The term “Romans” was often associated with a sense of connection to the Roman Empire and its legacy. Many Russian Tsars claimed themselves to be the successors of the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. Hence the Latin name for Roman emperors, “caesar”, is where the word “tsar” originates. This claim served as a legal and historical justification for Russia’s southward expansion and particularly its intervention in the Balkan Peninsula. The same can be said for the Ottoman Empire in Turkey: in 1453, Mehmed the Conqueror named himself “Kaiser-i Rum” or “Caesar of the Romans”.
Do Romanians Consider Themselves Romans?
In the immediate aftermath of the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, there was a decline in direct identification with Roman heritage. However, elements of Roman culture, law, and governance continued to inspire many European cultures that were once part of the Empire.
There are still people who hold such beliefs: They are the Romanians. The Romanian national anthem Awaken Thee, Romanian (also the former national anthem of Moldova) contains the following lyrics:
Wake up Romanians from your sleep of death Into which you’ve been sunk by the barbaric tyrants. Now or never, sow a new fate for yourself To which even your cruel enemies will bow!
Now or never, let us show the world That through these arms, Roman blood still flows; And that in our chests we still proudly bear a name Triumphant in battles, the name of Trajan!
“Deșteaptă-te, române!” The national anthem of Romania and the former national anthem of Moldova.
During the reign of Emperor Trajan (r. 98–117 AD), the Roman Empire reached its zenith, and present-day Romania was part of its territory. Today, the Romanians still take pride in their Roman roots, which can be traced back to the empire. In fact, the name “Romania” itself means “Land of the Romans” in Latin.
So, there are Europeans who still consider themselves “Romans” today. But even outside of Romania, there are remnants of Roman influence that persisted for a considerable period of time.
The Last of the Romans
The idea of a “Holy Roman Empire” developed throughout the Middle Ages, especially between the 8th and 15th centuries. Despite being separate from the actual Roman Empire, this group claimed descent from the city of Rome and saw its populace as “Romans,” while working to maintain and revitalize Roman customs.
Its emperors, like Charlemagne, highlighted their ties to the Roman Empire, and its territory included portions of modern-day Germany, Italy, and Central Europe.
In fact, Europeans continued to use the title “Holy Roman Emperor” up until 1806, when the Austrian Empire, which emerged in the wake of the Napoleonic Empire, formally dissolved the title.
However, the actual use of this title was merely as “Emperor” or “Emperor of the Romans” (in Latin: Imperator Romanorum, in German: Kaiser der Römer). Whether the people of Germany and Austria truly considered themselves “Romans” is a separate matter, but the term “Roman Empire” remained longer than the original nation.
Therefore, the name of the country governing the region now known as Germany continued to incorporate “Rome” until the 19th century. It is unclear how long the people in the present-day German region considered themselves “Romans,”but this formal designation endured.
Moreover, Napoleon Bonaparte named his son Napoleon II the “King of Rome.” Napoleon himself sought coronation from the Pope in Rome, emphasizing the continuity with Rome. Thus, the title of Emperor of the French also symbolized a strong connection to Rome and the Romans.
The Nations That Considered Themselves Romans
The Russian monarchs, or Tsars, claimed descent from the Romans and founded a new concept of an empire they called the ‘Third Rome’. They considered themselves the inheritors of the Byzantine Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire, and claimed to be the rightful successors to the Roman imperial legacy. This concept was first formulated in the 15th–16th centuries in the Tsardom of Rus’.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, often known as the Habsburg Empire, always insisted that it was rightfully titled “Emperor of the Romans.” The Habsburgs ensured the survival of the medieval-era Holy Roman Empire. The Habsburg rulers retained the titles of Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary even though the empire was primarily symbolic by the time of World War I.
The Ottomans, too, claimed they were the rightful heirs to the throne of Rome. The Ottomans considered Constantinople (today’s Istanbul) to be the legitimate continuation of the Roman imperial capital since they recognized themselves as the rightful heirs of the Eastern Roman Empire. By calling themselves “Kayser-i Rûm,” or “Caesar of the Romans,” they drew attention to the fact that their empire was descended from the Romans.
In Italy, during the era of Benito Mussolini’s fascist party (until 1945), there was a serious political appeal at the national level to foreground the “Roman identity.” This appeal, however, came to an end. The term “popolo di eroi” (people of heroes), as mentioned in the fascist party anthem, referred to the Romans, who envisioned the revival of a new Roman Empire centered around the Mediterranean.
Hail, people of heroes, hail, immortal Fatherland, your sons were born again with the faith and the ideal. Your warriors’ valour, your pioneers’ virtue, Alighieri’s vision, today shines in every heart. …
“Giovinezza” (Italian for ‘Youth’), official hymn of the Italian National Fascist Party,
Adolf Hitler‘s Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers’ Party) later adopted the raised-arm salute that the fascist party had previously borrowed from the Roman salute. This political symbolism aimed to evoke a sense of connection to the glorious and imperial past of ancient Rome.
However, other European powers did not accept these claims. And this historical discrepancy regarding the European nations considering themselves “Romans” has been a source of various conflicts up to this day.
When Did Europeans Detach from the Roman Identity?
Up until the First World War, there were a few more countries vying for the title of Roman Emperor alongside Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey, regardless of whether other countries recognized them or not.
However, the European powers, including Western and Southern Europe, which were once considered part of the so-called Roman world, gradually detached their countries from the Roman identity.
This began as early as the time of Henry VIII, the former King of England, during the period of religious revolution when many peripheral countries shifted from Latin to their local languages as the court and church languages in the 16th century. The complete disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire, which had already become a mere formality, occurred around the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815).
The End of “Romans”
The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire during the Napoleonic Wars marked the disappearance of any entity in Western Europe claiming the title of Roman Emperor and their populace as “Romans”.
During this period, the concept of nation-states emerged, leading to the complete abandonment of a conscious affiliation with Rome and the Roman populace. These underlying perceptions still contribute to the complex relationship between Western Europe and countries like Turkey and Russia today.
Today, Romania and the Romanian people are the only European nation that openly and officially consider themselves “Romans,” who were once the citizens of the Roman Empire and ruled by the Roman Emperor Trajan (53 AD–117 AD).
When it comes to agriculture, demography and peasant life. Significant changes and advances occurred in the 18th century, after what has been called a “miserable 17th century,” defined by many economic challenges and social conflicts. Faith in the advancement of reason and technology won out during the Age of Enlightenment and was used as a rallying cry for those who wanted social change. Despite the fact that civilization had been defined for many centuries by three extremely powerful limits (biological, nutritional, and material), the 18th century undoubtedly exhibited a more favorable condition that would progressively tear these barriers down. Population growth and significant changes in agriculture’s technological, structural, and cultural aspects provide striking examples of this trend.
Population surge in the 18th century
Throughout the modern century, France had been Europe’s most populous country, but its population of 20–22 million people appeared to be its limit. This was a significant gap from the 7 million in England, the 13 million in Germany and Italy, and the 8 million in Spain. There was widespread population expansion throughout Europe around the turn of the 18th century; by 1725, France had 25 million residents, and by 1770, it had 28 million.
A dramatic drop in death rates was mostly responsible for this development since it affected natural growth. During the Ancien Régime, a high birth rate (40 per 1000) was cruelly regulated by a high mortality rate (30 per 1000), especially among young children; one in two did not reach adulthood; life expectancy did not exceed 30 years, and the population ultimately did not grow very much. Death rates dropped (particularly among young people), while birth rates stayed about the same, leading to a rise in the proportion of males in the population beginning in the 18th century.
The general improvement in biological circumstances was the main reason for this decrease in mortality. The conquest, war, hunger, and death, a.k.a. the “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse,” at the root of the severe population decline, were now less frequent. But poor harvests due to unfavorable meteorological conditions contributed to rising grain prices across Europe, especially as a recurring theme in the Ancien Régime crises in France.
Since the majority of the peasant’s income was going toward bread at the time, they found themselves in a difficult position as prices continued to rise, especially during the time just before the harvest when grain was at a premium. Disputes erupted as a result, especially since some people stocked up on grain and then sold it at a higher price, intending to make a profit.
Droughts, of which contemporary observers were well aware, tended to be followed by other droughts. Not because there wasn’t enough food, but because it was too costly to buy. People got hungry because they didn’t have enough money to buy food, and they frequently died after eating disgusting things like bran bread, nettle soup, animal viscera collected from slaughterhouses, etc.
According to historians, rotting food was the leading cause of death worldwide. As a result of this general decline in organism strength, deadly epidemics broke out, sometimes wiping out entire villages (as happened with the plague and smallpox), wreaking havoc on the most vulnerable members of society (including children and the elderly), and driving mortality rates through the roof, as happened in Marseilles during the plague epidemic of 1750, when 50,000 people lost their lives.
These catastrophic outbreaks ended when people began eating a more diversified and regular diet in the 18th century. Crop failures became less frequent as the climate warmed up from the harsh conditions of the Little Ice Age, which had lasted for the preceding century. The introduction of potatoes and corn (5 times more nutritious than wheat), as well as the development of vegetable crops, allowed everyone to better resist epidemics and very frequent and symptomatic deficiencies (large bellies, teeth problems, etc.) People were generally better nourished and healthier.
In the 18th century, basic hygiene practices improved, which helped keep infants and mothers healthy. But the well water was often tainted by the manure at the peasants’ doorstep. In the realm of birthing, which had hitherto been the domain of matrons with only empirical knowledge and no consideration for cleanliness, significant strides were achieved. With the advent of more sophisticated infrastructure and educated staff, medicalized births became the norm.
The midwife Angélique du Coudray, who in 1756 was granted a royal patent allowing her to teach the art of delivery in the provinces, or the “surgeon man-midwife” Mauquest de La Motte, who in 1715 produced a treatise on natural and unnatural childbirth. Because of the shocking death rate among young children, attitudes about children were shifting worldwide, and more and more individuals were diligent about placing youngsters in foster homes.
The number of wars that occurred outside of the kingdoms likewise decreased in the 18th century. Previously, many lives were lost on the front lines because of war. Yet its repercussions were as devastating: damage, fires, theft of food and cattle, etc., happened all along the route of the soldiers, who brought a lot of illnesses to their countries. Therefore, the significance of peace was evident but still limited to far-off lands like the War of the Austrian Succession, for example.
As a result, in the 18th century, the population increased dramatically around the world due to the favorable biological circumstances brought on by the peace.
Changing agriculture
Summer, Brueghel the Younger. (Image: Wikimedia Commons)
To meet the food needs of a growing population, agriculture also progressed, undergoing significant changes during the same period. The first was the development of more efficient tools. Since the last 1000 years, it had changed very little. It was mainly constructed of wood, yet it was fitted to the farming methods of the period and still resulted in subpar harvests. The technological systems, however, progressed in the 18th century.
The historian Bertrand Gille introduced this concept which outlines a cohesive group of technologies that together represent a distinct epoch in the development of both technology and society. When the peasants began to access better tools, the resulting increase in revenue was substantial in the 18th century. So, a bigger plow was accomplished by developing a plow with more iron and using the third horse for the carriage. At this time, the scythe replaced the sickle.
In this period, the constraining crop rotation systems started to change, demanding that farmers observe certain planting and harvesting cycles, as well as rest intervals in between harvests. A quadrennial rotation, also known as the “Norfolk rotation” or “Norfolk four-course system,” was actually first adopted in England in the 17th century, evolving from the bi-annual rotation (alternating a cultivated plot with a fallow plot) and the tri-annual rotation (a plot of winter wheat, a plot of spring wheat, and a fallow plot). An example of the Norfolk rotation was the plot of wheat, the plot of fodder turnip, the plot of barley, and the plot of clover.
This rotation had the advantage of eliminating fallow land and promoting livestock. By including animal grazing on clover plots as part of the rotation, a significantly more efficient source of nitrogen was made available compared to the conventional manuring methods of using ashes and manure.
As a result of this boost in output, individual vineyard sites became more highly specialized. Large swaths of land across Europe were now devoted to grain monoculture, whereas the poorer soil was more likely to be used for market gardening. These places honed their craft and were dedicated to producing only the highest quality crops, such as wine.
More grains also implied more straw and other feed for cattle. Livestock had traditionally been relied upon as a safety net in times of need; however, because of the prevalence of feed crises, these animals were generally of low quality and quantity. Increased cattle productivity throughout time improved soil fertilization methods.
Manure was formerly only accessible in limited amounts, was easily spoiled, and allowed for only average soil preparation, but now some farmers were able to trade straw for it. In addition, the gradual elimination of grazing and the enclosure of land, both of which were already practiced in England and which gradually saw the emergence of private property and facilitated the implementation of the new techniques mentioned above, resulted from the improved availability of fodder.
New crop species, such as potatoes and corn, were developed in the 18th century after being transported from the Americas towards the end of the 16th century. With corn’s greater yield than wheat, inexpensive flour could be produced, making it a viable alternative to more costly grains like rye, barley, and buckwheat. After being put to use as fodder for cattle to help with the perennial issue of cow feeding, it found its way into the diets of the impoverished as a supplement. Even though wheat was considered a staple food, potatoes were five times more nutritious.
Clearly, agriculture was flourishing, as shown by the plethora of agronomy books. In the wake of the Enlightenment and the ideas of the physiocrats around the year 1750, led by François Quesnay, agriculture was seen as the sole productive sector of the economy. A large portion of the nobility and wealthy landowners were swayed by the physiocrats’ ideas. They tried growing several kinds of plants, using crop rotation strategies, etc. Lavoisier, a scientist, professor, and farmer-general, was actively engaged in this movement.
The agricultural sector, which accounted for three-quarters of the physical product in the 18th century, saw significant improvement due to the convergence of a number of factors (tools, new crops, physiocrats, etc.). This allowed the sector to increase its yield and its production, thereby supporting the rising population.
Peasant life in the 18th century
Even with the observed population improvement, stark differences were present. The first was the inevitability of death. Infant mortality had gone down, but it was still terrible since advancement was gradual, hygiene standards hadn’t improved much, people lived in crowded, unsanitary conditions, and animals were close by, all of which contributed to the spread of illness. Education in general and literacy specifically were both on the rise. However, ignorance persisted, particularly in rural areas.
Some scholars started to believe that a significant number of fatalities could be attributed to the lack of education among mothers. As if that weren’t enough, there was also the burden of tradition and superstition, both of which were condemned by Erasmus, for instance, in the 16th century. Most moderns were aware of this condition of widespread belief and recognized it for the constraining force that it was. As a preventative measure against rabies, local farmers traditionally took their animals to churches to be blessed.
Most people, especially farmers (who made up the vast majority of the population), still lived in abject poverty. Even though the number of crises was decreasing, people were still vulnerable to epidemics like the one in Marseille in 1750 and natural disasters like the Great Frost in 1709. In addition, each crisis was accompanied by the phenomenon of wandering as people tried to escape their current situation in the hopes of finding a better one elsewhere. Those living in dire circumstances typically took on debt well in excess of their property’s worth to cover costs like taxes, seeds, and farm equipment.
Even though there were more people to feed as a result of the population boom, and this boosted agricultural output to some extent, the reality was that the influx of people led to a fragmentation of land and estates, worsening the already precarious situation of the peasants, especially as rent rose and the owners became wealthier and more able to exploit them.
Persistently traditional
There had been development in agriculture, to be sure, but by no means can we call it a revolution. The rate of development varied widely from one state to the next. As a result of a number of incremental improvements, a step forward was made, albeit only in a certain area. In this mostly wooden society, iron tools were still a rarity, and the transmission of information from generation to generation within the agricultural community was not conducive to technological advancement.
Farmers in regions where life was based primarily on cereal monoculture were much more vulnerable to the effects of a bad harvest than their counterparts in other regions where a more diverse culture was possible thanks to favorable climate and soil conditions, even if bread continued to form the basis of the food bowl.
The new crops were met with stiff opposition. Corn and potatoes, despite their numerous benefits, continued to be utilized primarily as livestock feed and as emergency food sources. Despite the favorable attitude toward corn in certain lands, these plants were having a hard time breaking through. This opposition existed in part because local farmers feared economic ruin if they “missed” a harvest of a plant they had never cultivated before. In 1840, around one-third of most European agricultural lands were still considered fallow.
After all that, the English enclosure system, popular since the 17th century, was seen as a threat to communal farms. A sizable portion of the peasant population had their access to resources cut off as a result of these field enclosures and grazing prohibitions.
Efforts in the field of hygiene were the cause of the population boom, although advancement was modest and uneven across urban and rural areas. Due to widespread hostility against change, conventional farming practices persisted during the 18th century.
Food safety rules are usually called into question in the wake of health problems in the meat sector, such as mad cow disease, hand-foot-and-mouth disease, and avian flu. Nonetheless, this kind of inquiry is not novel. In fact, the West has been monitoring and regulating food, particularly meat, since the Middle Ages due to concerns about the presence of unhealthy and corrupt meat. Media coverage of meat crises sometimes draws parallels to the “medieval” era, but what about the real hygiene standards of the actual Middle Ages?
Laws to Regulate Butchery in the Middle Ages
Avoiding the potential dangers associated with consuming meat was a top priority for the ruling classes of the medieval western world. But even though these threats were often misdiagnosed or not taken seriously in other ways, they caused a lot of worry and anxiety.
A medieval baker punished for breaking the rules.
A complex and fruitful legal system was the end result of this. Lords, municipalities, and even the monarch himself, on rare occasions, issued decrees to maintain public peace and safety. Rather than being only suggestions, they were actual “laws” that had to be discussed (sometimes bitterly) and came with enforcement mechanisms like checks and balances and penalties for breaking them.
Most medieval texts on meat distribution were written between 1200 and 1500 AD.
The Charter of Mirepoix, enacted in 1303 AD, is a prime example of the kind of meat regulation that was common in the Middle Ages. The fact that it was signed in front of the city lord, notaries, law professors, city officials, and all the butchers of the city shows that King Philip IV of France knew about the legal, economic, and political issues surrounding food.
This charter was not even exceptional. Most medieval texts on meat distribution were written between 1200 and 1500 AD. In the urban centers of southern France and Italy, it was mostly the work of municipal leaders to standardize the sale of meat. Legal matters were taken up by medieval guilds in the northern hemisphere, such as the Parisian butcher’s shop, whose bylaws were enforced upon all butchers in the city.
From the 13th century forward, medieval European society placed a greater emphasis on food law, which was formed in a disjointed and ad hoc fashion by a variety of means, including conventions, ordinances, capitulations, charters, laws, etc. Sometimes, the enforcement of this legislation was harsh.
Animal Products That Were Forbidden
While Christians have not been bound by the dietary taboos that Jews and Muslims observe, there are still times when it’s best to steer clear of animal products for the sake of public health. People in the Middle Ages often consulted Greek and Roman historians like Hippocrates and Galen to help them figure this out.
In the Middle Ages, animals were the target of two legal restrictions. The first involved goats, which had more to do with making dairy products than anything else. Goat meat was devalued in the cities because, according to Hippocrates, it was thought to spread illnesses like fever and cholera. Despite health concerns, the selling of kids (baby goats) was sometimes allowed. And this was justified by the prevailing desire for its flavor.
Horse meat was the second kind of meat that was never allowed in the Middle Ages. The Church viewed its consumption as a primitive and paganic act, but the common man saw the animal as a work buddy helping to plow the fields or even as a confidant. Therefore, the practice of eating horse meat gained a bad reputation during the era.
So, butchers could sell sheep, cattle, and pork meat from their shops as long as the meat was “excellent, useful, and not sick,” according to Middle Ages meat consumption charters.
Since medical advancement was so slow during this period, any and all prohibitions could be instituted at the first sign of a disease. Disease transmission from animals to humans was a major issue for medieval man when it came to the safety of food sources. People went to great lengths to prevent illnesses like leprosy (from Leptospira bacteria).
Medieval Practices for Slaughter and Sales
The slaughtering of animals was subject to some of the most stringent hygienic regulations in the Middle Ages with regard to meat. Among the various regulations, one that stands out is the requirement that animals enter the city on foot and go through sanitary control before being butchered.
As early as 1450, butchers in the Italian city of Verona were compelled to kill animals in their shops, albeit they were typically not permitted to do so in their homes and had to instead utilize public slaughterhouses. The administration further worked on improving the regulation by creating a physical barrier between the slaughterhouse and the market. The animals had to get to these places on their own, which gave the buyer confidence that they were in good health.
Each animal was charged as it entered the city, with the tax system providing additional financial support for sanitary regulations. The animals were then given a thorough internal and external checkup to make sure they were healthy before being put to death. After that, butchers could still slaughter animals and sell them, but they had to follow more rules.
The sale of any perishable item required special attention, and the meat was no exception. Due to the impossibility of storing goods and the rigidity of sales windows, butchers operated on a just-in-time, demand-driven model. These deadlines were often two or three days, or at the very latest, a day and a half, after the animal was slaughtered.
Butchers were allowed to store freshly slaughtered meat for two days in the winter and one and a half days in the summer. Moreover, beef was not the only product that was subject to tight standards at the moment of sale; bread, milk, fish, and shellfish were all subject to similar rules. It was against the law for pork butchers and sausage makers to sell cooked meat. This was done to stop the sale of leftovers and the spread of disease.
After Everything Is Said and Done
So, is it fair to compare any contemporary meat scandals to the butchery standards of the Middle Ages? The laws regarding the sale and consumption of meat in the Middle Ages were impressive, but there could be a significant discrepancy between theory and practice, leaving historians to wonder whether these standards were ever really respected by the medieval butchers. But the reality is that maintaining hygienic standards seems to have been a priority for medieval civilization, a concern that echoes the persistent fiction of a meat-related phobia in contemporary culture.
The Peace of Westphalia (Treaties of Westphalia) are a set of three foundational documents that signal the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War and the Eighty Years’ War, respectively, between European nations. On January 30, 1648, the first of many agreements was signed. The Treaties of Osnabrück and the Second Treaty of Münster, signed on October 24, 1648, marked the conclusion of the talks. The diplomatic ties between nations were altered as a result of this historical event. Major shifts in territorial control also occurred.
What events led to the Peace of Westphalia?
As part of the Thirty Years’ War, Protestant German nations opposed the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Between four and seven million people perished, while another 130,000-160,000 went missing.
During the Eighty Years’ War, the Spanish Monarchy and the independent United Provinces of the Netherlands were at war with one another.
The root reasons of both wars were complex, including religion, politics, and territory. These conflicts encompassed almost every major European state and monarchy. France, Austria, Hungary, and even Norway were especially crucial examples. Before the Treaties of Westphalia, Europe was dominated by two powerful states: the French and Swedish monarchies. After the treaties were ratified, the two later groups benefited the most. It was mostly because of political and religious repercussions that caused this.
How were the Peace Treaties of Westphalia negotiated and drafted?
Münster, Germany was the site of the first talks. They happened toward the end of 1644. They moved to Osnabrück, Germany the next year. A number of problems emerged throughout these efforts at reconciliation, and not only because of religious differences. Separatism of certain regions, such as the Netherlands’ United Provinces, was one of them.
In addition to political interests and geographical sovereignty, there were additional obstacles that prevented a universal signing. Most of Europe’s countries were represented, excluding Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and England. The Treaties of Westphalia formalized the first large-scale union of European nations and established the foundation for the mutual respect that has since characterized international relations in the region. Furthermore, Western Christian ideals were cast aside in favor of state supremacy.
Which articles did the Peace of Westphalia contain?
The Peace of Westphalia consisted of three texts:
The Treaty of Münster, which was signed on January 30, 1648, ended the war between the United Provinces and the Spanish Empire. This country recognized the United Provinces’ independence and kept some of the Spanish Netherlands’ land. A high international court of justice was also called for in the text. In 1675, it was broken up. The treaty also tried to speed up decision-making, which was needed to keep fines from being put in place.
As for the second document of the Treaty of Münster, it was signed on October 1648. It served as a reminder of the peace treaty between the French monarchy and the Holy Roman Empire. The latter gave up the province of the Three Bishoprics as well as the regions of Alsace and several fortresses in Lorraine like Moyenvic. The German princes maintained their lands and continued to be subject to the legislation of the Holy Roman Empire, notwithstanding Alsace’s allegiance.
The Treaty of Osnabrück was confirmed between the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Sweden on 24 October 1648, four months after it was first signed on 4 September 1648. It was the final paragraph of the Treaties of Westphalia and puts a definitive end to the Thirty Years’ War.
Peace of Westphalia established what norms for international relations?
The Peace of Westphalia laid the groundwork for the contemporary political structure of Europe. It was the first time when the leading politicians and nations of Europe came together. Decentralization was the implication.
As a result, leaders or their agents were given more leeway in making decisions and carrying out administrative duties. By signing the eponymous treaties, each state was able to gain the legitimacy and acceptance of its peers, a necessary step in establishing a “Westphalian” system. The discussion of religion was shelved in order to make room for equal rights. The old order, which had made Christianity in the West a unifying symbol, was not on the forefront anymore.
The Treaties of Westphalia represented a major shift for nations and kingdoms in international relations. Norms were established to guarantee neutral discussions, uninfluenced by any dominant political or religious system, such as a monarchy or the Christian faith. There was less wiggle space for the monarchs, and the idea of the people began to gain traction.
How did the Holy Roman Empire restructure in the German case?
Because to the Treaties of Westphalia, the Holy Roman Empire had to be restructured from the ground up. After that, it was split up into 350 individual German states, which boosted the authority of the regional leaders (the princes) and weakened the Habsburg dynasty. “Territorial supremacy” describes this situation well. It extended to theological, temporal, and civil affairs. The Imperial Diet (governmental body) was tasked with resolving any and all potential disputes and alliances, as well as handling any other matters of state. It is important to understand that the imperial cities were also subject to this arrangement.
What effects did the Peace of Westphalia have on religion?
The Lutheran, Calvinist, and Catholic faiths were all acknowledged as legitimate by the Peace of Westphalia. Protestants, like everyone else, were guaranteed the right to worship freely. More so, Lutherans were given the same rights as Calvinists. There were at least 24 Protestants in the Imperial Chamber of fifty, and ecclesiastical authority was abolished. That is to say, the Treaties of Westphalia made it illegal to meddle with people’s religious practices. This was a historic first for international relations in general. No nation’s religious affiliation was held against it as a whole.
HIGHLIGHTS OF PEACE OF WESTPHALIA
August 20, 1648 – Last battle of the Thirty Years’ War
Archduke Leopold-Guillaume of Habsburg had taken the town of Lens three days before to the conflict. The Thirty Years’ War ended with this last combat. On August 20, 1648, it opposed the kingdom of France against the Spanish Monarchy. More than 4,500 people were killed or injured in the conflict. There were almost 5,000 Spanish prisoners of war taken by the victorious Kingdom of France.
January 30, 1648: The independence of the United Provinces is recognized in the Treaty of Münster
The peace of Münster, the first of the Westphalian treaties to be signed, formalized the Spanish monarchy’s recognition of the independence of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. The Thirty Years’ War between the two sides ended as a result of this. This new nation was now politically autonomous on the European scale, apart from the Spanish Netherlands.
Treaties of Westphalia were released to the public on October 24, 1648
On October 24, 1648, the Treaties of Westphalia were published after the signing of the second Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück. They declared a shift in European geopolitics and the establishment of more egalitarian international relations that put religion to one side. The agreements also limited the desires of nations and monarchies to expand their territories.
The Thirty Years’ War corresponds to a series of religious and political conflicts that unfolded in Europe from May 23, 1618, to October 24, 1648. It witnessed the clash of two factions: the Catholic Habsburgs of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, and the Protestant princes of the German states within the Holy Roman Empire. Most European nations participated in this war, resulting in significant human casualties, estimated at between 4 and 7 million deaths.
The Peace of Westphalia, signed in October 1648, marks the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War. Germany officially divided its religious and political powers, with France emerging as a dominant force in European relations, while Spain underwent a perilous decline.
Why Did the Thirty Years’ War Take Place?
Martin Luther in 1528 by Lucas Cranach the Elder.
The Protestant Reformation has its origins in the “95 Theses,” drafted by Martin Luther in 1517. Protestantism then spread to Prussia and the Northern countries; Germanic princes converted. In 1555, the signing of the Peace of Augsburg confirmed that two religions could coexist in Germany: Lutherans and Catholics.
The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, considered his failure to protect Catholicism and withdrew from political life in 1556. His brother, Ferdinand I, inherited the Empire, and his son inherited the Kingdom of Spain. For years, the ideas of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation spread across Europe.
However, on May 23, 1618, Bohemian Protestants revolted against their new Catholic king. The recently elected king has decided to Catholicize his kingdom, leading to a dispute where representatives of the Catholic empire are thrown out of windows. This event, known as the Defenestration of Prague, marks the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War.
In 1619, Emperor Matthias I died, and his cousin, Ferdinand II, who was also the King of Bohemia, was elected to lead the Holy Roman Empire. Dissatisfied, the Bohemians elect a new king, and the Elector Palatine, Frederick V. Ferdinand II, intervenes to crush the rebellion.
Who Fought in the Thirty Years’ War?
Battle of White Mountain. Artist: Peter Snayers (1592–1667)
The religious conflict of the Thirty Years’ War began in Germany, stemming from the Bohemian uprising. The Protestant princes of the Evangelical Union (including the Elector Palatine, the Duke of Neuburg, and the Duke of Wurttemberg, among others) rose against the Catholic Holy League (including the Emperor, the Kingdom of Spain, Saxony, Poland, Bavaria, etc.). The Bohemian army was crushed in the Battle of White Mountain on November 8, 1620.
In late 1624, the King of Denmark supported the Protestants, but his army faced defeat, leading to the signing of the Peace of Lübeck in 1629. In the same year, the King of Sweden intervened in solidarity with the Lutherans, but he died in 1632 during the Battle of Lützen.
Emperor Ferdinand II secured the Peace of Prague on May 30, 1635, returning to the status quo of the Peace of Augsburg. Louis XIII‘s France, surrounded by the Habsburgs, saw advantages in weakening the empire. France entered the war in 1635 alongside Sweden, after covert involvement for years.
The Spanish were defeated by Grand Condé in the Battle of Rocroi on May 19, 1643. The war persisted until 1648, concluding with the Battle of Lens, a French victory against the Habsburgs of the Netherlands.
Alsace and Lorraine During the Thirty Years’ War
Alsace and Lorraine were among the regions most severely affected by the Thirty Years’ War. They were devastated by the passage of several armies, including Swedish, Spanish, and French troops.
Confusion is fueled by residents turning to banditry to escape poverty. Different nations employ mercenaries, which are sometimes challenging to control. The price of wheat reaches unprecedented heights, forcing residents to subsist on roots and herbs. Twenty years of famine, epidemics, and exodus have led to a decrease of half or even three-quarters of the population in these regions.
Did Massacres Take Place During the Thirty Years’ War?
The Thirty Years’ War resulted in between 4 and 7 million casualties, comprising both military personnel and civilians. Various armies engaged in atrocities, such as massacres, rapes, and tortures, often driven by a desire for revenge. An illustrative incident is the sack of Magdeburg in 1631, where Catholic League troops brutally killed 25,000 out of the city’s 30,000 inhabitants.
In 1635, the women of a village sought refuge atop a mountain, subsequently choosing suicide upon the approach of Swedish forces, leading to the naming of the mountain in the Vosges as the “Planche des Belles Filles.” Mercenaries, when faced with negligible or non-existent pay, resorted to self-remuneration through the perpetration of similar atrocities.
Aftermath of Thirty Years’ War
Peace of Münster (Gerard ter Borch, Münster, 1648).
After the treaties of Westphalia, signed on October 24, 1648, Germany was the most affected country, and some of its provinces (Saxony, Palatinate, Alsace, Lorraine) lost up to half of their population. It was not less than one in five inhabitants that disappeared in this war-torn Central Europe. Sweden, France, and Spain also struggled economically to recover, even though France gained new territories (Metz, Toul, Verdun, part of Alsace, Belfort, Artois, and Roussillon) and became a hegemonic power.
Meanwhile, Sweden solidified its power in the Baltic and acquired several territories. Denmark lost its status as a major power. The Holy Roman Empire was divided into numerous small independent states, and a new religious peace was established. Bohemia remains the hereditary territory of the Habsburgs. Switzerland and the United Provinces (Netherlands) gained their independence.
The power of the Kingdom of Spain, on the other hand, began to decline, along with the supremacy of the Habsburgs. France continued the war against Spain until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. Peace was restored with the marriage of Louis XIV and Maria Theresa of Spain.
Timeline of Thirty Years’ War
May 23, 1618: The Defenestration of Prague
A group of Czech Protestants goes to the royal castle in Prague, attacks the king’s representatives, and throws two of his lieutenants out of the window. The unrest stems from the issue of the succession of King Mathias, who designated the Duke Ferdinand of Styria as an uncompromising Catholic. The two thrown-out individuals land in a pile of manure and escape unharmed, but this event marks the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648).
November 8, 1620: Battle of White Mountain
Bohemian Protestants are crushed by the German troops of the Walloon Count Jean de Tilly, west of Prague. The Protestant revolt had risen against Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg, who aimed to curtail the freedom of the insurgents. Following this battle, the sovereign would impose severe repression against the Protestants and annex the region until 1918.
1621: The Dutch Republic Resumes War with Spain
The Prince of Orange, Maurice of Nassau, seizes the opportunity presented by the end of the twelve-year truce signed in 1609 to reignite the conflict against Spain. In this context, the Dutch Republic would join France in the Thirty Years’ War. Maurice of Nassau would not participate for long, as he died in 1625. His brother, Frederick Henry of Nassau, would take up the mantle and contribute to the recognition of the independence of the Dutch Republic by Spain in 1648.
March 31, 1621: Death of Philip III of Spain
After being ill for several years, Philip III, King of Spain, Portugal, and the Algarves, died on March 31, 1621, from dehydration. While the sovereign complained about the heat, there was no one by his side to extinguish the fireplace. His son Philip IV succeeded him. Particularly devout, Philip IV spent his reign in prayer and expended a significant part of the royal fortune on the extravagances of his court.
March 31, 1621: Start of the Reign of Philip IV of Spain
Following his father Philip III’s death, the Prince of Asturias became the King of Spain, Portugal, and the Two Sicilies on March 31, 1621, under the title of Philip IV. Born in 1605, this king, now known as Philip the Great, used his early years in power to strengthen the Habsburg power in Europe. Until the end of his reign in 1665, Philip IV was a great patron and collector.
July 10, 1621: Death of the Count of Bucquoy
A master of defensive warfare, Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy, was also a lord in the Spanish Netherlands. Born in 1571, he distinguished himself at the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War in the service of the Holy Roman Empire. He achieved many victories but lost his life on July 10, 1621, at the siege of Neuhäusl, or Nové Zàmky in Slovakia, against the troops of the Prince of Transylvania, Gabriel Bethlen.
August 4, 1621: Invasion of Livonia by Sweden
On August 4, 1621, the Livonian region, then part of Poland, was invaded by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and his armed forces. The two nations had been at war since 1600 due to the claims of the King of Poland, Sigismund III Vassa, to the Swedish throne. Through this forceful invasion, Sweden conquered Livonia, the region around Riga, and Courland.
February 25, 1628: Start of the War of the Mantuan Succession
The Thirty Years’ War unfolded in Europe from 1618 to 1648 and pitted the French against the Habsburgs on the southern front. They vie for the succession of the Duchy of Mantua, north of Italy, after the extinction of the elder branch of the Gonzaga in 1627. In 1628, Louis XIII and Richelieu crossed the Alps and delivered Mantua in 1630. The duchy will go to the Dukes of Nevers, a French branch.
July 7, 1628: Start of the Siege of the City of Stralsund by Wallenstein
Siege of Stralsund (1628)
Following the Defenestration of Prague in 1618, Europe was plunged into the Thirty Years’ War. The Duke of Friedland, Albrecht Wallenstein, the supreme commander of the armies of the Holy Roman Empire, created an army of 50,000 men in 1623. After some notable actions, he began the siege of the Hanseatic city of Stralsund, a German city in Mecklenburg-Pomerania. Wallenstein will be forced to lift it after eleven weeks due to a lack of reinforcements.
May 22, 1629: Signing of the Treaty of Lübeck
The Treaty of Lübeck was signed in the city of the same name, located in northern Germany, on May 22, 1629. The parties involved were the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II and the King of Denmark, Christian IV. The Peace of Lübeck followed the invasion of Danish lands by Catholic armies.
According to the terms of the peace, Denmark was compelled to refrain from interfering in the wars of the Holy Roman Empire; prisoners from each side were to be released; and both parties also waived the damages caused by the conflict.
September 25, 1629: Signing of the Treaty of Altmark
The Treaty of Altmark was signed following the defeat of the Swedes against Imperial and Polish-Lithuanian forces at Honigfelde, near Stuhm, where Gustavus Adolphus narrowly escaped capture. The truce was signed for six years under the diplomatic influence of Richelieu.
The Swedes now occupied the entire Baltic coastline. On September 25, 1629, Poland ceded several ports in East Prussia, including Königsberg, and the customs revenues of Danzig to the Livonian region along the Dvina. In exchange, Sweden returned the Duchy of Prussia, excluding the coastal territory.
July 6, 1630: Sweden Enters the Thirty Years’ War
In the midst of the Thirty Years’ War, King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden negotiated the Treaty of Barwald with France, securing diplomatic and military support in the Baltic region. After several victorious battles against Poland and the Baltic provinces, he landed in Pomerania on July 6, 1630, and deployed his army, the Hakkapélites. He consolidated his positions for almost a year and achieved another victory against the Catholic League’s army, notably at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631. His army advanced to the Danube.
November 1630: Beginning of the Siege of Magdeburg
The Holy Roman Empire’s army began the Siege of Magdeburg, the capital of Saxony-Anhalt. This Protestant city was a key player in the Hanseatic League, dominating European trade at the time. Despite its strong fortifications, Magdeburg resisted Catholic forces until the arrival of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who had been achieving military victories since entering the conflict.
Nevertheless, the city fell in 1631 to the Imperial army, resulting in the massacre of its inhabitants and the complete destruction of the city, an event so brutal that the term “Magdeburgization (Sack of Magdeburg)” became synonymous with total destruction.
December 1, 1630: George I Rákóczi Becomes Voivode of Transylvania
George I Rákóczi, son of Sigismund II Rákóczi, became the Prince of Transylvania, known as “voivode,” on December 1, 1630. Although the throne was supposed to go to his brother Stephen III Bethlen, the support of Catherine of Brandenburg, a powerful woman in the nobility, worked in George’s favor. He married Zsuzsanna Lorántffy, who bore him two sons to succeed him.
During the Thirty Years’ War, the voivode sided with the Protestants, fighting alongside France and Sweden against the Holy Roman Empire. He preserved religious freedom in western Hungary and maintained Transylvania’s independence.
January 23, 1631: Signing of the Treaty of Barwald between France and Sweden
In 1631, King Louis XIII of France decided to support King Gustave Adolphe II of Sweden in his struggle against the Holy Roman Empire. This marked France’s entry into the Thirty Years’ War against the Habsburgs. On January 23, the two sovereigns signed the Treaty of Barwald, establishing a political, military, and commercial alliance.
Cardinal Richelieu was able to equip the rapidly expanding royal navy because of the materials the Swedes provided. Sweden also committed to leading an army of 30,000 soldiers and 6,000 knights in Germany. In return, France incurred a debt of 1.5 million livres tournois per year to Sweden. This treaty lasted until the restoration of peace.
April 6, 1631: End of the War of the Mantuan Succession—Treaty of Cherasco
The War of the Mantuan Succession, a peripheral conflict of the Thirty Years’ War, pitted the French against the Habsburgs over the possession of Mantua after the extinction of the Gonzaga line and the vacancy of the duchy. After several battles, the conflicts of the Thirty Years’ War forced the belligerents to focus on matters other than Mantua. Pope Urban VIII intervened and sent a mediator, Jules Mazarin, who later became Cardinal Mazarin.
The Treaty of Cherasco was signed on April 6, 1631. The disputed territory was divided between the opposing parties, and France received a strategically important fortress, Pinerolo, providing access to the plain of the Italian river Po.
September 17, 1631: Protestant Victory at the Battle of Breitenfeld
The Battle of Breitenfeld marked the first significant victory for the Protestants under Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden against the Catholics under General Tilly during the Thirty Years’ War. The two armies clashed on September 17, 1631, near Breitenfeld, north of Leipzig. Despite seven charges by the light cavalry of Count Pappenheim, the squadrons of cavalry interspersed with musket-armed infantry under Gustavus Adolphus eventually routed the Catholic army.
This victory led other Protestant states to join Sweden, demonstrating that the well-equipped and pike-heavy Imperial armies could be defeated by mobile troops and the power of firearms.
April 19, 1632: Death of King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland and Sweden
After the death of Stephen Bathory I, Sigismund III of the Vasa dynasty was elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1587, despite the claims of Maximilian III of Austria. Sigismund was also to succeed his father on the throne of Sweden and was crowned in Uppsala in 1594, with the condition that the country could remain Protestant.
He then returned to Poland and sought an alliance with the Habsburgs to lead the Central European powers in a war against the Turks. During his absence, his uncle worked to gain power in Sweden, and after a short succession war, Sigismund had to relinquish the throne and leave Sweden, paving the way for several Polish-Swedish wars.
From 1605 to 1618, he led his army into Russia, gaining several territories in the Smolensk region. When the Thirty Years’ War broke out in 1618, he sided with the Catholics. His son, Ladislaus IV, succeeded him in this struggle.
April 30, 1632: Death of General Tilly, Commander-in-Chief of the Holy Roman Empire’s Armies
Jean t’Serclaes, Count of Tilly, served as the Commander-in-Chief of the armies of the Catholic League and the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years’ War. Born in 1559, he was raised in the Catholic faith and by the Jesuits.
He won significant battles, such as the Battle of Stadtlohn against Christian of Brunswick in 1623 and the Battle of Lutter in 1626 against Christian IV of Denmark, who later signed the Peace of Lübeck. In August 1630, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief after the dismissal of Wallenstein.
He was responsible for the sack and near-destruction of Magdeburg, which he besieged in 1631 against Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and later suffered defeat against the Swedes at Breitenfeld. While attempting to oppose their advance towards Munich, he was wounded at the Battle of Rain am Lech and died on April 30, 1632.
November 6, 1632: Death of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden at the Battle of Lützen
Near Leipzig in Saxony-Anhalt, Generalissimo Wallenstein’s army of the Holy Roman Empire faced Protestant armies under Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, during the Thirty Years’ War. The Battle of Lützen would be one of the most significant, as the King of Sweden met his death. Upon learning of the approach of the Swedes, Wallenstein sent a message to General Pappenheim, asking him to join with his troops.
Pappenheim’s forces immediately departed, but they were 40 kilometers away from Wallenstein. The next day, the battle favored the Swedes, but Pappenheim arrived with reinforcements of 3,000 cavalry. He succumbed during the first charge, and shortly after noon, King Gustavus Adolphus was also fatally wounded during another charge. However, this did not prevent the Protestants from continuing and winning the battle, ultimately securing the protection of Saxony from the Emperor.
November 6, 1632: Accession to the Throne of Queen Christina of Sweden
King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was mortally wounded at the Battle of Lützen on November 16, 1632. Foresighted and having only one daughter, he had ensured that she could succeed him by abolishing the exclusively male succession in 1627.
Christina of Sweden, barely 6 years old, thus ascended to the throne. She remained under the tutelage of Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna until her majority in 1644. Queen Christina then dismissed her guardian and advocated for lasting peace after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. This treaty, which granted Sweden numerous territories, made Sweden the leading power in the Nordic region.
She abdicated in 1654 and secretly converted to Catholicism before being welcomed in Italy, where Pope Alexander VII gave her communion.
November 8, 1632: Election of Ladislaus IV Vasa to the Throne of Poland and the Beginning of His Reign
Ladislaus IV, the only son of Sigismund III of Poland and a member of the Vasa dynasty, was elected King of Poland by the Diet, the assembly of Polish nobles, on November 8, 1632. At 15 years old, while his father fought the Russian army and took Moscow, Ladislaus was proclaimed Tsar by a small faction of the boyars, but the Russians rejected this nomination and revolted against the 3,000 Polish soldiers stationed at the Kremlin.
Although defeated, Ladislaus claimed the title of Tsar of Russia until 1634. He also fought against the Ottomans in 1621 and then against the Swedes from 1626 to 1629, establishing himself as a defender of Catholicism. He even dreamed of leading a crusade to regain the Balkans, then under Ottoman rule.
On November 8, 1632, the Diet elected Ladislaus as King of Poland. He proclaimed Poland neutral during the Thirty Years’ War, although he later married Archduchess Cecilia Renata of the Habsburgs.
December 1, 1633: Death of the Spanish Infanta, Archduchess of Austria, and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands
Born in 1566, Isabella Clara Eugenia of Austria, from the Habsburg dynasty, was the daughter of King Philip II of Spain and the granddaughter of King Henry II of France. She could claim the throne of Spain, as well as that of France and the Duchy of Brittany. Faced with opposition, she received the throne of the Netherlands in dowry through her marriage to Albert of Austria, the son of Emperor Maximilian II.
Her court included renowned artists like Rubens and Brueghel. The couple managed to establish peace between the Protestant Netherlands and Catholic Spain, fostering economic prosperity. Albert died in 1621, and Isabella died on December 1, 1633, after ensuring a period of calm. In 1648, the Treaty of Westphalia marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War, and the Netherlands would be definitively separated from the Spanish crown.
1634: Beginning of the Ten Years’ War in Franche-Comté
While the Thirty Years’ War raged in Europe, the territory of Franche-Comté was peaceful and under Spanish rule. King Philip II of Spain died in 1598, leaving the Netherlands and Franche-Comté to his daughter, Infanta Isabella of Spain, and her husband Albert of Austria. Isabella renewed the neutrality pact concerning Franche-Comté with France in 1611, a pact to be respected until at least 1640.
After Isabella and her husband passed away, Franche-Comté’s fate fell into the hands of Philip IV of Spain. As the Holy Roman Empire achieved several victories, Cardinal Richelieu pointed out to King Louis XIII of France that Burgundy and Franche-Comté would be easy to conquer. Concerned about the Catholic advance, Louis XIII broke the neutrality pact in 1634 and sent an army of 25,000 led by the Prince of Condé.
The Ten Years’ War had begun and would only end in 1644 after France ceased hostilities in exchange for 40,000 ecus.
February 25, 1634: Assassination of General Wallenstein After Being Accused by Emperor Ferdinand II
During the Thirty Years’ War, Commander Wallenstein assembled a large army of nearly 50,000 men to fight on behalf of Emperor Ferdinand II. After some dazzling victories, he retired to Bohemia, near Pilsen, to reflect on his actions with astrologers and doctors. It is acknowledged that he negotiated with enemy powers to be placed on the throne of Bohemia, thereby threatening the emperor’s succession by his son Ferdinand III.
Wallenstein believed that his army would not dare to turn against him. However, an edict accusing him of high treason was published in Prague on February 18, 1634, and Wallenstein fled to Eger to seek protection from the Swedish army stationed there. A regiment of Irish and Scottish dragoons was dispatched, assassinating him on the night of February 25. Wallenstein was replaced by his lieutenants, Piccolomini and Gallas. He remains the true founder of the Austrian army and the unprecedented war tax that facilitated its creation.
5 September 1634: Battle of Nördlingen and Victory of Emperor Ferdinand III of Hungary over the Swedes and Lutherans
Battle of Nördlingen (1634)
The Battle of Lützen on April 19, 1632, marked the victorious death of the Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus. Despite this Protestant triumph, securing Saxony-Anhalt, the Imperial Spanish army occupied and threatened to advance into Saxony by capturing Regensburg. In response, the Protestants under Gustaf Horn planned a night attack to retake the city.
However, poor troop management resulted in artillery and supply wagons being ahead of the infantry, allowing the enemy forces to prepare. During the Battle of Nördlingen on the night of September 5 to 6, 1634, the Protestant army suffered a significant loss of 12,000 to 14,000 men, and Gustaf Horn was captured.
This marked the first defeat for the Swedes in the Thirty Years’ War, prompting France to openly enter the war against the Holy Roman Empire.
11 October 1634: Schleswig-Holstein Flood in the North Sea caused by the Burchardi Storm
Amid the aftermath of a 1603 plague epidemic and the ongoing Thirty Years’ War, the Schleswig-Holstein region in present-day Germany faced challenges. The North Sea had been turbulent for years, with icebergs damaging coastal dikes in 1625. On the night of October 11 to 12, 1634, the Burchardi Storm generated a storm surge that engulfed a significant part of Strand Island.
This storm surge, or mandränke, caused the deaths of 8,000 to 15,000 people, including two-thirds of Strand’s population. The disappearance of Strand gave rise to new islands: Nordstrand, Pellworm, Halligen Südfall, and Nordstrandischmoor.
16 May 1635: France enters the Thirty Years’ War
France, 17 years into the Thirty Years’ War, declared war on Spain, which had intervened to support the Catholic forces in the Empire. Fearing encirclement by the Catholic Habsburg alliance, France allies with the Protestant armies of the North.
30 May 1635: Signing of the Peace of Prague
The Peace of Prague, signed on May 30, 1635, between Emperor Ferdinand II of the Holy Roman Empire and Elector John George I of Saxony, representing Protestant states in Saxony-Anhalt, ended the civil war aspect of the Thirty Years’ War. The treaty recognized the electoral dignity of Bavaria, and John George I permanently gained Lusatia, a territory northeast of Germany. However, fighting continued with the Swedes and then the French until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
22 June 1636: Battle of Tornavento and victory of the Franco-Savoyards over the Spanish
In 1636, during the Thirty Years’ War, Cardinal Richelieu convinced Duke Victor Amadeus I of Savoy to launch an offensive on the Spanish Duchy of Milan. A French army crosses the Ticino River but encounters the Spanish army at Tornavento before their Savoyard allies arrive. On June 22, the Spanish attack and the Savoyard army arrived just in time to reverse the outcome.
The Franco-Savoyard army stays for a few days to pillage surrounding villages but ultimately withdraws from Milanese territory. This invasion of Lombardy marks a failure.
2 July 1636: Philip IV of Spain sends his generals to besiege La Capelle in Picardy
Count Jean de Werth, notable in the Battle of Nördlingen, becomes a general in the Holy Roman Empire’s army alongside General Piccolomini. In 1635 and 1636, they were sent to Lorraine, Picardy, and Luxembourg, pillaging the Lower Meuse in July 1636. They besiege the town of La Capelle on July 2, 1636. The invasion sparks a nascent French patriotic spirit, leading to an army of 50,000 that forces Jean de Werth and Piccolomini to retreat.
4 October 1636: Battle of Wittstock and Swedish victory over the Emperor
The Thirty Years’ War pits the Holy Roman Empire against the Protestant Swedes and their allies for control of northern Germany. In 1636, both armies were positioned on either side of the Elbe River. Swedish General Johan Banér crosses his army and meets the Imperial forces near the Scharfenberg hills south of Wittstock.
The Saxon troops are less experienced, and the Swedish artillery is superior. Johan Banér’s army wins the battle, but it has no strategic consequences as Brandenburg refuses to join the Swedes. As a new Imperial army under the command of Matthias Gallas forces the Swedes to retreat to their previous position, they make an unsuccessful attempt to siege Leipzig.
6 October 1636: Victory at Szalonta of Transylvanian Prince George I Rákóczi over the Turks
George I Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania from 1630 to 1648, ascended to the throne with the support of Catherine of Brandenburg. His first military victory was at Szalonta, where he defeated the Turks on October 6, 1636. George I Rákóczi later intervened in the Thirty Years’ War on the side of the Protestants.
15 February 1637: Death of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg
Born in 1578, Ferdinand II of Habsburg was raised by Jesuits as a devout Catholic and opponent of Protestantism. His actions provoked the Thirty Years’ War by angering Protestant nobles in Bohemia. He, along with General Tilly, defeated the Protestant army at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, making Bohemia a territory of the empire.
The Swedes, led by King Gustavus Adolphus II, entered the conflict and defeated them at the Battle of Breitenfeld. Ferdinand II’s reign was consumed by the war, resulting in the demographic and economic ruin of Germany. His son, Ferdinand III of Habsburg, succeeded him upon his death on February 15, 1637.
15 February 1637: Beginning of the Reign of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III
The son of Emperor Ferdinand II and Marie Anne of Bavaria, Ferdinand III of Habsburg, was born on July 13, 1608. He became King of Hungary in 1625 and King of Bohemia in 1627 but had to wait until Ferdinand II’s death in 1637 to become the “King of the Romans,” i.e., Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
During the Thirty Years’ War, he gained fame for his victory over the Swedish Protestants at the Battle of Nördlingen. However, in the following years, he couldn’t fight simultaneously against the Swedes and their French allies. In 1648, he was compelled to sign the Peace of Westphalia, Münster, and Osnabrück, marking the actual end of the Holy Roman Empire’s dominance in Europe.
28 September 1637: Battle of Leucate and French Victory Over the Spanish
Situated south of Narbonne, the Leucate castle served as a stronghold and an observation point for five centuries. During the Thirty Years’ War, the French and Spanish Imperial armies faced off at the castle. The Spanish besieged it, but on September 28, 1637, the French achieved victory, forcing the Spanish to retreat across the border. Following the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, Louis XIV later demolished the castle.
7 October 1637: Death of Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont
Born in 1587, Victor Amadeus I was the Duke of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont. He married Christine of France in 1619, and they had seven children. Victor Amadeus faced defeat early in his rule, losing the fortress of Pinerolo and part of Montferrat. Convinced of his royal status, he adopted the title of King of Cyprus, a historical claim of his ancestors. He finally achieved victory at the Battles of Tornavento in 1636 and Mombaldone in 1637 but died a few days later in Vercelli on October 7, 1637.
1 December 1640: Portugal Regains Its Independence
The Portuguese nobility revolted against Spanish rule, restoring the country’s independence. They placed one of their own, John of Braganza, on the throne, who took the name John IV. This followed the death of King Sebastian of Portugal in 1578 and the ascension of Philip II of Habsburg to the Spanish throne.
14 September 1641: The Treaty of Péronne
The Treaty of Péronne, signed on September 14, 1641, between King Louis XIII of France and Honoré II Grimaldi of Monaco, ended the Spanish protectorate and reintegrated the Principality of Monaco into the French sphere. In exchange for the return of Monaco, Louis XIII confiscated Honoré II’s assets in Spain.
9 September 1642: Louis XIII Captures Perpignan from the Spanish
Louis XIII’s army heads to Roussillon to reclaim the region during the Reaper’s War. To retake the Spanish-held city of Perpignan, French forces besieged the area. The siege, from November 4, 1641, to September 9, 1642, ended with the governor’s decision to surrender, as only 500 survivors remained in the city. Louis XIII passed away a few months later.
19 May 1643: Grand Condé Victorious at Rocroi
The French, under the command of the Duke of Enghien, later known as Grand Condé, defeated the Spanish at Rocroi in the Ardennes in a resounding victory during the Thirty Years’ War. The 22-year-old duke displayed military genius, marking France’s return to the international stage after a century of defeats and civil wars.
31 July 1644: Reconquest of Lerida
In 1642, nearly all Catalan cities were under French control. King Philip IV of Spain aimed to reclaim Lleida and launched an offensive on the adjacent plain. However, the French organized and assembled a significant army to oppose him. The Spanish suffered heavy losses and had to wait two years before reconquering Lleida.
18 December 1644: Majority of Queen Christina of Sweden
Queen Christina of Sweden, ascending to the throne due to her father securing the abolition of male exclusivity, took power at the age of 18 on December 18, 1644. She ousted Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna to promote peace and halt conflicts with Denmark.
6 March 1645: Battle of Jankau
On March 6, 1645, the Swedes, en route to Prague, prevailed over Imperial forces in southern Bohemia at the Battle of Jankau. Considered one of the deadliest battles of the Thirty Years’ War, the Imperial cavalry was annihilated, allowing the victorious Swedes to subsequently attack Vienna, leading to a second battle in August of the same year.
3 August 1645: Battle of Nördlingen
The Battle of Nördlingen, part of the Thirty Years’ War, pitted the Holy Roman Empire’s troops against the French. The General Von Mercy-led opposition confronted the Duke of Enghien-led French army. Both sides suffered significant losses, but the death of General Von Mercy concluded the battle, with his troops retreating to the village, resulting in a French victory.
13 August 1645: The Treaty of Brömsebro
The Peace of Brömsebro concluded on August 13, 1645, ending a conflict (the Torstenson War) within the Thirty Years’ War involving Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. Besides concluding the conflict, the treaty included the cancellation of toll taxes for Swedish ships and territorial concessions by Denmark and Norway.
May 1646: First Siege of Lleida
In May 1646, the French, led by Henri de Lorraine-Harcourt, initiated the siege of Lleida, a Spanish city. Only two years had passed since the Spanish had regained the city, and they were determined to defend it vigorously. The siege lasted approximately six months, culminating in the French forces retreating to the nearby town of Balaguer without baggage or artillery.
7 September 1646: Siege of Dunkirk
When Louis II de Bourbon-Condé, Duke of Enghien, took sole command of the Flanders army, he envisioned a brilliant action: the siege of Dunkirk, which the Spanish held for over eighty years. His army, reinforced by Poles and Ukrainians on land and the Dutch at sea, besieged Dunkirk. As the Spanish failed to gain English support, the gates of Dunkirk opened on October 11, 1646.
17 June 1647: End of the Siege of Lleida
On May 12, 1647, the siege of Lleida commenced with the arrival of Louis II de Bourbon-Condé, known as Le Grand Condé. Mazarin, seeking to distance him from France, promised him victory where Henri de Lorraine-Harcourt had failed the previous year: Lleida. Le Grand Condé eagerly accepted the challenge. Immense losses and desertions led to the siege being lifted on June 17, 1647.
20 August 1648: Last Battle of the Thirty Years’ War
On August 20, 1648, the Battle of Lens took place, named after the capture of the city of Lens by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Habsburg on August 17, 1648. Disappointed by the defeat at the Siege of Lleida, Grand Condé motivated his troops with the motto, “We must conquer or die.” The result was a victory against the Spanish.
8 September 1648: The Independence of the United Provinces is Recognized in the Treaty of Münster
As part of the signing of the Peace of Westphalia treaties, concluding the Thirty Years’ War, the independence of the United Provinces was acknowledged by Spain in the Treaty of Münster. The conflicts between the United Provinces and Spain, which had been ongoing since the revolt of William I of Nassau against the Duke of Alba, have come to an end.
24 October 1648: Publication of the Peace of Westphalia Treaties
Both Catholics and Protestants signed the Peace of Westphalia treaties. The Catholics in Münster on September 8 and the Protestants in Osnabrück on August 6. This marks the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War. France gained a portion of Alsace, Sweden and Germany acquired territories, while the Netherlands and Switzerland achieved their independence.
Thirty Years’ War at a Glance
What Was the Thirty Years’ War?
The Thirty Years’ War was a protracted conflict fought primarily in Europe from 1618 to 1648. It was primarily a religious war involving Catholic and Protestant states and resulted in significant political and territorial changes.
What Were the Main Causes of the Thirty Years’ War?
The main causes of the war included religious tensions between Catholic and Protestant states, conflicts over political power and territorial control, and a struggle for dominance among European powers.
Which Countries Were Involved in the Thirty Years’ War?
The war involved various European powers, including the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Many smaller states and principalities also played a role in the conflict.
How Did the Protestant Reformation Contribute to the War?
The Protestant Reformation, which had begun in the early 16th century, created deep religious divisions in Europe. Conflicts between Catholic and Protestant states intensified, leading to tensions and sparking the outbreak of the war.
What Was the Significance of the Peace of Westphalia?
The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War. It established a new framework for European diplomacy, recognized the independence and sovereignty of individual states, and granted religious freedom to Protestants.
Bireley, Robert (1976). “The Peace of Prague (1635) and the Counterreformation in Germany”. The Journal of Modern History. 48 (1): 31–69. doi:10.1086/241519. S2CID 143376778.
The European Economic Community was created on March 25, 1957, when officials from the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg signed the Treaty of Rome (EEC). This pact, which grew out of work begun inside the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community, created in 1951), was a significant symbolic step forward in Europe’s integration.
To promote economic cooperation among its member nations, the Treaty of Rome, signed in 1957, established the European Economic Community (EEC). As a result of its incorporation into the foundation of the newly established European Union in 1993, it was rebranded as the European Community (EC).
The Beginnings of the European Economic Community (1957)
In 1951, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), a European Community body in charge of Europe’s coal and steel sectors, was established. This marked the beginning of the integration of Europe. After the European Defense Community plan fell through, Jean Monnet and Robert Schumann pushed for the formation of a customs union, the European Economic Community (EEC). The plan called for a Parliamentary Assembly (the forerunner to the present European Parliament), a Court of Justice, the Commission (the supranational executive), and the Council of Ministers (the intergovernmental council).
When the new organization was formed, its stated purpose was nothing less than the full economic integration of its member nations into a single market. Free trade between member states (including the elimination of customs duties and the establishment of a common external tariff), free movement of factors of production (capital and labor), free competition, and freedom of enterprise are all stated goals of the European Community Treaty, which was signed in Rome in 1957.
The signature page on the original Treaty of Rome. Credit: Zinneke at CC BY-SA 3.0
To defend the Community’s agriculture against cheap imports and to secure the income of farmers, industrial programs, transport policies, etc., the treaty created a common agricultural policy (CAP) in 1962, which set guaranteed common prices for agricultural and livestock output. Current EU policies are still determined by the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU).
Introducing Europe’s New Institutions
As of January 14, 1958, the pact was legally binding. Many of the EEC’s institutions took their cues from the ECSC, and there were even some overlaps between the two organizations. The ECSC’s “high authority” has been transferred to the Commission, the organization responsible for formulating policies and protecting both the ECSC’s treaties and the interests of the Community.
The decision-making authority rests with the Council of Ministers (the meeting of ministers from each member country for a certain sector, such as agriculture), an intergovernmental rather than supranational organization. The European Economic Community (EEC), the European Community (ECSC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) share a number of institutions, including the European Court of Justice (the judicial body) and the Assembly (later called the European Parliament, where citizens of Europe are represented and which holds some legislative power). An additional treaty was negotiated in 1965 with the intention of combining the Commission and the Council of Ministers with the ECSC and Euratom. This treaty entered into effect on January 1, 1967.
On September 20, 1976, the representatives of the governments of the Member States enacted a law instituting universal suffrage for the election of the European Parliament, as stipulated in the Treaty of Rome. In 1979, the first vote was held using this method.
From the EEC to the European Union
Most people would point to the Single European Act, which was signed on February 28, 1986 and entered into effect on July 1, 1987, as the first significant amendment to the treaties. Actually, it’s not just one act, but two: one to amend existing Community legislation (on an institutional level, this is the addition of a court of first instance to the European Court of Justice), and another to establish political cooperation in foreign policy.
There is little doubt that the institutional framework we have in place now safeguards national vulnerabilities while also allowing the concept of a supranational body to gain traction. It was this tension between governments and supranational organizations that would form the backbone of arguments over the EEC’s future development, ultimately leading to the formation of the European Union as we know it today (Maastricht Treaty, 1992).
After a failed vote in 2005, Europe currently has a unified currency, the Euro, and a Central Bank, but it does not have a constitution. The present operation of the European Union, which currently consists of 27 countries, is governed by the Treaty of Lisbon, which was signed in 2007.
