, by Diego Velázquez.
“The word ‘monarch’ comes from two Greek words: mono, meaning alone, and arche, meaning rule, government. Monarch, therefore, means the one who exercises rule by himself, the one in whom the monopoly of power is concentrated; that is, it means the absolute king.” Thus, Monarchianism was a term used against the Trinitarian idea of God composed of three persons.
Historians have used the term Monarchianism to describe two completely different and doctrinally unrelated beliefs: Modalistic Monarchianism (or simply Modalism) and Dynamic Monarchianism. Modalism, also known as Modalistic Monarchianism, emphasizes that the King of the universe is one, and Modalism argues that God has manifested Himself to humanity in various ways. Modalistic Monarchianism identified Jesus Christ as God Himself (the Father) manifested in the flesh.
On the other hand, Dynamic Monarchianism or Adoptionism declared that Jesus was an inferior being and subordinate to God. It maintained that Jesus was a human being who became the Son of God because of the divine wisdom or Logos dwelling in Him.
Ancient Advoctes of Modalism
From the Post-Apostolic Age to the Council of Nicaea
-Prominent modalist leaders such as Noetus of Smyrna, Praxeas, and Sabellius. Noetus was a teacher of Praxeas in Asia Minor; Praxeas preached in Rome around 190 AD; and Sabellius preached in Rome around 215 AD.
Around the years 180-200 AD, Noetus of Smyrna argued that if Christ is God, He is also the Father because otherwise, He would not be God, as there is no God other than the Father. To defend his thesis, he mainly referred to Scripture texts on the Divine Unity and the union of the Son with the Father. Information about Noetus comes indirectly from the work of Hippolytus of Rome, Philosophumena, or “Refutation of All Heresies.”
A contemporary of Noetus was Praxeas, who preached in Rome and Carthage. Praxeas asserted that the only God is the Father. “The Son—and consequently, the Holy Spirit—are nothing more than names, forms of speech with which we refer to one being” (“vox et sonus oris”: Adv. Praxeam, 7). This is according to Tertullian (died around 225 AD), who wrote a treatise against Praxeas, from whom we obtain much information about the modalists.
Sabellius, originally from the Pentapolis of Libya, preached in Rome between the years (199-217) and gained numerous followers. Because Sabellius was the most prominent modalist, historians often refer to the doctrine as Sabellianism. Sabellius conceived that the fullness of Deity dwelled in Christ and maintained that the terms Father and Son were merely different designations for the one God, who, because He is the origin of all, is known as the Father, but concerning His appearance in the midst of humanity, He is known as the Son.
This explanation led to a conclusion by Trinitarians that if the Father and the Son were fully identified, then the Father would have been the one who suffered on the cross, once the Son as such does not exist. This theology was named patripassianism. However, it is questionable whether Sabellius advocated that Jesus died as the Father (in His Divinity), but rather, he taught that the death of Christ occurred in His capacity as the Son (or as a perfect man).
Hippolytus, who shared Tertullian’s ideas, accused Ceferino (who was the Bishop of Rome from 199-217 AD) of Sabellianism in his work “Philosopheumena,” along with Tertullian. They also accused Ceferino’s successor, Calixto (217-222 AD). In turn, Calixto accused Tertullian and Hippolytus of spreading false doctrines. Historian Adolf von Harnack, commenting on the conflict between Hippolytus and the bishops Ceferino and Calixto, stated that the Oneness of God was the majority position at that time, common among the ordinary people. Later, this belief was modified by the influence of speculation developed by Greek apologists.
They taught that the Logos (the Word) was distinct from the Father, leading to the formulation of Trinitarian dogmas in the 4th and 5th centuries.
Another Christian leader named Comodiano, who taught in Rome just before the persecution of Diocletian (245-313 AD), wrote poems infused with the teaching of the unity of God.
From the Council of Nicaea to the Beginning of the Middle Ages
In the year 336, a synod was convened in Constantinople, where Marcellus of Ancyra was exiled by the Catholic Church and accused of Sabellianism. The book that made him famous was his treatise against the Arian Asterius, the most important of his works.
Unfortunately, we do not even know its title. In a council held in Sardica in the year 343, it was asserted that Marcelo believed that the Word (or Logos) was God’s eternal plan for man; therefore, the Word only became the Son from the incarnation (as the Son is the Word made flesh). This contradicted the Catholic Church’s position that the Word was an eternal person who was with God from eternity. Marcelo also wrote other works against the Arians, but none of these have been preserved.
Photinus of Sirmium was a disciple of Marcellus of Ancyra. Photinus considered the Logos as God’s faculty to self-reveal or make Himself known to humanity. He emphasized that there was no “Trinitarian Son” or “Eternal Son” since the Son did not exist before being begotten by the Virgin Mary. This is because, in the Bible, the Son of God is understood as the manifestation of God in the flesh, as Christ, the perfect man. Against him, Audius, a Spanish Catholic bishop, wrote in the book titled “De fide adversus omnes haereticos,” addressing his followers as Fotinians (also known as Bonosiacs). In the Council of Sirmium in 351 AD, anathemas were pronounced against Photinus and his followers.
In the year 385, the Hispanic Priscillian (approx. 340 – 385) was tortured and beheaded along with some of his followers. The accusation against Priscillian was his rejection of the dogma of a God composed of divine persons, aligning with Sabellianist positions.
Some modern writers with a Pentecostal orientation find evidence that modalist doctrine existed among the Priscillianists (c. 350—c. 700), the Euchites (c. 350—c. 900), the Bogomils (c. 900—c. 1400), and the Cathars (c. 1000—1500).
Some medieval theologians had to face accusations of modalism from the ecclesiastical authorities of the time. For example, Peter Abelard (1079-1142), who founded and directed the University of Paris, was accused of Sabellianism after the publication of his work “Theologia Summi Boni.” Condemned in a provincial synod held in Soissons in 1121, he had to publicly burn his book and retire to a convent.
Protestant Reformation
Some Anabaptist groups, believing in the necessity of baptism in the name of Jesus within the plan of salvation, held modalist ideas. Michael Servetus (1511-1553) defended modalist-type ideas, such as Jesus being God without establishing any distinction between divine persons. He asserted that God manifested as Father, Son, or Spirit according to the occasion. However, he also claimed that the Son of God had not existed as such before Mary’s conception, only as the Logos or Word of God.
Oneness of God
Some Pentecostal churches, particularly those known as Oneness Pentecostals, currently profess the theology of the Oneness of God, which has been known since the 19th century as modalism.
Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) are permitted to celebrate Halloween since the holiday has a history with the Mormons. Despite the alleged legend of Halloween being the devil’s birthday, there is nothing in the teachings of the Mormon Church that would prevent a member from taking part in Halloween’s cultural traditions. It just does not approve of any celebration or promotion of bad deeds or worship. Whether or not Mormons choose to observe Halloween is entirely up to their own discretion.
Origin of Halloween
Old Halloween postcard.
Allhallowe’en, All Hallows’ Eve, and All Saints’ Eve are all the various names for Halloween which is celebrated on the 31st of October. It is the beginning of Allhallowtide, a period of remembrance for the deceased that includes saints (hallows), martyrs, and all the faithful departed, and occurs on the eve of the Western Christian feast of All Saints’ Day.
The ancient Celtic celebration of Samhain, in which people lit bonfires and wore costumes to scare away spirits, is the inspiration for this custom. The Samhain festival has roots that date back to 2000–3000 years. Trick-or-treating, jack-o’-lantern carving, parties, dressing up, and eating candy in modern celebration all have ancient roots.
The Mormon Church was officially organized in 1830 and Halloween in its modern form has been celebrated in the United States around the same time since the 19th century. Given that the LDS Church is based in the United States and has a history of participating in cultural celebrations, it’s likely that Mormons have been celebrating Halloween since the beginning.
How Do Mormons Celebrate Halloween?
Since pumpkins and other vegetables are often carved and put on display during Halloween, these customs are also observed by members of the Mormon religion. Mormons observe Halloween in the following ways:
Going to the Pumpkin Patch:Halloween is also a time for Mormon families to come together and have fun. Family Home Evening is a weekly family activity in Mormon traditions and some families choose to spend their night together at the pumpkin farm.
Pumpkin Carving: Picking pumpkins from a farm without carving them afterward would be pointless. Pumpkin carving is also practiced by Mormons.
Decorating the House: Some Mormon families also go all out with their Halloween decorations to add some merriment to their houses.
Baking Treats: Mormons also like to make Halloween-themed cookies and other snacks as one of the best Halloween traditions.
Clothing: However, Mormons try not to wear revealing clothing since they see their bodies as sacred temples.
Family Histories: Some Mormons use this time to investigate their family histories on places like FamilySearch.org, the biggest online database of freely accessible family trees, genealogical records, and related tools.
Not All Mormons Celebrate Halloween
Some Mormons prefer not to celebrate Halloween at all, while others do so in a fashion that emphasizes the gospel. In most Mormon communities, members celebrate Halloween by dressing up in costumes, hosting trunk-or-treat vehicle parties, and visiting neighbors’ homes to collect candy.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a firm stance against Satan worship, and some members of the faith are disturbed by the alleged violence that is supposedly connected with Halloween. Other families are also discouraged by the fact that the celebration is sometimes associated with revealing costumes (she-devil, Catwoman, etc.).
So, it’s fair to say that Mormons have their own special method of commemorating this festival while still adhering to some of the general customs associated with the occasion (such as carving and decorating pumpkins).
What Does the Mormon Church Say for Halloween?
The Word of Wisdom
Mormons observe Halloween in a way that is consistent with Mormon doctrine and the Word of Wisdom. Mormons do not participate in Halloween festivities that entail excessive alcohol use because they adhere to the Word of Wisdom. Instead, they usually do things like trick-or-treating, carving pumpkins, and having parties with their kids.
The Mormon Church provides a health code called the Word of Wisdom. In their belief, God revealed this to the Prophet Joseph Smith on February 27, 1833, and it is currently included in Section 89 of the Doctrine and Covenants. The Word of Wisdom promotes well-being by forbidding harmful activities and drugs. Specifically, alcoholic beverages are not allowed.
The Church’s Stance
The Mormon Church (LDS) does not ban its members from celebrating the cultural traditions associated with Halloween. The decorations for ward parties or holiday celebrations are not permitted in the chapel or on the outside of the building unless allowed by the stake president (a volunteer), according to the Mormon Church’s handbook. But these guidelines still don’t touch on Halloween per se.
Church officials haven’t spoken out against Satanism per se on Halloween, but they have spoken out against specific actions linked with the holiday. Elder Boyd K. Packer issued a warning to young people in 1989 to stay away from witchcraft and other forms of dark spirituality. The President of the LDS Church, James E. Faust, also emphasized this theme.
For Halloween-related outings like trick-or-treating, costume parties, and car trunk candy giveaways, the Family: A Proclamation to the World states that “Successful marriages and families are established and maintained on principles of faith, prayer, repentance, forgiveness, respect, love, compassion, work, and wholesome recreational activities.”
This would indicate that Mormons are free to participate in Halloween festivities so long as they don’t go against these values or normalize conduct that goes against the teachings of the LDS Church.
Origin of Halloween Traditions
Samhain festival.
Samhain was where Halloween customs involving skeletons and spirits also emerged some thousands of years ago. In Halloween depictions, death, evil, and fantastical beasts feature prominently, and black cats, traditionally linked to witchcraft, are also often seen around.
Beets and turnips
In the past, the ancient villagers used to cut and display beets and turnips in front of their homes instead of pumpkins. They were left as offerings on doorsteps and in graves in the form of carved skulls. The pumpkin became the standard once the celebration was brought to North America, where this food is more widely available. And most importantly, larger. Beets, turnips, and pumpkins helped make black, orange, and purple the traditional colors of Halloween.
Jack-O-Lantern
An ominous Irish tale served as inspiration for the well-known pumpkin lantern. Should Jack pass away, his mockery of Satan will deprive him of the choice between heaven and hell. Stuck in oblivion, Jack removes the flesh of a turnip and places charcoal inside to light his path. He has supposedly returned to Earth every Halloween since then.
Trick or Treat
Food collection by going door to door on Halloween has its origins in the Middle Ages. It is believed that trick-or-treating evolved from this custom. In return for ‘soul cakes’, the destitute would sing prayers for each family’s departed members. The children would later sing in exchange for money, fruit, or nuts.
Other Cultures That Celebrate Halloween
There are now many nations in the world that celebrate Halloween. Costume parties, trick-or-treating, pranks, and games are common Halloween activities in the United States, Canada, and Ireland. Different cultures commemorate the event in their own unique ways.
The dead are celebrated on Dia de los Muertos (the Day of the Dead) in Mexico and other Latin American nations.
Bonfires and fireworks are lit to celebrate Guy Fawkes Day on November 5 in England.
Tomb Sweeping Day is observed in early April in China. Ancestral tombs are to be visited and cleaned during this period.
Lighting candles and placing them on graves is a common practice in certain European nations.
In several African nations, the harvest is celebrated with music, dance, and food.
The History of Halloween
One of the world’s oldest festivals is Halloween, which is celebrated every year on October 31. It has its roots in Samhain, a celebration performed by the ancient Celts. The ancient Celts who inhabited what is now the island of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and northern France marked the beginning of the year on November 1. A time of year typically connected with human mortality, this day signaled the end of summer, the harvest, and the beginning of the dark, bitter winter.
The Celts thought that on the eve of the new year, the line between life and death blurred. Samhain was celebrated on October 31 because it was the night the dead were thought to return to Earth. Huge holy bonfires were constructed by Druids to mark the occasion, and people gathered around them to burn offerings to the Celtic gods.
Later, the early Church adopted the custom and Christianized it as All Hallow’s Day and its eve. All Hallows’ Eve, or Halloween, is the night before All Saints’ Day. Trick-or-treating, jack-o’-lantern carving, parties, dressing up, and eating candy have all become the foundations of modern Halloween celebrations.
Eleazar succeeded his father Aaron as the Jewish people’s second High Priest.
He played crucial roles in Jewish ceremonies, offerings, and decisions within the priesthood.
Eleazar, alongside Joshua, helped divide the promised land among the Israelite tribes.
His lineage continued through his son Phinehas and ensured priestly succession.
According to the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, Eleazar (Hebrew: אֶלְעָזָר, Elʽazar, meaning “God (El) has helped”) was a priest from the tribe of Levi and the second High Priest of the Jewish people, succeeding his father Aaron. Eleazar was Moses’ nephew. Elisheba, a member of the Judahite tribe and the sister of Nahshon, was Eleazar’s mother. Nadab and Abihu were his older brothers, while Ithamar was the name of his youngest sibling. On Mount Sinai, Eleazar and his brothers joined their father in being anointed as priests. Eleazar, Aaron’s son, married one of Putiel’s daughters and had a son, Phinehas, who succeeded his father as High Priest.
The Israelites’ wilderness journey is believed to have taken place around the 13th century BCE. Eleazar’s involvement as the high priest and his role in the allocation of territories in the Promised Land occurred during this period.
Eleazar’s Task
Eleazar served as a priest in a number of capacities for the Israelites while they traveled through the desert on their way to Canaan. Even though grieving was banned for the Israelites in this situation, he and his brother Ithamar resumed their responsibilities as priests immediately after their brothers Nadab and Abihu were killed by the retribution of God’s fire. Because God’s anointing oil was on them, they were confined to the front of the Tent of Meeting (Tabernacle).
In their first worship ceremony, they botched the sin sacrifice by letting the male goat burn to ash instead of being eaten in the Most Holy Place. Moses rebuked them for it, but their father Aaron eventually settled them down.
Eleazar took charge of the Levites guarding the sacred objects while on the road. Before the camp could move, Joshua, his father Aaron, and his brother Ithamar had to enter the Holy Tent to prepare the Ark of the Covenant for travel by removing the veil, wrapping it with a covering of dolphin skin, and placing it on a fabric that was dark purple.
Moses and Joshua before the Ark of the Covenant (by James Tissot, c. 1900)
In addition, a dark purple cloth and the serving dishes, utensils, and pitchers were to be laid out on the showbread table. It was intended to showcase the Presence’s bread. They then place a crimson fabric on top, a covering made of dolphin skin, and the poles of the Ark. The light source, its lamps, wick trimmers, trays, and oil containers were to be covered with a dark purple fabric.
The Kohathites were to come and transport the sacred furniture and all the holy artifacts once Aaron and his sons had completed covering them, just before the camp moved away; however, no Kohathite was to touch the holy things under penalty of death. Eleazar was also in charge of the regular grain sacrifice, the aromatic incense, and the anointing oil. Everything in the Tabernacle, from the furnishings to the holy items, was under his purview.
A Rebellion Against Moses
Eleazar was tasked with retrieving the censers from the flames and having them hammered into sheets to overlay the altar as a memorial for the Israelites after Korah, son of Izhar, son of Kohath (Kehath), son of Levi, and his followers rebelled against Moses and were swallowed by the earth while 250 of his followers were consumed by fire from God while holding their censers.
Eleazar was given a spotless, young red heifer that had never been yoked in order to use in the ceremonial cleaning water. The heifer was to be killed in front of him, away from the camp. Eleazar was then tasked with sprinkling the blood of the sacrifice seven times toward the entrance of the Tent of Meeting. After that, everything about the heifer—including its hide, meat, blood, and intestines—was to be burned in front of his eyes. Tossing cedar wood, hyssop, and scarlet wool upon the ablaze cow was Eleazar’s assignment.
Then he could enter the camp after washing his garments and bathing himself with water, but he remained ceremonially unclean until dark. A ceremonially clean man was responsible for collecting the heifer’s ashes and placing them in a clean location outside of camp. The Israelite community was obligated to save these items for use in the sacrificial water, which was used to atone for sins.
The Death of Aaron
Moses was told to take Aaron and Eleazar to Mount Hor as Aaron lay dying. Aaron died on the mountainside after Moses took his clothes and placed them on Eleazar. After that, Moses and Eleazar came down the mountain.
Moses and Eleazar were tasked with taking a headcount of all the Israelites who were at least 20 years old and physically able to serve in the military on the plains of Moab between the Jordan River and Jericho.
Eleazar helped Moses judge disputes, including the dispute between Zelophehad’s daughters.
The Urim and Thummim were used by Eleazar, the priest, to discern God’s will when Joshua, son of Nun, was anointed to replace Moses. Joshua would stand before Eleazar and Eleazar would utilize the Urim to ascertain God’s will for Joshua.
The Israelite army returned to the camp on the plains of Moab by the Jordan near Jericho with prisoners, booty, and prizes following their victory against the Midianites.
Eleazar, the priest, then addressed the troops that had set out for war, saying,
This is what is required by the Lord’s command that Moses gave you: ‘The gold, silver, bronze, iron, tin, and lead—everything that can withstand fire—must be put through the fire, and then it will be clean. But it must also be purified with the water of cleansing. And whatever cannot withstand fire must be put through that water. On the seventh day, wash your clothes, and you will be clean. Then you may come into the camp.
Instructing Moses, God said,
You and Eleazar, the priest, and the family heads of the community are to count all the people and animals that were captured. Divide the spoils equally between the soldiers who took part in the battle and the rest of the community. From the soldiers who fought in the battle, set apart as tribute for the Lord one out of every five hundred, whether people, cattle, donkeys, or sheep. Take this tribute from their half share and give it to Eleazar the priest as the Lord’s part. From the Israelites’ half, select one out of every fifty, whether people, cattle, donkeys, sheep, or other animals. Give them to the Levites, who are responsible for the care of the Lord’s tabernacle.
After the Israelites reached the land of Canaan, the Lord gave Moses’ successors, Joshua and Eleazar, the priest, the responsibility of dividing up the country as an inheritance for the various Israelite tribes. At the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, Eleazar the priest, Joshua, son of Nun, and the chiefs of the tribal families settled the inheritance for each tribe after Joshua had completed battling for the country of Canaan. The land partition was finalized at this point.
Eleazar was involved in the casting of lots to determine the allocation of the territories of the Promised Land (Canaan) to each Jewish tribe, ensuring that the allocation was done in accordance with God’s guidance.
Eleazar, Aaron’s son, passed away, and he was laid to rest among the hills of Ephraim, on a hill that had been granted to his son Phinehas. This spot probably lies in the Samaria neighborhood known as Awarta. The Israeli government restricts Jewish pilgrims to a single night’s stay around the 5th of the Jewish calendar month of Shevat (January–February).
Families of Priests
Zadok of Eleazar and Ahimelech of Ithamar were the two priests who helped David establish order among the priesthood. It seems that there were more family heads (chiefs) among Eleazar’s offspring than among Ithamar’s. Therefore, they separated them as follows: 16 family heads for Eleazar’s offspring and 8 family heads for Ithamar’s.
Since there were “holy leaders” and “leaders appointed by God” among both the descendants of Eleazar and the descendants of Ithamar, they distributed them fairly through random selection. In the presence of the king, the authorities, Zadok the priest, Ahimelech son of Abiathar, and the chiefs of the priestly and Levitical families, the Levite Shemaiah son of Nethaneel entered their names. Eleazar lost one tribe, and then the same happened to Ithamar.
The rotation order for these 24 groups was determined randomly, and it looked like this:
In Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem, Azariah, son of Johanan, worked as a priest.
From Amariah to Ahitub to Zadok to Shallum to Hilkiah to Azariah to Seraiah to Jehozadak is the family tree of Azariah.
Seraiah
When the people of Judah and Jerusalem were carried into exile by Nebuchadnezzar, Jehozadak son of Seraiah was among those who were captured.
Ezra
Ezra son of Seraiah son of Azariah son of Hilkiah son of Shallum son of Zadok son of Ahitub son of Meraioth son of Zerahiah son of Uzzi son of Bukki son of Abishua son of Phinehas son of Eleazar son of Aaron, the chief priest, was among the first to return from exile.
The author of the Book of Ezra, Ezra, came back from exile in Babylon. He was a scribe well-versed in the Ten Commandments that Moses had received from the Lord, Israel’s God. Because the Lord his God was with him, the king granted all his requests.
Jehozadak
Jehozadak son of Seraiah, the High Priest, also went into exile in Babylonia; therefore, he may have been a sibling.
After the Temple was rebuilt, subsequent High Priests also traced their ancestry back to Eleazar,
beginning with Joshua son of Jehozadak (ca. 515–490 BC).
Joshua’s son Joiakim, around 470–490 B.C.
Joiakim’s son Eliashib, 470–433 B.C.
Sometime between 433 and 410 B.C.E., Joiada, son of Eliashib, was expelled from the Temple by Nehemiah because one of his sons had married the daughter of Sanballat the Horonite.
Jonathan, son of Joiada, c. 410–371 B.C.E.,
Jaddua son of Jonathan, sometime 373–320 BC, during Alexander the Great‘s rule. Some people referred to him as Simeon the Just.
Phinehas son of Eleazar held the rank of High Priest in the household. However, during the reign of High Priest Eli, it was passed on to the family of Ithamar for reasons that aren’t totally known. According to Samaritan accounts, the descendants of Ithamar and Pinehas son of Eleazar fought among themselves and eventually split into two camps on Mount Gerizim, close to Bethel: those who followed High Priest Eli and those who did not.
The Ithamar family, descended from Eli the High Priest, held the post of High Priest until Abiathar, the fourth descendant of Eli, was removed from office by King Solomon, who then reinstated Zadok of the Eleazar family. This was the fulfillment of predictions regarding Eli’s family that had been spoken via the prophet Samuel.
According to the same Samaritan account, the line of High Priests descended from Phinehas was broken with the passing of the 112th High Priest, Shlomyah ben Pinhas, in 1624 AD. As a result, Ithamar’s kin once again assumed the role. Elazar ben Tsedaka ben Yitzhaq served as Samaritan High Priest in 2009.
Eleazar in Christianity
The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Eleazar on September 2, while the Armenian Apostolic Church honors him as a Holy Father on July 30. However, the Old Testament Bible mentions more than one person with the name Eleazar:
It is thought that the Ark of the Covenant was protected by Eleazar son of Abinadab.
Eleazar, son of Dodo, was a powerful soldier in King David’s army. His name is sometimes translated as Elhanan.
One of those entrusted with the sacred items brought to Jerusalem from Babylonia was Eleazar son of Phinehas.
In the genealogy of Jesus Christ contained in the Gospel of Matthew, Eleazar son of Eliud is included. Joseph was Jesus’ adoptive father.
Ancient loincloth used as underwear, documented in Minoan culture.
Mentioned in relation to Jesus’ crucifixion, but not historically accurate.
Theological debates influenced its representation in Christian art over centuries.
The perizoma was a kind of loincloth used as underwear in antiquity. The word comes from Greek: περίζωμα which means around the waist. The Minoan culture of Crete is where its existence was first documented. The perizoma is also a reference to the fabric that covered Jesus on the crucifixion, also called the loincloth of purity.
Perizoma and the Crucifixion of Jesus
During Jesus’ crucifixion, the Roman soldiers probably stripped him down to his linen underwear. However, it’s not probable that they draped a loincloth over him out of regard for Jewish modesty. Flagellation, in which the victim is stripped completely naked, was the ultimate Roman humiliation.
Before the 8th century, the perizoma was not shown in art.
Francisco de Zurbarán, Crucifixion (1627).
The fourth-century Gospel of Nicodemus makes mention of this quality:
“Jesus left the praetorium accompanied by the two [impenitent] thieves. When they arrived, they stripped him of his clothes, put a cloth around him, and placed a crown of thorns on his head.”
Perizoma as an Heirloom
The fabled Descriptio recounts how the ruler of Constantinople allegedly presented Charlemagne with Passion relics upon his return from Jerusalem. The Holy Lance and the perizoma were also there, as were a nail and a piece of wood from the True Cross.
The virgin’s clothing and Jesus’ swaddling garments were both revered artifacts. The perizoma is the only relic now housed in Aachen Cathedral. Charles the Bald relocated the others in 876 to the royal abbey of Saint-Denis and the church of Saint-Corneille in Compiègne.
The perizoma may represent Christ’s girdle, length, and other characteristics, making it a useful tool for dating crucifixion art.
The Fate of the Naked Jesus Figures
To emphasize his vulnerability, early painters often showed Jesus without clothes on. A colobium (lengthy tunic) or subligaculum (an ancient Roman undergarment in a thin strip of cloth like a thong) is what Jesus was often shown wearing when he began to be represented in Rome in the 5th century. This was despite the fact that it was Roman custom to crucify people bare-naked.
Throughout the century, this almost-naked, crucified man image, which dates back to the Hellenistic era, faded from view in the 500s. In 593, Gregory of Tours wrote about a dream in which Christ came to a priest called Basil, condemning his nudity and threatening him with death if he did not cover it up. This dream is recounted in Glory of the Martyrs.
Perugino, Crucifixion in perizoma (c. 1482), Washington, National Gallery of Art.
A colobium became a common iconographic theme in Eastern places vulnerable to monophysite influence; therefore, it has become common to see Jesus wearing a long tunic in his newer depictions. Because of this religious ban, depictions of Christ in his naked, simplified form have become uncommon in Christian art since the 11th century.
The Rise of the Perizoma
The claim that two Roman soldiers wore Christ’s clothing as their own sparked discussion in the Middle Ages. As time went on, painters stopped using the colobium in favor of the perizoma, starting about the 8th century.
In the 11th century, the perizoma reached its peak, giving rise to a variety of drapery styles, some of which assumed striking proportions in Romanesque art. Perhaps this represented a popular myth at the time that Mary ripped off a portion of her robe to hide Jesus’ nakedness at the foot of the cross.
Around the end of the 13th century, the Italian artist Giotto painted a translucent perizoma. Perhaps he mirrored the famous religious artifact, the Virgin’s Veil of Mary. However, this may also be an allusion to Augustine of Hippo’s rejection of Christ’s potentia generandi (“sexual power”) since the translucent perizoma shows Jesus with a sexual trait. The perizoma reverted to its original opaque state in the 14th century.
A big cross in gilded wood with Jesus Christ crucified in a perizoma. (Rundvald, CC BY-SA 4.0)
The initial theological justification for the “ostentatio genitalium,” or display of Christ’s genitalia, was to emphasize his humanity. However, his nudity was banned during the Council of Trent and the Catholic Reformation; therefore, this movement met resistance. These two groups disapproved of the concept that religious art should once again emphasize beauty and the nakedness of classical antiquity.
Plaster or lead perizoma (used for censorship) was applied to his statues, while opaque and subsequently transparent perizoma (used for censorship of paintings) were also used for this purpose. As the linen got increasingly see-through, the sex of Christ on the crucifixion became less obvious. Like the virtuosic lightness of the linen, it was selected to subtly but powerfully imply that Christ lacked the virile quality or was only gifted with a little, boyish sex.
However, there were instances of Christ being completely unclothed in depictions of the Passion even during the Renaissance era, as seen in Michelangelo’s well-known youth crucifix. Nonetheless, all of these efforts were just austere devotion.
Perizoma in Art
Jesus in perizoma, Gospel of Rabbula, 6th century.
The perizoma is only shown in a select few Christian icons. These are the paintings depicting Christ’s death on the cross, The Deposition from the Cross and the Pietà.
Other artworks include an ivory relief from c. 420–430, depicting the crucifixion of Christ in a perizoma; Perugino’s “Crucifixion” from around 1482, housed at the Washington National Gallery of Art; Francisco de Zurbarán’s “Crucifixion” created in 1627, which can be found at the Art Institute of Chicago; and Cornelis Schut’s “Deposition” from approximately 1630, currently displayed at Liège’s Grand Curtius museum.
Dirk Willems (d. 1569) was a Christian historical figure who represented the power of faith but also compassion. A Dutch Anabaptist from the 16th century, Willems gained notoriety for a heroic and unselfish deed that exemplified the beliefs of people who rejected religious orthodoxy. Dirk Willems became famous for a daring escape from prison in 1569 and a selfless gesture that ultimately led to his arrest, torture, and death as a martyr for his beliefs. He is featured in The Martyrs Mirror, a Dutch book that tells the stories of 4,000 Christian martyrs.
The Early Life of Dirk Willems
A native of Asperen, Dirk Willems joined the Anabaptist movement as a young man in Rotterdam. This meant opposing the practice of child baptism common among Catholics and established Protestants at the time.
However, he was arrested in 1569 when the Roman Catholic Church in the Netherlands condemned him for various heresies, including his persistent commitment to his new religion and the baptism of other people in his house.
Captivity and Breakout
After facing severe persecution from the papists, Dirk Willems was put into a mansion-prison. However, one morning, a rag rope let Willems, who had been locked up in jail, get out of his cell. This ingenious device let him scale the walls and cross the frozen moat to freedom. He evaded capture by a jail officer by skillfully navigating over Hondegat, a frozen pond. This pond went down as much as 30 feet (9 m).
The limited jail food had made Dirk noticeably lighter than a normal person and thus allowed him to move on the thin ice. However, his pursuer fell through and started drowning while yelling for help. As Dirk Willems was about to become a free man, his compassionate nature compelled him to halt and rescue his prisoner, yet this action insured that Dirk would be recaptured and eventually executed.
The pursuer had intended to let Dirk Willems go, but the burgomaster forced him to take him back.
Death Sentence and Public Execution
The original etching by Jan Luyken in The Martyrs Mirror, Book 2, page 387.
The authorities now decided to change his jail, locking him up in a tiny, strongly locked chamber at the top of a very tall church tower. The wooden leg stocks that likely restrained him at the time are still in the tower today. Soon he was being carried outside to be burned alive.
A panel of seven judges later criticized Dirk Willems for being too dogmatic in his convictions and found him guilty. On May 16, 1569, he was branded an obstinate and condemned to burning, with his property confiscated for the benefit of the monarch, Philip II of Spain (1527–1598).
It took four days for Dirk to be put to death by fire. The execution took place near Asperen, where the direction of the wind compounded his suffering by keeping the flames away from his upper body for a longer period of time. Dirk’s death was more agonizing than it otherwise would have been because of the smoke that the wind was blowing away.
According to eyewitnesses, Dirk Willems’ cries echoed for miles. The sound of his calls for aid reverberated all the way to neighboring Leerdam. A nearby mounted bailiff (a legal officer) became so moved by Willems’ plight that he pleaded for an immediate end to his suffering. Willems ultimately gave in, showing heroic resolve as he committed his soul without knowing whether or not his prayer had been heard.
Long-Lasting Impact
Dirk Willems statue in MHV, Canada, sculpted by Peter Sawatzky. (Image: SteinbachOnline)
Dirk Willems is seen as a hero in Asperen and is greatly respected by the Anabaptist, Mennonite, and Amish groups. A street in Asperen was recently named in Dirk’s honor.
His life inspired James C. Juhnke to create the book Dirk’s Exodus in 1989.
In 2018, a memorial commemorating his life and actions was revealed at the Mennonite Heritage Village Museum located in Canada. It was sculpted by Peter Sawatzky.
Dirk Willems’ narrative of selflessness stood as a symbol of the persecution of religious dissidents throughout the age of the Reformation and its conflict with the established powers. That is why we still know about his story to this day.
Dirk Willems’ story is significant not because of his religious beliefs but because of his willingness to walk to death in order to rescue his own enemy from certain death.
The Roman Catholic Church (now Dutch Reformed) that condemned Willems to death and the Hondegat Pond are still there today in Asperen. The French used dynamite to demolish the mansion, that once imprisoned Dirk Willems, in the early 1800s during the Napoleonic Wars, but its ruins are still visible. Asperen is now a serene community of roughly 3,000 people.
References
Bethelks.edu – The original etching by Jan Lurken.
Christians mark the day in 30 or 31 AD when the Romans crucified Jewish itinerant preacher Yeshua bar Yosef – “Jesus, son of Joseph.” But what does history know about the possible appearance of Jesus? The New Testament places the birth of Yeshua or Jesus (which came from Iesous in Greek), during the reign of the Roman Jewish client King Herod. Since Herod died in 4 BC, the birth of Jesus must have occurred earlier (contrary to today’s calendar system that would subsequently bear his name), most likely between the years of 7 and 4 BC. So, what did Jesus look like in real life?
The Birthplace of Jesus
Although the tale of his birth appears in two of the four canonical gospels, it may have been added as an afterthought to connect Jesus to the hometown of King David and the related messianic prophecy. Jesus’ hometown of Nazareth is a more plausible candidate for his birthplace (see also: Was the Star of Bethlehem Real?). There he was raised by his craftsman father Joseph (Yosef) and his wife Mary (Myriam), together with his [half] siblings, and Jesus was likely taught both the Bible and his father’s crafts.
What Did Jesus Look Like?
Christianity is the largest religion in the world today, but throughout the years many other sects and denominations have formed, each with its own canon of Scripture, rituals, festivals, and, of course, depictions of Jesus or the Christ figure. Jesus has been pictured in many ways, yet scholars cannot agree on a single one.
Yeshua or Jesus, the Jewish rabbi, was already transformed by the Romans into a European figure with a short Roman haircut and a Greek philosopher’s beard in order to fit in with their society.
Jesus was depicted as a shepherd with sheep to resemble Hermes, the herald of gods in Greek mythology. He also appeared as the ruler of the gods in splendid garments like Zeus or Jupiter.
Another depiction of Jesus is as the sun god (like Helios or Sol Invictus) with a chariot and aureole, a radiant light around the head or body. Last but not least, the Romans even depicted Jesus as a Roman emperor in armor and a purple cloak.
Various Depictions of Jesus
Below are historical depictions of Jesus’ appearance, popular images, and paintings in art. Some of them are among the oldest drawings of Jesus.
One of the earliest depictions of Jesus from the 3rd century AD, Dura-Europos, Syrian Desert.
The above depiction is from the 3rd century AD, and it was discovered in the border city of Dura Europos, which was founded in 300 BC in the Syrian Desert. The city was used during Hellenistic, Parthian, and Roman times.
One of the earliest depictions of Jesus is from the 3rd century AD, Dura-Europos, Syrian Desert.
The drawing shows Jesus without a beard, with curly short hair, a garment, and sandals. His legs still show a darker skin color, which is in line with the Middle Eastern desert people of the time. Jesus with white skin is the work of European artists.
Jesus as “The Good Shepherd” from the Catacombs of St. Callixtus in Rome, 3rd century AD.
From the Catacomb of Callixtus near Rome, the 3rd century AD depiction portrays Jesus as a shepherd with a long beard and carrying a flock of sheep on his shoulders.
This depiction shows Jesus with a light skin color, European clothing, and body proportions that varied according to the artist’s origin. The purpose of this drawing was to align Jesus’ status with the ancient Roman god(s) of shepherds, Hermes or Pales.
Jesus as a sun god on a mosaic under St. Peter’s Basilica, 3rd century AD, Rome.
The above mosaic from the 3rd century AD, found under St. Peter’s Basilica, depicts Jesus riding a chariot and wearing solar rays. In this mosaic, Jesus is depicted as the sun god Sol Invictus or Helios, which was the official sun god of the Roman Empire. He rides a chariot and scatters aureole lights around his head.
Jesus with a philosopher’s beard and toga on a Roman tombstone, c. 290–310 AD.
Approximately 290–310 AD, a Roman gravestone depicted Jesus dressed as a sage with a toga and beard. He is seen with the philosopher’s beard of the ancient Greek civilization, including their traditional clothing. Jesus is gesturing the hand of benediction with his right hand, which originates from Saint Peter and his ulnar nerve entrapment disease.
Jesus from the Catacombs of Saints Marcellinus and Peter in Rome, 4th century AD.
Jesus has a short haircut and is dressed in a Roman toga in a 4th-century AD painting in the Catacombs of Saints Marcellinus and Peter, Rome. The catacombs date to the same period. Jesus looks similar to his sun god depiction from the 3rd century AD.
The Catacombe di Commodilla near Rome, dating to the 4th century AD, depicts Jesus with long hair, a beard, and southern European facial features.
Catacombe di Commodilla near Rome, dating to the 4th century AD, depicts Jesus with long hair, a beard, and southern European facial features.
Jesus in the Roman basilica of Santa Pudentiana, c. 400–410 AD.
In the Roman basilica of Santa Pudentiana in Rome, about 400–410 AD, Jesus is shown enthroned as the ruler of the universe in the form of a god-king similar to Jupiter or Zeus in ancient Greek.
The depiction of Jesus in the tomb of the Roman Empress Galla Placidia, 5th century AD.
From the tomb of the Roman Empress Galla Placidia in Ravenna (5th century AD) comes a depiction of Jesus as a young man with a flock of sheep. Jesus was often depicted as a god of shepherds in ancient Rome, similar to Hermes or Pales.
Jesus as a Roman emperor with Byzantine armor and a purple cloak, 6th century AD.
Featuring Byzantine armor and a purple robe, this 6th-century AD mosaic from the Italian city of Ravenna depicts Jesus as a triumphant monarch. The wearing of a tyrian purple robe with gold thread detailing denoted a position of authority in ancient Rome. This is one of the rare depictions of Jesus with braided hair.
The Look of Jesus Varied Around the World
In response to the European Jesus, other nations crafted their own depictions of Jesus, tailoring his look to suit the norms of the local community in terms of clothes, hairstyle, traits, skin color, and facial features.
Local “Jesuses” such as the Ethiopian, Persian, Chinese, Korean, Haitian, Indonesian, Afro-American, or Indian Jesus evolved alongside the standard European Jesus with a fair complexion and long brown/blonde hair, although they have nothing in common with the original model.
Jesus of Byzantium in St. Catherine Monastery.
St. Catherine Monastery’s (565 AD) Icon of Jesus of Byzantium in Sinai. This is one of the later depictions of Jesus, as it is from the 6th century.
Chinese Jesus, 9th century AD.
A 9th-century silk artwork of Jesus from China’s Mogao Caves. The Mogao Caves are a network of 500 temples in Gansu province, China. The nearby city of Dunhuang is an oasis at a religious and cultural crossroads on the Silk Road.
10th-century Uyghur depiction of Jesus.
10th-century Uyghur depiction of Jesus on a banner for a Manichaean sanctuary in Qocho or Kara-Khoja. Also known as Idiqut, it was a Uyghur kingdom created in 843.
A 1220 painting of a northern European Jesus.
Bishop Conrad IV of Tann’s 1220 painting of a northern European Jesus for the Speyer Evangeliary. It is an illuminated gospel book dating back to the 11th century, also known as the Codex Aureus of Speyer or the Golden Gospels of Henry III.
Christ Carrying the Cross by Niccolo Frangipane, 16th century.
Niccolo Frangipane’s 1574 depiction of the European Jesus. The picture is owned by the Museo Carmen Thyssen in Malaga, Spain.
Islamic Jesus, 1580.
One of the rare examples of an Islamic Jesus. This is a Persian miniature from about 1580 depicting Jesus and his followers eating together.
Jesus, and John the Baptist, 1723.
This is a painting by Northern European artist Francesco Trevisani from 1723 depicting Jesus and John the Baptist. In this Italian painting, the appearance of Jesus is completely transformed into that of a European figure.
African Jesus, the 1900s.
Jesus and John the Baptist on the African continent, as seen in a 20th-century Ethiopian Psalter.
20th century Afro-American Jesus.
In a picture from the 20th century, Vincent Barzoni depicts an Afro-American Jesus. Barzoni is known for many of his similar depictions of Jesus.
Javanese Jesus, c. 1927–1930.
The Javanese Jesus is located at the Sacred Heart of Jesus Catholic Church in Ganjuran, Indonesia. The statue is dated to c. 1927–1930.
Chinese Jesus, 1930s–1940s.
The Chinese painter Bai Huiqun’s picture from the 1930s or 1940s depicts Jesus Christ of China with two ladies.
Haitian Jesus and John the Baptist in local dresses.
Haitian Jesus and John the Baptist in local dresses. A painting in the Cathédrale de la Sainte-Trinité of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, about the 1950s.
Korean Jesus, 1962.
Korean Jesus, as shown in a 1962 artwork by Korean artist Jang Un-sang.
Native American Jesus, 1997.
A painting by John Giuliani from 1997 depicts Jesus in Navajo garb as a Navajo Indian.
The Real Appearance of Jesus According to Science
Exactly how did Jesus really appear? We can’t say for sure since no one has ever painted a lifelike painting of him. However, it is possible to reconstruct the typical look of the ancient Jewish community in Galilee.
The genetic and anatomical examinations of bone findings allow us to make judgments about the likely appearance of Jesus. He presumably shared his family’s light brown eyes, wavy or curly black hair, and overall look with his close relatives.
The only way to know for sure is to conjecture, but given his cultural background, a short beard is also a safe bet. There are two more recent depictions of Jesus that may not be too far off the mark when it comes to his real look:
The look of Jesus according to an accurate reconstruction of a male Galilean.
The more likely appearance of Jesus while he was alive. This is according to the reconstruction of a male Galilean from the 1st century AD.
There is no way to tell for sure what Jesus looked like since neither his body nor any contemporaneous art has been preserved. Based only on bone discoveries and descriptions, all we can do is speculate on what an ordinary man from his native nation could have looked like in his lifetime.
Bas Uterwijk, a Dutch photographer, created this artistic recreation of Jesus.
The above image, on the other hand, is more of an idealized look at Jesus by a Dutch photographer named Bas Uterwijk. It is still more accurate than the European Jesus.
Egyptian mummy portrait of a bearded man from Faiyum, c. 161–180 AD
This antique portrait is likewise quite similar to the reconstructed image of Jesus. However, the man represented is not from Galilee. It is an Egyptian mummy portrait of a bearded man from Faiyum, Egypt, c. 161–180 AD.
Evidence from Today
The ancient Levantine culture was radically different from that of the present Western world. The ordinary ancient Israeli was significantly more brown than the average modern Westerner because they spent so much time outside working or traveling in the scorching Mediterranean heat.
This was particularly true of men like Jesus, who traveled a lot, while King Herod, who most likely spent his time inside, had a significantly paler complexion. This is especially apparent in the looks of some modern-day Israeli shepherds, who live much as their ancestors did:
A Jewish shepherd in the Judean Hills. (Photographer: SHP/Barry Searle)
The Appearance of Jesus at a Glance
What did Jesus look like in real life?
The exact appearance of Jesus is unknown since there are no preserved contemporaneous art or physical remains. However, based on historical and cultural context, it is believed that Jesus had brown eyes, wavy or curly black hair, and shared physical characteristics with his close relatives from the ancient Jewish community in Galilee. He likely had a short beard as well.
How was Jesus depicted in different cultures and eras?
Jesus has been depicted in various ways throughout history and in different cultural contexts. In European depictions, he was often portrayed with fair skin, long brown/blonde hair, and European clothing. In Roman depictions, Jesus was depicted as a god of shepherd, a sun god, and even as a Roman emperor.
Are there any scientific reconstructions of Jesus’ appearance?
While there is no definitive scientific reconstruction of Jesus’ appearance, some attempts have been made based on genetic and anatomical examinations of bone findings and the typical look of the ancient Jewish community in Galilee.
Is there any contemporary evidence supporting the appearance of Jesus?
The ancient Levantine culture, including ancient Israel, had people with darker complexions due to spending significant time outdoors in the Mediterranean heat. Based on this, modern-day Israeli shepherds, who maintain a similar lifestyle to their ancestors, can offer some insight into the possible appearance of Jesus.
How did the depiction of Jesus evolve over time?
The depiction of Jesus has evolved throughout history as different cultures and artistic styles emerged. Early depictions, such as those from the 3rd century AD, showed Jesus with shorter hair, a garment, and sandals, reflecting the cultural context of the time. Later, during the Roman period, Jesus was depicted as a shepherd, a sun god, and even as a Roman emperor, incorporating elements from Greco-Roman mythology and imperial imagery.
The symbolism of the sword of Archangel Michael is most significant in the Christian faith. Because of his position as a guardian and defender of God’s people, Archangel Michael is often represented in Christian art with his sword. The tradition has it that his sword has heavenly power and symbolizes the victory of good over evil. The Bible does not mention the sword of Archangel Michael, but it gives clues about it.
What is the Origin of the Sword of Archangel Michael?
The sword of Archangel Michael in a Serbia monastery.
Michael is first mentioned in the Book of Enoch, a Jewish apocalyptic book written in the 3rd century BC. Along with Raphael, Gabriel, and Phanuel, he is one of the four archangels that serve the Lord of Spirits and he is in charge of them. There is no mention of a sword.
In the Bible, Michael is referenced five times by name. However, the sword of Archangel Michael is also never mentioned. But in some verses, Michael is portrayed as a warrior and prince who fought demons and dragons. This has created the knighthood image of Archangel Michael wielding a sword:
“And there was war in heaven: Michael and his angels fought against the dragon; and the dragon fought and his angels,”
Revelation 12:7-8
Archangel Michael’s archon, depicting his sword.
Michael and the dragon (Satan) engage in combat in this verse, with Michael emerging triumphant and casting Satan to the earth. Although the sword of Archangel Michael is not specifically named in the scripture, it is commonly held that it is a component of Michael’s heavenly weapon and is used by him in his battles against the forces of evil.
Also, in Daniel 10:13, Gabriel says,
“…but the prince of the kingdom of Persia stood in my way for twenty-one days, until finally Michael, one of the chief princes, came to help me.”
The Serbian Orthodox Church in Trieste has a mosaic of Archangel Michael with a sword and scale. (Gmihail, CC-BY-3.0)
In biblical art and literature, Archangel Michael’s sword is depicted in numerous different styles. As a representation of his authority and his function as a guardian of the faithful, Archangel Michael is often seen brandishing a flaming sword.
“After he drove the man out, he placed on the east side of the Garden of Eden cherubim and a flaming sword flashing back and forth to guard the way to the tree of life.”
Genesis 3:24
In the verse, it is the Archangel Jophiel (leader of the cherubim) who wields the flaming sword and according to others, it is the Archangel Michael.
Archangel Michael with his flaming sword. A stained-glass work by Franz Mayer & Co. The shield reads Quis ut Deus? or “Who is like God?’. (Image: Workman, CC BY-SA 4.0)
The flaming sword has a reputation for having divine power and the ability to vanquish evil. In some of his artwork, his swords have religious motifs like crosses or stars. This is designed to represent the fact that God created the sword and that God’s power flows through it.
The sword’s blazing appearance symbolizes the divine’s capacity to cleanse and destroy evil, while its shape as a sword symbolizes the guardian angel’s tenacity.
The Specifications of Michael’s Sword
The sword of Archangel Michael’s exact dimensions and materials are unknown since they were never stated in the Bible and other religious books. The significance of the sword as a symbol goes beyond its physical attributes because of its heavenly origin and link to the Archangel Michael.
A long, straight sword with a pointed tip and a hilt or grip that is sometimes ornately decorated is the standard edged sword of Michael shown in biblical art. Its sanctity is emphasized by depictions of it bathed in celestial light.
This is what Archangel Michael’s sword might look like.
The sword of Archangel Michael is supposed to have supernatural abilities in several myths and tales, including the ability to destroy evil and shield its wielder from harm. While many narratives and artworks can include such elements, in most cases they are only fictitious additions.
Ultimately, the actual power of the sword of Archangel Michael rests not in its physical attributes or specifications, but in the symbolism and faith that it inspires in believers.
The Sword of Archangel Michael is a Relatively New Concept
Archangel Michael slaying a dragon, with his shield reads Quis ut Deus (Who [is] like God?). (Michael4 – CC BY-SA 3.0)
Literature has done much to promote the concept of the sword of Archangel Michael, with many stories implying that the sword has magical abilities and can be held by only Archangel Michael.
A Byzantine ivory panel from a Constantinople diptych dating back to 525–550 AD shows an archangel with a staff. This archangel is usually identified as Michael and he does not wield a sword.
The Sanctuary of Monte Sant’Angelo in Italy has the earliest depiction of Archangel Michael in the west which dates back to the 9th century AD. In this bas-relief, Archangel Michael also does not wield a sword but weighs the souls with his scale.
In later Christian art, Archangel Michael is commonly shown as a warrior angel wielding a sword and slaying demons. This theme has only gained popularity throughout the Middle Ages.
Archangel Michael’s Sword in Other Religions
In general, the Torah mentions angels but doesn’t identify any of them by name, including Michael. However, in the Book of Daniel, Archangel Michael appears three times (in chapters 10 and 12). He is also mentioned one time in the Quran (Al-Baqarah, 98). But in none of the verses is Archangel Michael depicted with a sword.
Today, the sword of Archangel Michael stands for power, safety, and the hand of God in times of need. Many people all throughout the globe find hope and solace in this emblem.
Does Archangel Michael have a wife? Archangel Michael is not depicted as married in Christian, Jewish, or Islamic writings. Therefore, it is not believed that Archangel Michael had a wife. He’s generally portrayed as a compelling person who faithfully serves God and follows His orders. In three of the monotheist traditions of the Middle East, angels have no gender and are forbidden from love relationships or marriage. Therefore, the idea that Archangel Michael is married and has a wife is not part of common credence.
Who Is Archangel Michael?
A fierce fighter and protector of the religion, Archangel Michael is often regarded as one of the most prominent angels. Both Daniel (10:13) and Revelation (12:7–12) depict Michael as an archangel with great power who vanquishes their enemies and defends the people of God.
He is also held responsible for the downfall of Lucifer (later Satan) and his angelic companions. One of the four (or seven) archangels, Michael (or Mika’il in Islam and Mikha’el in Judaism), is credited with ensuring the survival of all forms of life on Earth.
However, the Bible clearly states that angels do not get married. And this includes Archangel Michael. There is no indication of Michael having a wife in the Bible or any other canonical document in Christianity.
Why Do People Ask If Archangel Michael Has a Wife?
One main reason that brings up the question of whether Archangel Michael has a wife is the fact that Michael is referred to as “he” in the Bible. Angels are not living beings; hence, they do not have sexual reproduction like humans.
“They neither marry nor are given in marriage.”
Mark 12:18-27
The pronoun “he” is specifically used for Archangel Michael and the other angels, but that is probably only because it is more common than the other options (such as “she” or “it”). Archangels like Michael are more manly than typical men, but not really male. No matter what form their bodies take, archangels are unable to conceive offspring.
Traditional Christian beliefs do not accept the idea of angels having wives or participating in love relationships. What is most frequently highlighted is the function of angels as God’s messengers.
The question of whether Archangel Michael had a wife or not is motivated by cultural beliefs, personal curiosity, or a desire to comprehend the nature of angels and their relationships.
Depictions of Archangel Michael Regarding His Wife
Many individuals throughout history have looked to Archangel Michael for help. In many works of art and iconography, he appears as a mighty angelic warrior, armed to the teeth with a sword and shield.
However, Archangel Michael is never depicted with a female partner; therefore, it is safe to say that he never had a wife.
Since archangels are not as prominent as prophets in the tradition, the Bible is not particularly forthright on whether or not Archangel Michael had a wife. When it comes to the angelic hierarchy, archangels have the second-lowest ranking. They are also two kingdoms higher than humans.
Some non-canonical or apocryphal writings or religious traditions may have different ideas or legends about whether or not Archangel Michael is married. Michael having a wife, on the other hand, is not supported or shown to be true by the main Christian tradition.
Did Archangel Michael Have a Son?
Michael is an angelic being. Heaven’s angels abstain from having offspring. When asked about second marriages, Jesus provided a glimpse into heavenly matters such as these:
“For in the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage but are like angels in heaven.”
As recorded in Matthew 22:30.
Although often portrayed as strong and masculine, angels do not reproduce. The celestial kingdom is strictly asexual. Therefore, no, Archangel Michael does not have a son.
Relationship Between Archangel Michael and Joan of Arc
Joan of Arc has been revered as a martyr. Wikimedia Commons.
Archangel Michael was ever associated with one woman figure, and it is a one-sided story. At her trial, Joan of Arc said that she first saw the three saints—Michael, Catherine, and Margaret—when she was 13 years old, around 1425.
Over the course of three years, Joan of Arc had visits from saints who gradually made it clearer to her—through their “voices,” as she called them—that she must redeem France. She said that one of the voices was really the Archangel Michael.
Joan of Arc saw the Archangel Michael, and according to her, Michael was a dashing man. She thought so highly of Archangel Michael that she remembered almost little of his physical appearance.
Joan had a firm conviction that the apparitions were genuine; at one point, she even claimed that she had clasped one of them and that their scent had been heavenly. As a woman, Joan of Arc felt a religious love for the Archangel Michael.
Some very religious people believe that Joan of Arc was the reincarnation of Athena and the soulmate of Archangel Michael. However, Archangel Michael does not have a wife or soulmate, and it is pointless to speculate on that.
This Article at a Glance
Who Is Archangel Michael?
Archangel Michael is a prominent angel in the Christian, Jewish, and Islamic traditions. He is one of the four or seven archangels and is known for his great power, which he uses to defend the people of God and vanquish their enemies. He is also credited with ensuring the survival of all forms of life on Earth.
Does Archangel Michael Have a Wife?
No, Archangel Michael is not depicted as married in Christian, Jewish, or Islamic writings. In fact, angels have no gender and are forbidden from love relationships or marriage in three of the monotheistic traditions of the Middle East. Therefore, the idea that Archangel Michael is married and has a wife is not part of common credence.
Why Do People Ask If Archangel Michael Has a Wife?
The pronoun “he” is specifically used for Archangel Michael and other angels in the Bible, but that is probably only because it is more common than the other options (such as “she” or “it”). This has led some people to wonder if Archangel Michael has a wife or any romantic relationships. The question is also motivated by cultural beliefs, personal curiosity, or a desire to comprehend the nature of angels and their relationships.
Did Archangel Michael Have a Son?
No, Archangel Michael is an angelic being, and heaven’s angels abstain from having offspring. Therefore, Archangel Michael does not have a son.
What Is the Relationship Between Archangel Michael and Joan of Arc?
According to Joan of Arc, Archangel Michael was one of the saints who visited her and gradually made it clear to her that she must redeem France. She saw him as a dashing man and felt a religious love for him. Some very religious people believe that Joan of Arc was the soulmate of Archangel Michael, but this is not supported by the main Christian tradition.
On January 6, religious Christians celebrate the day the Three Wise Men came to pay their respects to the Christ Child in Bethlehem. The Bible says that the men, sometimes known as the Biblical Magi or Three Kings, visited the infant Jesus with gifts. What kind of kings, if any, did they really play? And were there really three of them?
Origin of the Biblical Magi
This may disappoint the coral singers of the Epiphany, but the Bible says nothing about the number of the kings. The Greek word “magoi” (which is where the English word “magi” comes from) is the source for Matthew’s use of the term “wise men from the east” to describe the travelers who followed the star to Bethlehem to find the infant Jesus. According to the Gospel of Matthew, it was Roman Jewish King Herod the Great (b. 20 BC) who sent the wise men.
The Greek word “magoi” means a practitioner of magic, including even astrology. The word was used for the well-read and cultured men of the day, for whom stargazing or alchemy represented a scientific showdown with the cosmos. Therefore, “wise men,” as later translated by Martin Luther, was a better wording than the magi. The whole theme was that the foreign aristocracy was visiting the infant Jesus.
Popular in Christmas myths and rituals all across the globe, the Three Wise Men are generally shown as aged, wise men in traditional Christian art. It is often held that the three wise men story symbolized the three major faiths of the time—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—and that the presents they brought Jesus signified his three main functions as king, priest, and sacrifice, at least for the Christian scholars.
How Many Magi Were There?
The Magi following the Bethlehem Star.
The idea that there should have been three magi is just an assumption with no historical value. The Biblical Magi brought three gifts: gold, frankincense, and myrrh. However, any number of individuals could deliver these three gifts. That is why some of the oldest murals about the Biblical Magi depict two men, while others have four. Only in the Middle Ages do the Biblical Magi become “three kings” or “three wise men.” One of the wise men had a dark complexion, and his name was Balthazar; his two companions’ names were Caspar and Melchior.
It’s not certain whether the Three Wise Men ever existed. Many Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) prophecies were used by Matthew to support the claim that Jesus was the promised Messiah. The story of the Three Wise Men from the East reads like a patchwork of many prophecies. The noblemen later became the focal point of Medieval Nativity scenes. Balthazar, the dark-skinned member of the pair, became a fan favorite and continues to be featured in dark skin as he was supposed to be of African origin.
The Bones of the Magi
Cologne Cathedral, Shrine of the Three Magi, created around 1181-1230 by the goldsmith Nicholas of Verdun. (Image: Beckstet, Wikimedia Commons)
You may not need to go back in time if you want to pay a visit to the Three Wise Men. Christians believe that their remains are housed in the Shrine of the Three Kings, a golden shrine located in Cologne Cathedral in Germany. The Shrine of the Three Magi created around 1181-1230 by the goldsmith Nicholas of Verdun.
The remains were one of the Middle Ages’ most priceless artifacts of cultural significance. The Milan Cathedral was the first location where the bones were stored. The artifact was a war booty given to Rainald von Dassel, Archbishop of Cologne, by Frederick Barbarossa after the latter’s 1162 conquest of the city.
Three men of varying ages were determined to be the source of the bones when they were inspected in 1864 by an anatomist in Bonn. At first glance, this seems meaningless. But the bones are still among the oldest authentic Christian artifacts since they were found on a piece of 2nd-century Syrian fabric, indicating that they were treasured as relics at an early date anyway.
Whether or not the Three Wise Men existed, the mythology still motivates hundreds of kids every year to dress up as nobles and chant their way around neighborhoods in search of donations for charity. The year and the initials of the wise men are chalked into the doors on the Fest of Epiphany on January 6 as follows: 20*C+M+B+23 (for 2023).
In time, Christians also interpreted these initials to mean “Christus Mansionem Benedicat” in Latin, or “Christ, bless this house. This “chalking the door” tradition was also a Scottish way of telling renters they had to leave, until recently.
Today, one of Christianity’s earliest celebrations—Epiphany—is encapsulated in a tradition that has its roots in legend: God incarnates as Jesus Christ. Epiphany has its roots in the early Christians’ celebration of Christmas, which was more interested in the metaphor of light than the romanticism of a manger.
It’s possible that the first Christians appropriated and reinterpreted this feast from various religions and also the Roman Emperor Cult. Because the church in the Roman Empire accepted the popular celebration of the unconquered sun god (“Sol Invictus”) and its symbolism as Christmas on December 25.
Even though January 6 is not as significant a Christian holiday as Christmas or Easter, it is nonetheless observed as a holiday in various countries, from Argentina, Bulgaria, and Egypt to the United States or Finland.
For a long time, January 6, the day of Epiphany, was a major celebration day. Until the middle of the 20th century, the first day of school usually began later than January 6th after the winter break in western countries. Since the public was aware that Christmas celebrations often continued until at least January 6.
Bibliography
Nigel Pennick (2015). “Pagan Magic of the Northern Tradition: Customs, Rites, and Ceremonies.” Inner Traditions – Bear & Company.
“An Epiphany Blessing of Homes and Chalking the Door”. Discipleship Ministries. 2007.
A religious scholar made the first Advent wreath. The traditional Advent wreath is a dense wreath, often crafted from fir foliage, and adorned with four candles. The one before it, however, by Hamburg theologian Johann Hinrich Wichern, included a great deal more adornment with candles. This is the importance of the Advent tradition and its historical background.
The custom of decorating a home with an Advent wreath dates back to the 19th century. The Protestant-influenced Hamburg orphanage Rauhen Haus, founded in 1833 by Johann Hinrich Wichern, placed special emphasis on the holiday season. The kids were constantly asking Wichern in the days leading up to Christmas when Christmas would arrive. Foreseeing this inquiry, he fashioned a Christmas calendar of sorts in 1839 to help the youngsters pass the time.
The Pagan origin of the wreath
A Pagan ritual.
Historically, wreaths were created in Europe for use in pagan ceremonies connected to the four seasons and the celebration of new life. The Roman link of the wreath with honor and virtue was adopted by Christianity as its own. The object was later used by many cultures, including the ancient Romans, and found its way all the way to the Advent wreath of Christianity.
Leaves, flowers, and branches could be woven together to form a wreath, which could be worn around the head. It was customary to wear the wreath at special events and religious holidays. Similar to how characters from Roman and Greek mythology, as well as Roman and Greek kings and heroes, were shown wearing wreaths in art throughout the Middle Ages, so too did the Virgin Mary and other saints.
A lighted wagon wheel was the first Advent wreath
Unlike modern Advent calendars, which tally the days from December 1st to Christmas Eve, he used a wagon wheel with as many candles as there were days between the beginning of Advent and Christmas Eve. Every year, the number of days between the first Sunday of Advent and Christmas Eve varies between 22 (when Christmas Eve occurs on the fourth Sunday of Advent) and 28 (when Christmas Eve occurs on the Saturday following the fourth Advent). They numbered 23 in 1839.
Johann Hinrich Wichern (1808-1881), the creator of the first Advent wreath.
The content of the first wreath
To honor those who have passed away, Wichern placed the wreath in the orphanage’s chapel. It was lit with 19 thin red candles and 4 large white ones. A fresh candle was lit each day of Advent, with smaller ones used throughout the week and larger ones reserved for Sundays. In this manner, the kids could keep track of the time until Christmas. One beneficial byproduct of the wreath was that it helped kids acquire basic counting skills.
The Advent wreath has become a global phenomenon
Until the turn of the century, the wreath was not widely used in Protestant churches or private homes unless it was additionally decked with fir foliage. It is also believed that the first wreath was displayed in a Catholic church in Cologne in 1925. Since at least the immediate postwar period, it has been widely available in every imaginable form all around the globe.
These days, you may get wreaths in a wide variety of materials, from terrycloth to plastic to porcelain to portable, collapsible wreaths. One thing that they all have in common is that, unlike the Wichern wreath, these wreaths only contain four candles, one for each Sunday in Advent. Since a wreath would need to be 3 to 7 feet (1 to 2 meters) in diameter to hold more than twenty candles, the rest have been abandoned throughout time.
However, the Wichern custom is maintained in the Rauhen Haus in Hamburg. This is where you may see the first-ever Advent wreath, created by Johann Hinrich Wichern in 1839.
The color of fir is a symbol of optimism
It’s likely that the Advent wreath’s continued popularity today may be attributed to the depth and clarity of the symbolism it conveys. The circle, with no beginning and no end, is a symbol of eternity and infinity, as well as, in Christian belief, the resurrection and, not to be forgotten, community.
One interpretation of the wreath’s four candles is that they represent the four cardinal points of the world. In the middle of ice and snow, in the cold and darkness, new life prepares itself, and the evergreen fir in winter is a cipher of that hope. Furthermore, there is a light in the early winter darkness that grows stronger each Sunday—a symbolic representation of the hope Christians have in Jesus.
The non-Christian origin of the Advent wreath
The Advent wreath actually evolved from a non-Christian practice. In the early Middle Ages, maids and servants could cite an unwritten rule that said they were exempt from working outdoors in the bitter winter. For this purpose, they would remove a wheel from the wagon they used to transport farm equipment to the fields from its storage spot in the barn and hang it either from the roof ridge or within the home above the chimney. However, evergreen branches were added to the design of the wheel since it was also thought of as a representation of the sun, and its return in the spring was hoped to be signaled by their presence.
