Tag: emperor

Augustus: The First Roman Emperor
Under his real name, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavius, Augustus was the first and most famous Roman emperor. When his uncle Julius Caesar died in 44 BCE, Octavius began a long political struggle to gain power. In 31 BCE, he won the naval Battle of Actium against his main rivals, Mark Antony and Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt.
Upon returning to Rome, Octavius laid the foundation for a new regime in 27 BCE: the Principate. Now called Augustus, he gradually accumulated all the powers, thus laying the foundation for the Roman Empire. His reign was marked by peace and prosperity, particularly in the arts, and this period is known as the “Augustan Age,” considered the golden age of Roman classicism.
Octavius: Caesar’s Heir
The future Augustus was born Gaius Octavius on September 23, 63 BCE (the year of Cicero’s consulship), in Rome, on the Palatine Hill. His father served as governor of the province of Macedonia until 59 BCE and died upon his return in 58. Octavius barely knew him, and his mother took on a significant role in his life. Atia Balba Caesonia, his mother, was the niece of Julius Caesar. The young Octavius was then under the tutelage of Gaius Toranius but also under the protection of his maternal grandmother, Julia.
Thanks to her, he was educated until age twelve by some of the greatest masters of rhetoric. It was during this period that he formed important friendships, such as with Agrippa, who would later play a crucial role in his life. While Octavius excelled in politics, he was not particularly skilled in military affairs. Agrippa, a brilliant strategist on both land and sea, would act as his right-hand man in military matters.
Rome’s political situation was becoming increasingly tense, with the rivalry between Caesar and Pompey as the backdrop. Octavius soon aligned himself with his great-uncle and played a political role alongside his sister in the unfolding intrigues. In 48 BCE, Caesar admitted Octavius to the college of pontiffs, and by 45 BCE, he was already on a military campaign in Spain against Pompey’s supporters. During this time, his first health problems emerged, and he especially struggled to present himself as a capable military leader, unlike his friend Agrippa. In the same year, Julius Caesar, who had no sons, named Octavius as his heir in his will, leaving him three-quarters of his wealth.
Upon Caesar’s assassination in March 44 BCE, Octavius was in Apollonia, and his life was at risk. However, against his mother’s wishes, Caesar’s heir decided to return to Rome to assert his rights. He was only nineteen when he arrived in Brindisi and chose to be called Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, or Octavian. Determined to play a central role in resolving the ongoing civil wars, he sought to avenge his adoptive father’s death.
The Civil War
Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century. Credit: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0
As Caesar’s legitimate heir, Octavian initially positioned himself as a rival to Mark Antony, who was popular with the Roman people and saw himself as Caesar’s natural successor. However, through his political acumen and with the military support of his allies (particularly Agrippa), the future Augustus gradually marginalized his rival. Octavian benefited from Cicero’s support, which aimed to help him secure the Senate’s decisive backing. Antony was defeated at Modena in 43 BCE, and both sitting consuls were killed. Cicero had planned to share the consulship with the young Octavian, but the Senate refused.
This was a significant moment in the early political career of the future emperor, as he began to see the Senate as his main adversary. The senators did not welcome the rise of a young man who might become another Caesar. However, Octavian eventually secured the consulship and organized the punishment of Caesar’s assassins.
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By the end of 43 BCE, Octavian had gained the upper hand over his opponents and, after tough negotiations, secured the alliance of Mark Antony and Lepidus, forming the Second Triumvirate.
The time had come for Caesar’s assassins to pay: they were hunted down the following year and defeated at the Battle of Philippi. The main conspirators, Brutus and Cassius, committed suicide. The triumvirs then divided control of the Roman world, not yet an empire. The last threat, Sextus Pompey, was crushed in 36 BCE.
However, the peace did not last long, as rivalry continued between Antony and Octavian, despite Antony’s marriage to Octavian’s sister. Octavian’s popularity grew, while Antony increasingly came under Cleopatra’s influence. Lepidus was quickly sidelined, and his African provinces fell into Octavian’s hands. War eventually broke out between the two heirs of Caesar, culminating in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BCE: Antony and Cleopatra were defeated, and Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome.
The Beginnings of Augustus’ Principate
A bust of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated c. 30 BC. Capitoline Museums, Rome
As early as 38 BC, Octavian obtained the title of Imperator; but his victory over Antony allowed him to accumulate titles, and therefore power: Princeps Senatus in 28 BC (that year, he completed his sixth consulship, with Agrippa as colleague). The Senate gave him the honorary title of Augustus in 27 BC, the tribunician power in 23 BC, and his imperium was renewed for ten years. Although not officially declared, a new regime was established to replace the Republic: the Principate.
Despite his speeches emphasizing the importance of the Senate and the people, Augustus was clearly the sole decision-maker. He then initiated reforms: in the army, administration, organization of the provinces, as well as significant public works in Rome. He shaped what would become the Roman Empire for centuries to come.
A strict observer of Roman virtues, Augustus strove to regulate public morals by enacting sumptuary laws (limiting expenditures) and natalist laws (encouraging marriage). In the economic field, he promoted the development of agriculture in the Italian peninsula. His religious policy had two aspects: on the one hand, Augustus worked to restore and renovate traditional religion, and on the other, he founded the imperial cult.
A protector of the arts, Augustus was a friend of poets such as Ovid, Horace, and Virgil, as well as the historian Livy, to whom he extended his support and generosity. With the help of his friend and advisor, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Augustus sought to embellish Rome by constructing the Forum of Augustus, the Theatre of Marcellus, the Temple of Apollo Palatinus, the Pantheon, and the Baths of Agrippa. According to Suetonius, “he left a Rome of marble where he had found a city of bricks.”
Augustus in Gaul
While Caesar had formed only one province in Transalpine Gaul, Augustus, taking into account the ethnic subdivisions of the region, divided it into four areas. In 22 BC, the former Province, bounded by the Rhône and the Cévennes, was renamed “Narbonensis” and became a senatorial province governed by a proconsul. The rest of Gaul, called Gallia Comata, was divided into three regions, each governed by a legate: Aquitania, between the Loire and the Pyrenees; Lugdunensis, between the Loire, Seine, and Saône; and Belgica, east of the Saône and north of the Seine.
The former Roman colony of Lugdunum, founded in 43 BC, became the capital of the Roman province under Augustus and the starting point of the five major imperial roads leading to Aquitania, Italy, the Rhine, Arles, and the Ocean. The emperor built the Amphitheatre of the Three Gauls there, dedicated to his cult and that of Rome, as well as a mint. Augustus visited the province at least four times, taking particular care to pacify it, while his friend and son-in-law Agrippa personally oversaw the administrative organization of the region by conducting a complete land survey of Gaul and constructing an extensive road network.
Despite the pacification efforts initiated during the last years of Julius Caesar’s dictatorship, some tensions persisted locally, and several outbreaks of violence revealed the last remnants of rebellion by certain Gallic peoples against Roman domination. The Aquitanians (in 39 BC), the Morini (in 30 BC), the Treveri (in 29 BC), and the Aquitanians again (in 28 BC) revolted, prompting the intervention of Roman legions.
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In 25 and 14 BC, Augustus subdued the peoples of the upper valleys of the Alps, and in 6 BC, a trophy was erected at La Turbie to commemorate his victory over them.
A Difficult End to His Reign
Internal peace did not necessarily mean peace with Rome’s neighbors. Augustus had to address, and often relied on the talented Agrippa to suppress, various threats around the Empire. The goal was primarily to consolidate the borders rather than expand Rome’s territory: he fixed the limits of the Empire at the Euphrates, facing the Parthians, and pushed the northern borders to the Danube. However, he suffered a traumatic setback in AD 9, when the legate Varus and three legions were massacred by the Germans. Tiberius then took over, but Augustus had to accept that the border would remain on the left bank of the Rhine.
His reign became increasingly painful: his health problems were compounded by conspiracies (such as Cinna’s, from 16-13 BC), and especially by succession issues. Despite several marriages (including his last with Livia), Augustus had no surviving sons.
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He adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lucius, in 17 BC, but they died before him. He eventually adopted his stepson Tiberius, Livia’s son, in AD 4.
Additionally, Augustus saw his friends and companions, such as Agrippa, Maecenas, and Drusus, die before him. Thus, he passed away almost alone on August 19, AD 14, and was deified the same year, as he had previously deified Caesar. Upon Augustus’ death, Tiberius, who had married his daughter Julia, succeeded him.
Legacy of Emperor Augustus
Historians, both ancient and modern, have expressed varied opinions about Augustus. Some condemned his ruthless quest for power, particularly his role in the proscriptions during the triumvirate era. Others, like Tacitus, who critiqued the imperial regime, acknowledged his achievements as a ruler.
Modern historians sometimes criticize his unscrupulous methods and authoritarian style of governance, but they generally credit him with establishing an efficient administration, a stable government, and bringing security and prosperity to what would become the Roman Empire. His authority over the provinces and military power ensured the Pax Romana, or “Roman Peace,” in an empire spanning the entire Mediterranean, Asia Minor, and almost all of Western Europe.
It was during the “The Age of Augustus” that the historian Livy published his History of Rome from its Foundation.
Emperor Augustus: FAQ
The Education of the Future Emperor Augustus
Augustus received a classical education typical of the Roman elite of his time. He studied literature, rhetoric, philosophy, and the arts. Caesar ensured he received a solid education to prepare him for a political career, along with thorough military training. This education and Julius Caesar’s influence helped prepare Augustus for his future political career.
The Various Names of Octavian
Octavian, or Emperor Augustus, had different names reflecting various stages of his political career and life. These are the names used to refer to Augustus:
- Gaius Octavius Thurinus (his birth name)
- Gaius Octavius (family name without title)
- Gaius Octavius Caesar (after his adoption by Julius Caesar)
- Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (after his adoption by Caesar)
- Octavian (commonly used to distinguish him from his rival Mark Antony during the Second Triumvirate)
- Imperator Caesar Divi Filius (official title as the first Roman emperor)
- Augustus (honorary title received in 27 BC, meaning “venerable” or “sacred,” which gave him the name Augustus that we know today)
October 11, 2024
Battle of Strasbourg: Defining Roman Victory Against the Alemanni
The Battle of Strasbourg in 357 pitted the Roman army, commanded by Emperor Julian the Apostate, against a coalition of Alamanni barbarian tribes attempting to invade Gaul. During the 4th century AD, the Roman Empire enjoyed a period of relative peace along its borders, particularly due to victorious military campaigns that restored the Roman army’s prestige. The Battle of Strasbourg, where Emperor Julian distinguished himself, temporarily halted major barbarian incursions across the Rhine, earning its victor immense prestige.
Context of the Battle of Strasbourg
In 357, the young Julian, appointed Caesar in Gaul by his cousin Constantius II two years earlier, fought against the Alamanni along the Rhine frontier to restore peace to the Empire’s lands. The Alamanni had occupied several towns and fortified positions in Roman territory because Constantius, in his struggle against the usurper Magnentius, had incited barbarian attacks behind enemy lines to weaken his rival. Even after winning the battle (Victory of Mursa in 351), the emperor did not resolve the border situation where the Alamanni remained firmly entrenched. Pressed by movements of the Persian Sassanids, Constantius tasked his cousin Julian with liberating the Rhine from the barbarian threat.
However, being extremely cautious with potential rivals, Constantius surrounded the new Caesar with a crowd of loyal men to keep this possible dissident in check. Despite this, Julian acted with boldness and clear-sightedness, and within a few years managed to improve the situation. Yet, the Alamanni threat was not completely crushed by Julian’s operations.
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The army of General Barbatio suffered a crushing defeat, surprised and routed by the barbarians.
Julian the Apostate Facing a Surge of Violence
Upon hearing this, several Alamanni kings gathered their forces to reclaim the territory they had seized from the Empire. Among them were Chnodomar, Vestralp, Urius, Urcisin, Serapion, Suomar, and Hortarius. A particular incident further united the barbarians under a single banner: King Gondomad, a faithful Roman ally who kept his word according to Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, had been killed in an ambush, sparking a full rebellion against Rome.
Informed by a deserter from the defeated army of Barbatio that Julian’s forces numbered only around thirteen thousand, the barbarians believed victory would be easy since their own army likely numbered around thirty thousand. Nevertheless, Julian resolved to engage in battle. Leading his army out of camp, he marched toward the barbarian fortifications. Upon reaching the enemy’s position, he gathered his troops and delivered a rousing speech. Energized by his words and proud to have an emperor among them, the soldiers made a tremendous noise, mixing shouts and the clashing of weapons against shields.
This behavior was typical of Roman fighters of the time, who, in a manner similar to the barbarians, expressed their warrior spirit through displays of raw violence. The almost miraculous leadership of a victorious emperor further heightened their combativeness. Given this, the senior officers of the army were also in favor of engagement, as dispersing the enemy into smaller pillaging units would create tactical and logistical nightmares, while also spreading terror among civilian populations.
Roman confidence was further bolstered by operations that Julian had previously conducted on barbarian lands beyond the Rhine, where they encountered no resistance, as the enemy had withdrawn without a fight. From the Romans’ perspective, they were about to face cowards who had refused to defend their own lands.
Setting Up the Armies
The Roman army established itself on a gently sloping hill, a short distance from the Rhine. An Alamannic scout fell into the hands of the soldiers and revealed that the barbarians had crossed the river over the course of three days and nights and were approaching their position. Soon after, the troops saw the barbarian warriors spread out across the plain and form a wedge—a narrow-front attack formation intended to break through the enemy lines in a swift charge. The Roman reaction was swift, and the soldiers formed what was described as an “impregnable wall” (Ammianus Marcellinus, XVI, 12, 20). Roman shields of the time were mostly circular, offering protection often compared to that of Greek shields.
Facing the Roman cavalry on the right flank, the barbarians positioned their own cavalry on the left, mixed with light troops, following an old Germanic tactic. On their right, taking advantage of a nearby forest, they advanced several thousand fighters to ambush the Romans. At the head of their forces, the kings were ready to lead by example.
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Chnodomar, the driving force behind this coalition, was described by Ammianus as a formidable warrior with powerful muscles. Serapion commanded the right flank, a name derived from the fact that his father, held hostage in Gaul, had been initiated into the mysteries of Eastern religions.
On the Roman side, the left flank, commanded by Severus, halted on his order, as he sensed the barbarian ambush. Julian, with his 200 elite cavalry, moved through the ranks, encouraging his men while trying, as Ammianus noted, not to appear overly ambitious, as Constantius had placed him under close scrutiny. He organized his men efficiently, issuing loud exhortations to their pride as warriors.
Julian established his battle line in two rows, keeping the Primani legion and Palatine auxiliaries in reserve. These elite troops were heavily equipped, like the units in the front line. The legions of that time were smaller, likely around a thousand men, making them more mobile than the older legions of 5,000. For the “small wars” often waged by barbarians, these units were much more effective. Similarly, Palatine auxiliary units consisted of 500 men but usually operated in pairs, such as the Cornuti and the Bracchiati, positioned on the right of the front line.
These troops were largely recruited from the barbarian world, yet their combativeness and loyalty to the Roman Empire were noteworthy. They were highly reliable units, found in all theaters of operation. Sometimes their ardor was so great that they became difficult to control. It’s also important not to imagine Roman soldiers as always perfectly disciplined; the Romans allowed their men significant freedom for individual feats of arms, as long as it benefited the whole. Honorary rewards were provided for this purpose.
Battle of Strasbourg
As Julian fortified his position, shouts of indignation rose from the barbarian army. The troops feared that their leaders, mounted on horses, might take advantage of this and abandon them if they were defeated. The kings dismounted and stood with their men to boost their morale. The trumpets then signaled the start of combat. The violent clash of the armies took place in a cacophony of noise. The Roman line resisted stubbornly, its cohesion countering the barbarian frenzy. However, on the right, the Roman cavalry broke off from the fight against the barbarian cavalry and skirmishers.
Julian moved forward to stem the retreat, rallying the men who then returned to their positions. The Cornuti and Bracchiati also demonstrated their great valor, impressing the enemy with their courage and indomitable spirit. At the height of the battle, the Alamanni managed to break the Roman line in the center. But the second Roman line intervened; the Primani legion and the Batavians came in support, pushing back the threat.
Ammianus, describing the battle, portrays the Alamanni as equals to the Romans in warfare, perhaps to magnify Julian’s achievement but also likely out of respect for the barbarian combat prowess. It should be noted that a significant portion of the Roman army was composed of barbarians, though it’s incorrect to claim the army was almost entirely barbarized.
The Defeat of the Barbarians
The battle, though violent, continued in a near stalemate where more barbarians were dying. Better protected and more professional, the Romans effectively contained their enemies’ assaults to the point where the barbarians eventually broke and fled, pursued by Roman light units. The carnage was great, and many barbarians, terrified, fled by swimming across the Rhine, where many drowned. At the same time, Chnodomar, fleeing the disaster with a few warriors, hid on a wooded hill but was discovered by a Roman cohort. Surrounded, he surrendered.
The losses were very disproportionate, demonstrating the superior training and protection of the Romans. The Romans lost 243 men and 4 officers, while the Alamanni lost 6,000 on the battlefield, with an unknown number drowning in the Rhine. Ammianus is considered reliable in his accounting, leaving no doubt about the scale of the losses.
These figures closely resemble those from another famous battle: Marathon, where the Athenians also counted the dead, as they intended to offer a sacrifice for every Persian who fell. In that battle, 192 Greeks fell compared to nearly 6,400 Persians.
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Epilogue of the Battle of Strasbourg
After the battle, Chnodomar was sent as a hostage to Rome, where he remained until his death. Julian, not wasting his advantage, launched bloody offensives into barbarian territory, stabilizing the frontier. The Battle of Strasbourg is a key moment in showcasing Julian’s tactical brilliance and his ability to inspire his men. His exploits were remarkable, and he was never defeated in a pitched battle. His men would follow him even into the burning sands of Persia, refusing to join Constantius II.
Enveloped in the prestige of victory, Julian became a victorious emperor, favored by Fortune, destined to free himself from oppressive oversight, now that his men were entirely loyal to him.
October 10, 2024
Caracalla: Who Expanded Roman Citizenship
October 9, 2024
Elagabalus: The Eccentric Emperor of the Severan Dynasty
During the time of the Roman Empire, there was a period known as the Severan Dynasty. This era had a series of emperors who made various impacts on the empire. One of these emperors, Elagabalus (originally named Varius Avitus Bassianus), became a symbol of the controversies of that time.
The Severan Dynasty was a period of change in the Roman Empire, starting with Septimius Severus in AD 193. He was renowned for his military skill, and his rule established a dynasty that included his descendants Caracalla, Geta, and, as we’ll discuss in this article, Elagabalus.
- Also: The Complete List of the Emperors of the Roman Empire
Elagabalus, born in AD 204, stepped into the world of imperial politics when he was quite young, which was different from the usual experienced Roman rulers. When he became the Roman emperor, his rule was known for its focus on religion, immoderate behavior, and many scandals.
Before Elagabalus, there was another emperor named Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, also known as Caracalla. Caracalla was known for being quite brutal, even going so far as to order the killing of his own brother, Geta, in 211 AD. During his rule, he focused a lot on military actions and strengthening his authority. One notable thing he did was grant Roman citizenship to almost every free citizen living in the Empire through something called the Constitutio Antoniniana, or the Edict of Caracalla, in 212 AD.
Elagabalus: Early Life and Ascension
A sculpture of Julia Soaemias, 3rd century AD. Wolfgang Sauber, CC BY-SA 3.0.
Emperor Elagabalus, originally named Varius Avitus Bassianus, was born in AD 204 into a well-known family connected to the ruling Severan Dynasty. His early life had circumstances that would later lead him to become the Roman Emperor.
Even though he was just 14 years old, Elagabalus became the new Roman emperor. His grandmother, Julia Maesa, really wanted their family to rule the empire again after Caracalla was killed. Thanks to her clever moves and power, Elagabalus was made emperor in AD 218. Elagabalus was younger than most Roman emperors in Roman history.
Elagabalus’s journey to power and his time as emperor were unconventional, with some strange actions on his part and the involvement of notable individuals. One notable person who chronicled this period in Roman history was the historian Lucius Cassius Dio.
According to Cassius Dio, Elagabalus had some unusual habits. He liked to be called “Lady” and dressed in women’s clothes. He even promised a reward to any doctor who could make him physically become a woman. Dio also tells us about Elagabalus’s fancy parties, where he would cover his guests in flowers and perfume.
He went as far as having flower-filled chariots race through the city streets. Elagabalus’s marriages were quite unconventional too. Dio mentions that he even married a Vestal Virgin, which was a serious violation of Roman religious traditions and caused quite a scandal.
The Cult of Elagabal
This is a Roman gold coin called an aureus, and it shows a picture of Elagabalus. On the back, it reads “To the Holy Sun God Elagabal” in Latin. Image: CNG, CC BY-SA 3.0.
Emperor Elagabalus introduced a significant religious transformation during his reign, centered around the deity Elagabal (Elagabalus, Aelagabalus, Heliogabalus), from whom he derived his name. This new religion was distinguished by novel customs. It represented a break with conventional Roman beliefs.
Elagabal, the sun god, was first worshipped in Emesa, which is now modern-day Homs, Syria. This is where Elagabalus’ family came from. The young emperor was really into the Elagabal cult and wanted to make this god more important in the Roman pantheon.
Religious Reforms and Controversies
Elagabalus made some changes to the religion in Rome. He built a new temple for Elagabal, a god he really liked, and in this temple, there was a special black stone that symbolized the god. This stone was brought from Emesa to Rome. Elagabalus wanted people to worship Elagabal more than the usual Roman gods like Jupiter.
The shift in religious beliefs created a ton of disagreements and pushbacks in Roman society. It impacted everyday people, the Senate, and even the military. Elagabalus made things worse by introducing foreign gods and customs while disregarding Roman traditions, leading to widespread unrest throughout the empire.
The Historia Augusta has some interesting stories. One of them is about Elagabalus, who’s said to have done some questionable stuff in the palace, like allegedly acting as a prostitute and marrying lots of people, including his chariot driver. He also liked exotic animals and would let them loose in the palace for entertainment.
Eccentric Reign and Controversies
Heliogabalus, High Priest of the Sun, 1866. Simeon Solomon (1840-1905). Image: Public Domain.
An Extravagant Life
In the relatively short period of his reign, Elagabalus exhibited a clear preference for opulence and grandiose displays. He organized feasts characterized by the extravagant use of valuable resources and extravagant dishes. This was a bit concerning because the Roman Empire was having economic problems at that time.
Personal Life and Relationships
One of the most striking controversies during Elagabalus’s rule centered around his stance on gender. He openly expressed a preference to be recognized as a woman and even entered into a marriage with a man. This move greatly scandalized Roman societal conventions.
Elagabalus engaged in numerous marriages and divorces, often with little time in between. One of his best-known unions was with Aquilia Severa, who held the esteemed position of Vestal Virgin, a role of great religious significance in ancient Rome. This marriage was particularly scandalous because it went against the sacred commitment to chastity that Vestal Virgins were obligated to maintain.
Controversies and Opposition
Elagabalus’s unusual behavior and religious approach did not sit well with the Roman Senate which held significant political influence. Tensions between the emperor and the Senate escalated. This created political conflict.
The emperor’s neglect of Roman military customs upset the legions. His concentration on religion and his choice of personal pleasure over military matters made people worry about the empire’s stability.
Herodian’s account highlights Elagabalus’s extravagant banquets and parties. He discusses the influence of Elagabalus’s mother, Julia Maesa, and the Praetorian Guard on the emperor’s rule. Herodian generally portrays a moral decay during Elagabalus’s reign.
Governance and Challenges
Bust of Elagabalus, Palazzo Nuovo, Musei Capitolini. Image: José Luiz, CC BY-SA 4.0.
Inexperienced Leadership
Elagabalus, who ascended to power at a young age, faced a significant challenge due to his limited experience in governance. Instead of focusing on ruling, he devoted resources to his religious pursuits. This diversion of funds occurred at a time when the Roman Empire was grappling with financial difficulties. The imperial treasury was already strained, and desperate measures, such as devaluing Roman currency, were taken in an attempt to bolster finances. These actions only exacerbated the empire’s financial problems.
Military Conflicts and Invasions
While Elagabalus was in charge, the Roman Empire had some problems with the Parthian Empire in the East. He didn’t pay much attention to the affairs of the army, which weakened Rome when dealing with these issues.
The Roman frontiers had to deal with attacks from different outsider groups, like Germanic tribes and other barbarians. The emperor’s struggle to deal with these border threats made the security situation even worse.
Decline and Removal from Power
Bust possibly depicting Aquilia Severa. Image: CC0.
Plot Against Elagabalus
Elagabalus’s rule became increasingly unpopular among different groups in Roman society. The Senate, the military, and the general population were all unhappy with his way of governing. Some Praetorian Guard members devised a plan to remove him from power in the year 222 AD.
A dramatic conspiracy unfolded against Elagabalus, resulting in a forceful overthrow. Elagabalus and his mother, Julia Soaemias, met their demise at the hands of the Praetorian Guard. Elagabalus’s rule had spanned merely a few years and ended when he was just 18 years old.
Legacy
Elagabalus had a brief rule, but it left a big mark on the Roman Empire. After him, Alexander Severus wanted to steer clear of the controversies during Elagabalus’s time and bring back order. Elagabalus’s reign was a lesson for later Roman emperors to remember to honor the old Roman ways and institutions.
After Elagabalus’s assassination, the Senate declared damnatio memoriae against him. This meant that they sought to erase his memory from the historical record as a form of censure for his actions and reign. Efforts were made to remove or deface inscriptions, statues, and references to Elagabalus. His images were also destroyed or altered. Despite these efforts, some information about Elagabalus’s reign and actions has survived through historical accounts.
Elagabalus at a Glance
What impact did Elagabalus’s reign have on the Roman Empire?
Elagabalus’ rule is commonly viewed as a time of confusion and declining moral standards. It made the Roman Senate less influential and added to the larger issues the Third Century faced. During this era, there were many different emperors coming and going, and the empire had to deal with various external threats.
Who succeeded Elagabalus as Roman Emperor?
Following the murder of Elagabalus in 222 AD, his cousin Alexander Severus took over as the Roman Emperor. Alexander Severus aimed to bring back order and the old Roman ways to the empire.
What is the significance of the Severan Dynasty in Roman history?
The Severan Dynasty, which lasted from 193 to 235 AD, was a Roman ruling family. They had emperors like Septimius Severus, Caracalla, and Elagabalus. During their rule, the Roman Empire went through big changes and problems, like wars, family fights for power, and economic issues.
What led to the downfall of Elagabalus as Emperor?
Elagabalus stirred up quite a bit of trouble because of his unusual religious beliefs and his complete disregard for the way things were done in ancient Rome. He lived a really lavish life and didn’t care much about what the Roman Senate had to say. In the end, he was assassinated when he was just 18, in a coup, and his cousin Alexander Severus took over as ruler.
References
LacusCurtius • Cassius Dio’s Roman History (uchicago.edu)
Herodian 5.3 – Livius
Historia Augusta, The Life of Elagabalus Part 1
Transcending Gender: Assimilation, Identity, and Roman Imperial Portraits on JSTOR
Featured Image: The Roses of Heliogabalus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1888). Public Domain.
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Nero: Biography of the Despotic Roman Emperor
Nero (Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus)’s birth date is traditionally accepted to be December 15th, 37 AD, at Antium, while his death date is conventionally accepted to be June 9th, 68 AD, in Rome. Emperor Vespasian was the fifth and last ruler of the Roman Empire under the Julio-Claudian Dynasty. Nero seems like a complex figure since he has been called both a brutal ruler and a poet. Yet the Emperor’s capricious nature continues to captivate. The majority of what is known about Nero comes from biographies published 40 years after the events, such as those by Suetonius and Tacitus.
Childhood Under Caligula
The head of Emperor Nero. 64 AD. The statue is 7.9 feet (2.4 meters) tall.
The true name of Nero is Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, and he was born to Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, the sister of Caligula. Caligula assumed power on March 16, 37 AD, when he was 24 years old. In the event that Nero’s uncle did not produce a male successor, Nero might assume the throne. But when it came to their brother Caligula, Agrippina and her sisters were quite close. So, Caligula was greatly influenced by them.
As a matter of fact, Nero was born to a prominent mother. Nero did not go with his mother when she was banished to the Pontine Islands because of her role in a plot against Caligula. In 40 AD, Nero’s father passed away. Caligula, his wife, and their daughter were all murdered in a plot that was hatched on January 24, 41 AD. So, the winds shifted in favor of Nero when Caligula’s successor, Claudius, called Agrippina back to Rome.
Claudius Adopts Nero
But Nero had little chance of succeeding Claudius as Emperor. The Emperor had two children: the heir apparent Octavia, born in 40 AD, and Britannicus, born in 41 AD. But the rules changed with Agrippina. Emperor Claudius’s wife Messalina was put to death in the year 48 AD on charges of conspiracy. On January 1, 49, Agrippina married Claudius, making her his fourth wife. She also planned Nero’s marriage to his half-sister Octavia, which took place later in 53 AD. Claudius then formally adopted Nero on February 25, 50 AD, changing his name to “Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus.” Lucius was now called Nero. He was the legitimate successor to the kingdom since he was older than his adopted brother. Even though Nero was just 14 years old when Claudius freed him in 51 AD, he still went on to make Nero proconsul, invite him into the Senate, depict him on the coins.
Nero Becomes Emperor
Claudius died of poisoning on October 13, 54 AD. In 54 AD, Nero’s reign as Emperor began when he was just 17 years old. From the start of his reign, he had the support of his mother, the scholar Seneca, and Sextus Afranius Burrus, prefect of the praetorium. He hoped to win over the common people and the military by offering bonuses. His personal life could be in tatters, but the Empire was in good hands. Nero was unhappy in his marriage and began keeping a former slave called Claudia Acte as his lover. However, Agrippina supported Octavia, while Seneca and Burrus backed the Emperor.
Nero prevented his mother from further meddling in his life by removing herself from the picture. He also faced constant competition from Britannicus, his adopted brother and a trusted ally of the majority. Britannicus, however, passed away unexpectedly on or around February 12, 55 AD. Suetonius and other ancient authors suggested that Nero might have poisoned him. It seems more plausible, however, that Britannicus experienced an epileptic fit before his death, which led to the burst of an aneurysm.
Nero lived a hedonistic life as Emperor and left state business to his counselors. In the year 59 AD, Nero had his mother, Agrippina, murdered, perhaps with the help of his beloved Poppaea. Despite Seneca’s best efforts, the Emperor’s reputation was damaged by this incident. From the year 62 AD on, further changes were done under Nero’s rule. Since Burrus had passed away, Nero needed a new advisor, and Seneca had already decided to step down.
Nero chose Tigellinus, who, upon taking office, issued a slew of anti-treason statutes. In addition, Nero’s mistress fell pregnant, and he still didn’t have any heirs. Everything got to the point where Nero wanted to marry her and end things with Octavia, so he did just that. Nero started by making false accusations of adultery against Octavia. Unlike Nero, though, Octavia was held up as an example of virtue. In the end, the divorce was finalized with Octavia’s infertility as the reason. On June 9, 62, Octavia committed suicide by cutting her veins, sparking widespread unrest.
Great Fire of Rome: Did Nero Burn Rome?
Hubert Robert (1733–1808), The Fire of Rome (1785). Museum of modern art André Malraux. Wikimedia Commons.
The Great Fire of Rome occurred on July 18, 64 AD, near the Circus Maximus. Nero had taken a holiday to Antium at the time. As soon as he heard about it, he hurried back. The story spread like wildfire that Nero played lyre and sang atop the Quirinal as the city burned. In actuality, some historians believe that Nero welcomed the destitute inside his palace and fed them to prevent a famine. People blamed Nero since he was the one who announced ambitions to reconstruct Rome swiftly in a magnificent manner.
But Emperor Nero looked to the Christians as a new scapegoat for the populace. Starting in October, he launched a campaign of extraordinary persecution against them. Some he sent to the lions, while others he crucified and burned to death. The martyrdom of Sts. Peter and Paul is linked to these events in Christian mythology. But there’s no proof of it. Nero had a new palace constructed after the devastating fire, and it was much larger.
Nero the Olympic champion
Nero won the Olympic Games in 67 AD after spending around one million sesterces to bribe judges and organizers of the tournament. In the midst of his triumph, the Roman emperor makes the executive decision to provide tax exemptions to his Greek guests who are already residing inside Roman territory. Nero brought back 1,808 olive wreaths to Rome to celebrate every one of his “assumed” victories at the Olympics.
The Death of Nero
Vasily Sergeyevich Smirnov (1858-1890), Nero’s Death (1888), oil on canvas, The Russian Museum.
Another controversy involved Nero in the year 65 AD. Since it was seen shameful for an emperor to engage in public entertainment, his reputation suffered. Pisonian conspiracy, in which his old friend Seneca played a part, was the next scandal.
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Roman statesman Gaius Calpurnius Piso intended to have Nero assassinated and Nero, in return, ordered Piso, the philosopher Seneca, Seneca’s nephew Lucan, and the satirist Petronius to commit suicide.
Nero also ordered a heroic general, who was well respected, to commit suicide as well. But Nero asked for too much without even realizing it. The military leaders were now planning a revolution against the Emperor. The historians Suetonius and Tacitus report that Nero had kicked his pregnant wife Poppea in the stomach which killed her. Nero then made another marriage proposal to Claudia Antonia, but she turned it down.
Consequently, Nero had her sentenced to death on the grounds that she was plotting against him. He wed his lover, Statilia Messalina, in May of 66 AD. Nero then spent a year traveling in Greece and treating himself to cultural performances while he was there. At the same time, in Rome, praetorian prefect Nymphidius Sabinus was trying to win over the support of the senators and the Praetorian Guard.
Nero had noticed a shift in the atmosphere since his return to Rome. Then the uprisings began. It started with Vindex, the governor of Lyon Gaul. Then the legate of the Legio III Augusta legion in Africa, which had been supplying Rome with wheat, stopped doing so. Later, Nymphidius Sabinus took over the Praetorian Guard (Imperial Guard). Nero was finally expelled from office by the Senate, and as a result, he took his own life. On June 9, 68 AD, at the age of 30, Emperor Nero slit his throat at the rural home of his loyal freedman Phaon, bringing an end to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty.
After Nero’s death, the Senate passed a resolution to damnatio memoriae Nero (condemnation of memory). Numerous civil wars and the change of imperial dynasties characterized the year 69 as the “Year of the Four Emperors.”
Family Tree of Nero and His Titles
Nero was the grandson of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia the Elder, daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia the Younger (the latter being the sister of Augustus and the grand-niece of Julius Caesar), adopted son of Claudius, son of Agrippa the Younger and also the great-great-grandson of former emperor Augustus (descended from his daughter Julia). From 53 to 62 AD, Nero was married to Claudia Octavia; from 62 to 65 AD, to Poppea, with whom he had a daughter who died shortly after birth; from 66 to 68 AD, to Statilia Messalina; and from 66 to 68 AD, to Sporus.
In 37 AD, Nero was known as Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; in 50 AD, he was known as Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus; and in 66 AD, he was known as Emperor Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus.
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Additionally, Nero held a number of magistracies and titles, including Pontifex maximus and Pater Patriae in 55 AD, consul in 55, 57, 58, 60, and 68 AD, and acclaimed Emperor in 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 66, and 67 AD. Nero also received the tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) in 54 AD, and had it renewed each year afterwards. His full title at the time of his death was “Emperor Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Pontifex Maximus Tribunicia Potestate XIV, Emperor XII, Consul V, Pater Patriae.”
Legacy of Nero
Henryk Siemiradzki (1843–1902), Nero’s Torches (Christian Candlesticks) (1876). National Museum in Krakow. Wikimedia Commons.
The Emperor Nero is often seen in contemporary work. Henryk Sienkiewicz’s book “Quo Vadis?” which won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1905, is one such work; so, too, are Hubert Monteilhet’s “Neropolis.”
Several movies were born from Henryk Sienkiewicz’s work, including a 1951 film directed by Mervyn Leroy and starring Peter Ustinov as Nero. Brigitte Bardot plays Poppea in the 1956 film “Nero’s Weekend,” directed by Stefano Steno. Nero has appeared on stage (in Jean Racine’s “Britannicus”), in comics, and in video games.
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Operas including Claudio Monteverdi’s “L’incoronazione di Poppea” (1642), Anton Rubinstein’s “Nero” (1879), Arrigo Boito’s “Nerone” (1924), and Pietro Mascagni’s “Nero” (1935) were all inspired by him. Nero has even lent his name to a software for burning discs called “Nero Burning ROM.”
Key Dates for Nero
- 15 December 37: Birth of Nero
Agrippina the Younger, Caligula’s sister, gave birth to Nero. That made him the Emperor’s nephew. Initially, he had no right to the throne. His mother, however, was well-known and influential, and she plotted for her son to one day become Emperor.
- 25 February 50: Claudius adopted Nero
Nero’s mother, Agrippina the Younger, was ultimately able to wed Emperor Claudius. Therefore, she also arranged for the Emperor to adopt him. Due to his seniority, Nero was anointed Emperor rather than Claudius’s younger son Britannicus.
- 13 October 54: Nero becomes Emperor
Nero became Emperor after the death of Claudius. Through the use of his authority, he had his mother murdered despite her role as an adviser at the start of his reign and he was later accused of killing his half-brother Britannicus, his chief contender for the throne. His rule was marked by brutality, an appreciation for the arts and a penchant for hedonism; he left official business in the hands of his entourage while he and his wife indulged in their passions. All of this would ultimately lead to his downfall and the end of his reign as Emperor.
- July 19, 64: Rome ravaged by a fire
The whole city of Rome was destroyed by a massive fire that started in the middle of the night near the “Circus Maximus.” It took six days to put out the fire because of its size. Having spent some time in the countryside, Emperor Nero hastened his return to the imperial city. He had a new palace constructed after the devastating blaze, and it was much larger. The commoners blamed him for starting the fire so that Rome could be rebuilt to his desires. The despotic ruler immediately pointed the finger at the Christian minority. Starting in October, he launched a campaign of extraordinary persecution against them.
- 9 June 68: Death of Nero
The reign of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty ended with Nero’s death. The Senate passed a resolution to “damnatio memoriae” him (condemnation of memory) when he passed away. Numerous civil wars and the changing of imperial dynasties characterized the year 69. It’s later called “The Year of the Four Emperors.”
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