In the Modern Era, from the late 15th to the late 18th century, fishing activities were a fundamental concern for coastal populations. These activities could involve shoreline fishing for personal sustenance through a gathering economy or larger-scale fishing to earn money and accumulate significant capital. This capital could then be reinvested in other ventures, such as privateering, as seen with the people of Saint-Malo. Thus, in the modern era, fishing served as a means for coastal populations to maintain their status, develop, and even achieve wealth.
From Gathering to Small-Scale Fishing
To begin with, we analyze the gathering activities that predominated in coastal societies during the modern era. The collection of “fruits of the sea” was common among coastal populations. This term was used by Europeans to describe marine resources readily available on the shore. For example, people gathered seaweed, such as kelp, that was either washed ashore or harvested along the coasts of the Atlantic, the Channel, or the Mediterranean. Other natural materials were also collected, such as pebbles, sand, or rocks dislodged by storms and rough seas. However, from the 18th century onward, authorities began restricting these practices to prevent coastal erosion. For instance, Pampelonne Beach near Saint-Tropez was long used as a sand reservoir for construction across the Côte d’Azur; today, it is a protected and highly sought-after tourist destination.
“Fruits of the sea” were also sought after by small-scale shore fishers, who collected various products while walking along the coast. These included shellfish, oysters, mussels, cockles, and the like. This type of gathering primarily occurred in tidal zones, particularly along the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the Channel, or the North Sea. During low tide, when the “foreshore” was exposed, gatherers would come to these areas to engage in their activities.
For instance, they might collect natural sponges, which were fished in Sardinia, Sicily, Tunisia, and Greek waters.
Another lucrative activity practiced by some was coral fishing. Coral, especially red coral, was highly valued in the Mediterranean and beyond, used in small quantities in pharmacology and extensively in jewelry and goldsmithing. During the modern era, red coral was often presented to notable visitors; for example, when Marie de’ Medici visited Marseille to marry King Henry, she was given a coral branch as a welcome gift.
Among all the marine resources mentioned, salt was the most significant. It was essential for both metabolism and food preservation. Sea salt was obtained using similar methods along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts: small dikes were constructed, creating “pans” where water was trapped and eventually evaporated to reveal salt. These systems existed in France, notably in Hyères on the Giens Peninsula, as well as in Guérande and Bourgneuf, and throughout Europe, including Venice and Setúbal.
Until the late Middle Ages, salt marshes were mainly operated by monasteries and feudal lords. However, starting in the 14th century, the state replaced these institutions and organized salt marsh exploitation for its own benefit. In France, the state sought to control salt production by introducing a tax on salt known as the “gabelle” during the Hundred Years’ War.
In all these cases, “shoreline fishing” was omnipresent. It involved fishing on foot, where people would go at low tide to collect shellfish, crustaceans, or small fish with bare hands or a net. It also included small-scale coastal fishing, conducted near the shore using fishing boats. Fishermen would leave the port in the morning and return in the evening, often before nightfall.
However, this type of coastal fishing developed later in western regions compared to the Mediterranean. Until the 15th century, people in western areas like Gascony, Normandy, Brittany, and Flanders hesitated to venture far from the coast due to fears of the “kingdom of the dead,” a context of “repulsion” from the sea.
Offshore and Deep-Sea Fishing
Offshore fishing involved staying away from the coast for several days. In the Mediterranean, this included bluefin tuna fishing using nets. In northwest Europe, it primarily involved herring fishing, a specialty of the Dutch during the modern era. According to historian Alain Cabantous, the Dutch even became a “herring civilization.” However, in the 17th century, herring prices declined, making it a symbol of popular consumption. Preservation techniques improved, allowing the fish to be cleaned, gutted, and packed in barrels onboard or smoked or preserved in jars with water and white vinegar.
Today, herring remains widely fished and consumed in this part of Europe and is symbolically celebrated during popular festivals, such as the maritime carnivals in Dunkirk, Douai, Dieppe, Calais, and Boulogne-sur-Mer.
Deep-sea fishing, mainly practiced near Newfoundland by Saint-Malo fishers, was the most prestigious type of fishing. It generated enormous fortunes, as seen with the fishermen of Saint-Malo, who reinvested their earnings in privateering. Some corsairs used the money earned from cod fishing to arm privateer ships, capture galleons, and further their fortunes.
Deep-sea fishing involved leaving the home port for several weeks to fish in the high seas. Newfoundland’s fishing grounds were frequented and explored from the early 16th century when Europeans searched for a northern passage around the Americas. The most sought-after fish in this area was cod. Norwegian fishers from Bergen were the first to target this species, much larger than the herring favored by the Dutch.
Soon, these Scandinavians were imitated by other European cod fishers, notably the English and French. As a result, Newfoundland became a political hotspot and a focal point of international relations among European states. For instance, after the War of the Spanish Succession, the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 required France to cede much of Newfoundland to the English.
However, France retained a few small islands, such as Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, enabling continued deep-sea fishing activities.
Cod caught for European consumption was prepared in two ways: salted and dried onshore (known as “codfish” or “bacalhau”) or preserved onboard in brine (known as “green cod”). The latter required less preparation but had a shorter shelf life. These techniques illustrate the innovative methods fishermen employed to optimize their yields.
It was long thought that life in the abyss was impossible. Today, we know that there are a number of fish that live there. Strictly speaking, abyssal fauna is the set of animals living in this oceanic zone, that is, living between 4,000 and 6,000 (13,000–20,000 ft) meters deep. The deepest point in the ocean is 10,912 meters. Men have successfully descended six times to the deepest point of the ocean, in the Mariana Trench east of the Philippines. They have dived to depths of almost 11,000 meters.
Weirdest Deep Sea Creatures
Anglerfish
These eerie-looking fish have a bioluminescent lure that dangles in front of their mouths, attracting prey in the dark depths of the ocean. The anglerfish is one of the most famous deep-sea fish. It is also one of the most atypical. This creature is both a fish and a fisherman. It has an almost infallible technique for fishing. This fish was seen in the animated film “Finding Nemo.” The anglerfish can live up to 2,000 meters deep.
Physical Structure: Small, stocky fish with a bioluminescent lure.
Unique Characteristics: The lure attracts prey towards its sharp teeth.
Gulper Eel (Pelican Eel)
The pelican grangousier is a fish that has eyes (and a mouth) bigger than its stomach. It is known to be able to eat prey larger than itself. Its mouth is disproportionate to its body, which resembles that of an eel. Pelican grangousiers measure between 40 centimeters and 2 meters in length.
Physical Structure: Elongated body with a massive mouth.
Unique Characteristics: It can swallow prey larger than itself due to its expandable stomach.
Vampire Squid
The Vampire Squid, or Vampyroteuthis infernalis, is a species of small cephalopod that lives in the abysses of all the world’s temperate and tropical oceans. Its unique retractile sensory filaments justify its placement in a specific order: Vampyromorphida, although it shares similarities with squid and octopus.
Despite its monstrous physiognomy, the vampire squid only reaches 30 cm (12 in) in adult length. It poses no threat to humans. Its gelatinous coat varies from velvety black to pale red, depending on location and lighting conditions. A membrane of skin links its eight arms, each lined with rows of fleshy or pointed spines.
The vampire squid is entirely covered with light-producing organs called photophores. The animal has great control over these organs, capable of producing flashes of light every fraction of a second for several minutes to disorient predators.
Physical Structure: Long, slender body with sharp teeth.
Unique Characteristics: Bioluminescent lure and a distensible stomach.
The Macropinna microstoma, also known as the barreleye fish in English, is a species of fish belonging to the Opisthoproctidae family in the North Pacific. It is the only species in its genus Macropinna.
This fish possesses a truly unique ocular system. Its two large tubular eyes are shielded within its skull by a greenish filter, giving it a ghostly appearance. These eyes observe the fish’s surroundings through its completely transparent (at its upper part) skull.
The Macropinna microstoma has a small mouth and is covered in large scales throughout its body. Its size is around 15 cm, including its tail.
This fish has been found at depths ranging from 500 (1650 ft) to 1,000 meters (3280 ft). It has been filmed at a depth of approximately 600 (2,000 ft) to 800 meters (2,600 ft) in its natural habitat off the coast of California. It is believed that its unique eyes allow the fish to detect small prey by their silhouettes in low light from above or to detect prey emitting light.
Physical Structure: Transparent head with upward-looking eyes.
Unique Characteristics: Has a transparent shield over its head.
The Grimpoteuthis, also known as the Dumbo octopus, is a species of octopus that lives in the extreme depths of the ocean, between 400 and 4800 meters (13,000 ft), and some even survive at depths of 7000 meters (23,000 ft) below sea level. They are found worldwide, including off the coasts of New Zealand, Australia, California, Oregon, the Philippines, New Guinea, and Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts.
These creatures are small, measuring about 20 centimeters (8 in) in height, although one specimen was observed measuring 1.8 meters in length and weighing 5.9 kilograms. They have a pair of fins located on their mantle (hence their name) and a membrane between their arms. Grimpoteuthis often swims just above the seafloor in search of snails, worms, and other prey.
The Grimpoteuthis has surprisingly large eyes that fill about one-third of the diameter of their mantle or “head,” but their eyes have limited use in the eternal darkness of the deep. In some species, the eye lacks a lens and has a degraded retina, likely allowing only the detection of light, darkness, and movement.
Physical Structure: Small, rounded body with ear-like fins.
Unique Characteristics: Uses ear-like fins for movement and to steer.
Blobfish
The blobfish, Psychrolutes marcidus, belongs to the Psychrolutidae family. It primarily inhabits the waters off Tasmania and Australia, in the deep-sea regions beyond 600 meters in depth, reaching depths of around 1,200 meters. It is not suitable for human consumption. Therefore, there is little chance of encountering this abyssal fish.
It is a rather solitary creature. Encounters between males and females mostly occur during the breeding season. However, the blobfish still holds many mysteries in this regard, as specialists who have observed it on various occasions don’t know much more about it today.
A female blobfish lays a minimum of 1,000 eggs, but scientists who studied blobfish reproduction in 2000 for the first time specify that some females can lay up to 100,000 eggs. The eggs are extremely lightweight. They gather into a kind of pink floating mass just above the seafloor during the incubation period, and the female constantly cleans them.
Physical Structure: Gelatinous and somewhat amorphous.
Unique Characteristics: Appears strange due to its gel-like consistency.
Fangtooth Fish
The fangtooth fish (Anoplogaster cornuta) is a species of deep-sea fish belonging to the Anoplogastridae family. It thrives in an extremely hostile environment with limited food sources, residing at depths ranging from 500 (1600 ft) to 5,000 meters (16,000 ft). Due to the scarcity of food at these depths, the fangtooth fish must be capable of eating nearly anything it comes across.
Proportionally to its size, it possesses the largest teeth of any animal in the world. It cannot even fully close its jaws. Unlike other species inhabiting the deep sea, it is powerful and robust, serving as a small but mighty predator.
Despite their very large teeth, fangtooth fish are small in size, rarely exceeding 18 cm (7 in) in length. Moreover, there is very little chance of encountering them while swimming, as these fish inhabit extremely deep waters.
Physical Structure: Small fish with disproportionately large, sharp teeth.
Unique Characteristics: Its teeth are so large that it can’t close its mouth completely.
Deep-sea Dragonfish
The Deep-sea Dragonfish, also known as Stomiidae, is a family of teleost fish that inhabit the deep abysses of the ocean. These fish live in the darkest, most inaccessible parts of the ocean, where there is almost no natural light. They are well-suited to this extreme environment.
One of their most fascinating features is their ability to produce bioluminescent light. They use this light to attract prey, primarily smaller fish and invertebrates, which are drawn to the dragonfish’s glow.
Deep-sea dragonfish have the remarkable ability to camouflage themselves. They can emit a faint red light to blend in with the background light from the surface. This makes them nearly invisible to both their prey and potential predators.
They possess large, hinged jaws that are equipped with numerous sharp, fang-like teeth. These jaws allow them to capture and devour prey of various sizes. Deep-sea dragonfish come in various sizes, with some species growing up to around 6 inches (15 centimeters) in length.
Little is known about their reproductive habits, but they are believed to follow the typical teleost fish reproductive patterns. Some deep-sea dragonfish are known to exhibit sexual dimorphism, where males and females have different physical characteristics.
Physical Structure: Long, slender body with sharp teeth.
Unique Characteristics: Bioluminescent lure and a distensible stomach.
Marine Hatchetfish
Marine Hatchetfish are found in the deep waters of the world’s oceans, primarily in the mesopelagic and bathypelagic zones. These fish have specialized light-producing organs called photophores. They use bioluminescence to emit light, which helps them camouflage and attract prey. This adaptation is essential for survival in the pitch-black depths of the ocean.
Marine Hatchetfish are named for their distinctive body shape, resembling a hatchet or an axe. They have flattened bodies and are relatively small, typically measuring around 2 to 5 inches (5 to 13 centimeters) in length. Their silver-colored bodies are equipped with photophores along their belly, which they use to blend in with the faint light from above. This countershading adaptation makes them less visible to predators swimming below and prey swimming above.
Like many deep-sea creatures, Marine Hatchetfish exhibit vertical migration. They move closer to the surface at night to feed on zooplankton and retreat to deeper waters during the day to avoid predators.
These fish are opportunistic feeders and voracious predators. They primarily consume small crustaceans, copepods, and other small organisms. Their upward-facing mouths make them adept at capturing prey from below.
Physical Structure: Distinct hatchet-like shape.
Unique Characteristics: Photophores for bioluminescence.
Giant Tube Worms
Giant Tube Worms, also known as Riftia pachyptila, are deep-sea creatures that thrive in extreme hydrothermal vent environments. Giant Tube Worms are primarily found in deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystems along mid-ocean ridges, which are some of the most extreme and least explored environments on Earth.
These tube worms engage in a unique and mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship with chemosynthetic bacteria. The bacteria live within their bodies and provide them with essential nutrients in exchange for chemicals from the hydrothermal fluids.
Giant Tube Worms have evolved remarkable adaptations to survive in these extreme conditions, including high temperatures, high pressure, and complete darkness. They can tolerate temperatures exceeding 200 degrees Celsius (392 degrees Fahrenheit). They create long, tube-like structures that can reach lengths of several feet. The tube is made of a tough, durable material that protects them from harsh surroundings.
Giant Tube Worms do not have a mouth or a digestive system like most organisms. Instead, they rely entirely on the chemosynthetic bacteria living in their trophosome (a specialized organ) to convert chemicals from the hydrothermal vent fluids into organic compounds they can use for sustenance.
These creatures are extremely long-lived compared to many other deep-sea organisms. They can live for decades, potentially reaching up to 100 years or more. They also play a role in nutrient cycling in deep-sea ecosystems. They contribute to the overall biodiversity of hydrothermal vent communities, which are now recognized as critical habitats.
Although they are adapted to extreme conditions, the discovery of deep-sea mining operations in hydrothermal vent areas has raised concerns about the potential impact on these unique creatures and their ecosystems.
Physical Structure: Long, red, tubular bodies.
Unique Characteristics: Thrive near hydrothermal vents with symbiotic bacteria.
Giant Isopod
The giant isopod, known scientifically as Bathynomus giganteus, is a fascinating deep-sea creature found in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Giant isopods are among the largest isopods, reaching lengths of up to 16 inches (40 centimeters). They have a distinct, flattened, segmented body with a tough exoskeleton, which is often grayish to brownish in color.
They live in the extreme depths of the ocean, usually at depths of 200 meters (656 feet) to 2,500 meters (8,202 feet). These depths are characterized by total darkness, high pressure, and low temperatures.
Giant isopods have an exceptionally slow metabolism. They can survive on very little food because of their energy-efficient lifestyle, which helps them thrive in the food-scarce deep-sea environment.
They are scavengers, primarily feeding on the carcasses of dead marine animals that sink to the ocean floor. Their strong jaws and claws allow them to tear apart tough flesh and access the nutrient-rich interior of these carcasses.
While not giant isopods themselves, some of their prey may produce bioluminescent displays. Giant isopods have specialized photophores on their bodies that might help them mimic this bioluminescence and avoid predation.
Physical Structure: Resembles a giant woodlouse.
Unique Characteristics: Possesses a tough exoskeleton and scavenges on the ocean floor.
Deep-Sea Cucumber
Deep-sea cucumbers are fascinating marine creatures with several intriguing characteristics. Deep-sea cucumbers have an elongated, cylindrical body, similar to the shape of a cucumber. They can vary in size, with some species growing up to several feet in length. These creatures are typically dark or translucent in color.
As the name suggests, deep-sea cucumbers reside in the depths of the ocean, often found on the ocean floor or in the sediment. They are commonly located in the abyssal plains, trenches, and other deep-sea environments.
Deep-sea cucumbers are detritivores, which means they primarily feed on decaying organic matter that falls to the ocean floor. They play a crucial role in nutrient cycling by recycling and breaking down dead organisms and organic material.
These organisms have several adaptations to their deep-sea habitat. Some deep-sea cucumber species have elongated bodies with tube-like structures that help them burrow into the sediment. They may also have tentacle-like appendages for collecting food particles from the seafloor.
Deep-sea cucumbers respire through their cloaca, a common opening for excretion and respiration. This adaptation helps them obtain oxygen from the surrounding water.
Reproduction in deep-sea cucumbers can vary among species. Some reproduce through external fertilization, releasing eggs and sperm into the water, while others may brood their young internally.
Physical Structure: Elongated, worm-like body.
Unique Characteristics: Sifts through sediment on the ocean floor for food.
Basket Star
The Basket Star is a fascinating marine creature that belongs to the family Gorgonocephalidae, which is part of the brittle star group (ophiuroids). Basket Stars have a unique appearance. They have a central disc from which multiple highly branched, flexible arms radiate. The arms are often elaborately branched and divided, creating a web-like structure and giving them a basket-like appearance.
These creatures come in various sizes, but they can have a wingspan of up to 65 centimeters (about 25 inches). Basket Stars are typically found in deep-sea environments, often at depths of 200 meters (656 feet) to 2,000 meters (6,561 feet). They can be found in oceans around the world.
Basket Stars are filter feeders. They extend their branching arms into the water, creating a net-like structure to capture small plankton and particles. They then coil their arms to bring the captured food to their central mouth.
Unlike their close relatives, the brittle stars, which primarily move using their arms for locomotion, Basket Stars are generally sessile, meaning they stay attached to a substrate. They can anchor themselves to rocks or other surfaces.
Basket Stars are primarily nocturnal. They extend their arms into the current during the night to feed. During the day, they typically coil their arms in a concealed manner, making them difficult to spot.
Physical Structure: A type of brittle star with highly branched arms.
Unique Characteristics: Uses its arms for filter-feeding.
Giant Spider Crab
The Japanese spider crab (Macrocheira kaempferi) is a remarkable and intriguing species known for its enormous size and distinctive appearance. Japanese spider crabs are known for their colossal size. They can have a leg span of up to 12 feet (3.7 meters) and weigh as much as 44 pounds (20 kilograms). This makes them one of the largest arthropods in the world.
They are primarily found in the waters around Japan, particularly in Suruga Bay, Sagami Bay, and the Pacific side of the Japanese archipelago. These crabs inhabit depths ranging from 150 to 300 meters.
Japanese spider crabs have a spiky and somewhat eerie appearance. They have long, slender legs covered in fine hairs and a distinctive, small, triangular body. Their carapace, or shell, can be up to 16 inches (40 centimeters) wide.
These crabs are known for their remarkable longevity and slow growth. They can live up to 100 years or more, and it takes them several years to reach sexual maturity.
Japanese spider crabs are omnivorous, and their diet includes a variety of marine organisms like shellfish, plants, and dead animals. They are also scavengers, feeding on the carcasses of larger marine creatures. Despite their intimidating appearance, these crabs are not aggressive toward humans. When threatened, they tend to hide or play dead rather than attacking.
Physical Structure: Enormous arthropod with long, spindly legs.
Unique Characteristics: Can have a leg span of over 12 feet.
The Mimic Octopus (Thaumoctopus mimicus) is a relatively small octopus, typically reaching a length of about 60 centimeters (24 inches).
The most extraordinary feature of the Mimic Octopus is its ability to mimic the appearance and behaviors of other marine species. It can imitate the shapes, colors, and movements of numerous animals, making it a true master of disguise.
The Mimic Octopus can impersonate various creatures, including lionfish, flatfish, lionfish, and sea snakes. By adjusting its body shape and color patterns, it can convincingly resemble these dangerous or venomous species, deterring potential predators.
Beyond physical imitation, the Mimic Octopus replicates the behavior of the species it mimics. For instance, when it mimics a lionfish, it adopts a hovering posture, waving its arms to simulate the lionfish’s venomous spines.
These octopuses are typically found in the warm waters of the Indo-Pacific region, including the coasts of Indonesia, the Philippines, and Australia. They dwell on sandy and muddy bottoms, often near coral reefs.
Little is known about the reproduction of the Mimic Octopus. They are believed to be semelparous, meaning they reproduce only once in their short lifetime. After laying their eggs, the females guard them diligently.
Physical Structure: Medium-sized octopus with the ability to change color and shape.
Unique Characteristics: Can mimic the appearance and behavior of other marine creatures.
Giant Squid
The giant squid (Architeuthis dux) is a fascinating and elusive deep-sea creature that has intrigued scientists and the general public for centuries.
The giant squid is one of the largest known cephalopods, with reported lengths of up to 43 feet (13 meters) for females and slightly smaller for males. It has a long, tubular body, eight long arms, and two much longer tentacles equipped with powerful suckers lined with sharp teeth. The head is relatively small, and the eyes are among the largest in the animal kingdom, measuring up to 10 inches (25 centimeters) in diameter.
Giant squids inhabit the deep ocean, typically found at depths of 1,000 to 2,500 meters. They are believed to have a wide global distribution, with sightings and specimens recorded in various parts of the world’s oceans.
The giant squid is known for its reclusive nature, and until relatively recently, it was primarily a subject of maritime folklore. Encounters with live specimens are extremely rare, and much of what is known about these creatures comes from the examination of dead specimens that have washed ashore or been caught accidentally.
The giant squid is believed to be a carnivorous predator, primarily preying on fish and other squid species. Their sharp, rotating hooks on their tentacles are used to capture and secure prey. Although the giant squid is a formidable predator, it has some natural enemies, such as the sperm whale. It is a subject of debate whether the scars often found on sperm whales’ bodies are the result of battles with giant squids.
The reproduction and life cycle of giant squids are still not well understood. Like other cephalopods, they are thought to have a short lifespan and are semelparous, meaning they reproduce only once in their lifetime.
Physical Structure: Elusive, massive cephalopod with enormous eyes.
Unique Characteristics: One of the largest invertebrates with a mysterious lifestyle.
The Frilled Shark is a unique and rarely seen deep-sea creature known for its distinctive appearance and peculiar features.
The Frilled Shark has a long, eel-like body covered in loose, accordion-like skin and a pair of prominent fringed gills on each side of its head, which give it its name. It has a long, serpentine body that can reach lengths of up to 2 meters (6.5 feet).
This species is often referred to as a “living fossil” because it has retained many primitive characteristics that date back to prehistoric times. Frilled Sharks are typically found in the deep waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, usually at depths ranging from 200 to 1,500 meters (660 to 4,900 feet).
They are opportunistic predators that primarily feed on squid, smaller fish, and other deep-sea creatures. Their long, flexible jaws are lined with rows of needle-like teeth that curve backward, making it difficult for prey to escape.
These sharks have a distinct method of reproduction. Rather than laying eggs, females give birth to live offspring. They have a lower number of offspring compared to many other shark species.
The Frilled Shark exhibits primitive characteristics like its unique gill structure, and it is believed to have changed very little over millions of years of evolution.
Physical Structure: Primitive-looking shark with a long, eel-like body.
Unique Characteristics: Has numerous rows of needle-like teeth and is rarely seen by humans.
Cooked by fire: As early as 780,000 years ago, early humans cooked their food by fire, as findings from Israel now prove. They are the earliest clear evidence of cooking among our ancestors. These are fossil fish teeth that show changes in their structure typical of controlled heating. This suggests that the early humans living in this area caught and cooked these fish in the nearby lake – presumably in some kind of earth oven, as the archaeologists report.
For the development of our ancestors and their increasingly large brains, nutrition and the use of fire played a crucial role. This is because cooked food is easier to digest, and the body can better tap into the nutrients. Early humans were therefore able to get more energy from cooked or roasted meat, fish, and plant foods. They thus needed less time to obtain food and had free resources for cultural development.
However, it is unclear since when early humans specifically cooked their food. It is true that there are one million-year-old traces of fireplaces of Homo erectus. However, it is disputed whether the bones and plant remains found in them were only burned or cooked in a controlled manner. Clear evidence of cooking was around 170,000 years old at the earliest and comes from Neanderthals and Homo sapiens.
Relics of thousands of fish
Carp skull similar to those caught by early humans.
But now, for the first time, archaeologists have found clear traces of cooking as early as the time of Homo erectus. The fossil evidence for this was discovered by Irit Zohar of Tel Aviv University and her team at the Gesher Benot Ya’aqov site in northern Israel. Stone tools, traces of fire, and food remains from hunter-gatherers from around 780,000 years ago have been found there. In addition to animal bones, the remains of thousands of fish that were caught in nearby Lake Hula and then consumed are found there.
What is striking is that the more than 40,000 fish remains come primarily from only two fish species – the two large, particularly nutritious barbel species, Luciobarbus longiceps and Carasobarbus canis. Curiously, however, the research team found hardly any bones of these fish species, although they would normally be preserved, but almost exclusively the pharyngeal teeth of these barbels.
Traces of moderate heat
In search of an explanation, Zohar and her team examined the fish teeth more closely using X-ray diffraction analysis. The crystal structure of the enamel thus made visible can reveal, among other things, whether the teeth were once heated and to what extent. In fact, it showed that a large proportion of the fish teeth found near the fireplaces had been exposed to temperatures of 570 to 930 degrees Fahrenheit (300 to 500 degrees Celsius).
“The enlargement of the apatite crystals in the enamel of the fish teeth shows us that the fish were only exposed to moderate heat and were not burned,” explains co-author Jens Najorka of the Natural History Museum in London. This suggests that early humans cooked the lake-caught fish in a controlled way in the fire. “We can refute an alternative explanation that people consumed the fish fresh or dried and then only burned the remains, because then the enamel would have been more altered,” the researchers said.
Cooking the fish could also explain why hardly any fish bones were preserved. Cooking softened the bones, which caused them to disintegrate more quickly over time.
First evidence of controlled cooking
According to the researchers, their findings suggest that early humans on the shores of Lake Hula ate cooked or steamed fish as early as 780,000 years ago. It’s the earliest evidence that our ancestors cooked their food in some way. Fish prepared in this way were not only nutritious and filling, but they were also available year-round, unlike many wild foods.
The hominids of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov thus had an abundant source of food, even in winter. The ability to cook their food, marked an important milestone in evolutionary development, because it enabled the optimal use of available food resources. It’s quite possible that early humans at that time cooked not only fish, but also various animal and plant foods.
Cooked in an earth oven
Because no fossil remains of the early humans of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov have been found so far, it is still unclear whether they were representatives of Homo erectus or another species. Also, still puzzling is the cooking method they used. No traces of cooking utensils have survived, either at this site or elsewhere, from this period. However, archaeologists suspect that the people at that time cooked their fish in a kind of earth oven, as is still common today among some primitive peoples. (Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2022; doi: 10.1038/s41559-022-01910-z)
There is a true treasure mine of the world’s earliest fish fossils in China, uncovered by paleontologists. The fossils, which are as ancient as 439 million years, prove that the first animals with jaws appeared earlier than previously believed. Scientists have published their findings in no less than four separate issues of “Nature,” and among them are the earliest known examples of cartilaginous fish and jawed armored fish fossils. This provides fresh data on the evolution of fish and the first vertebrates with jaws, which includes humans.
Almost all living vertebrates have their ancestry in ancient fish since they were the first vertebrates to develop a jaw. In the end, they gave rise to the Gnathostomata group, which literally means “jawed mouth,” to which we modern humans also now belong. However, the development of the first fishes, and therefore our earliest predecessors, has been the least explored area of evolutionary biology.
Dreadful gap in fossil records
Approximately 439–436 million years ago is when the Chongqing Lagerstätte was formed. Xiushanosteus mirabilis (2a and 2b), an armored-jawed fish, and Shenacanthus vermiformis (1a, 1b), an ancient shark and ray relative, have both been discovered on this slab. (Y.-A. Zhu et al/Nature 2022)
The issue is that, according to DNA analyses, the first gnathostomes likely arose around 450 million years ago. However, fossils that would have been present in the same period are now absent. But fish fossils are so plentiful in the Devonian Period, which began about 419 million years ago, that it is sometimes known as the Age of Fishes. In the previous decade, paleontologists in China made the first discoveries of fish fossils that date back 425 million years.
According to the theory, the first jaw could be developed by the now-extinct armored fishes (Placodermi), which had a thick carapace of bone plates on the head and trunk but a still-undeveloped skullcap. This makes them, in theory, the ancestors of modern-day sharks andrays, which are cartilaginous fishes. But how about the bony fish that evolved into the terrestrial vertebrates that also eventually became our ancestors? The answers to these theories are now up for debate once again because of a scarcity of new fossil discoveries.
A prehistoric aquarium
The jawless fish Tujiaaspis vividus demonstrates how the specimen’s remarkable preservation is shedding light on the development of fins in later jawed relatives. (Heming Zhang)
A jawless species, the oldest armored fish to date, and three different early cartilaginous fish, making them the oldest known shark ancestors, were discovered in China’s Chongqing province by paleontologists led by You-an Zhu and Qiang Li of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
During the first discovery, scientists found the first Silurian fish fossil wholly intact. Over the last two years, researchers have been able to uncover hundreds more fossils with their ongoing digs. This location has the earliest known fossils of jawed vertebrates and fish from 436 million years ago, many of which are very well preserved and complete.
The primary characteristics of the Tujiaaspis fossil and its depiction. (Zhikun Gai et al.)
A fresh perspective on the evolution of vertebrates
Scientists can now test the long-debated theories regarding the evolutionary ancestry of humans. Important as they are for their age alone, the newly found fossils are much more so since they reveal for the first time the whole anatomy of the earliest fishes, from head to tail.
The first thing we can learn from the new discoveries is when vertebrates with jaws first appeared in the timeline. The fossils show that by the early Silurian Period (from 444 Mya to 420 Mya), there was already a great deal of morphological variation among mammals with jaws and wide distribution of the major phylogenetic groupings. This shows that these fishes’ ancestry goes back far further in time than was previously believed, according to researchers.
The first jaws were little and flimsy
The tiny size of the fishes is one of the two most striking traits of this fossil collection, along with its tremendous variety. Since most species are just a few millimeters in length. This may be the reason why so few fossils of ancient fish have been found so far.
Vertebrates with jaws from Chongqing are tiny and fragile, indicating that they were likely poorly preserved outside of certain deposit types. On the other hand, it’s possible that fishes were only regionally spread at the time and the evolution of fishes with jaws was slower than that of their jawless forebears.
Fish with jaws but no frills
An artist’s conception of the complete preservation of Xiushanosteus mirabilis fossils from head to tail. (Heming Zhang)
Yet another finding regarding the early fishes’ appearance is also revealed by the fossils. More than 20 individuals of the armored fish Xiushanosteus mirabilis have been found in Chongqing. These ancient fossils are mostly intact. The tiny Xiushanosteus combines the characteristics of many different types of armored fish.
Exciting, however, is the structure of the armored plates above its skull. The plates include a unique set of sutures that set them apart from the surrounding head plates. Researchers speculate that the change to the bony fishes’ skull plates could make its first appearance here.
Ancestor fishes with shoulder pads
This reconstruction depicts Shenacanthus vermiformis, a small, armored cartilaginous fish that lived in the same ecosystem as its bony counterparts. (Heming Zhang)
Another unique trait may be seen in the remains of two primitive cartilaginous fish, the forerunners of modern sharks and rays. Shenacanthus vermiformis, a species discovered in Chongqing that is around 436 million years old, has many of the normal shark characteristics, but its shoulder region is covered by huge, hard armor plates, like those of an armored fish. Such armored fish and jawless have a full ring of thickened skin parts all the way around their bodies.
The Fanjingshania renovata, a shark fish that lived 439 million years ago and has a striking resemblance to the armored fish due to its armored shoulder region, is a pleasing example of a cartilaginous fish with a comparable structure. On the other hand, the fish has teeth and scales that are similar to those of bony fish. According to the research group led by Qujing Normal University’s first author Plamen Andreev, this combination distinguishes this ancient fish from all other known vertebrates.
New and exciting times
Together, these new fossils provide fascinating light on the timeframe during which the first animals with jaws initially appeared. There will undoubtedly be heated discussions on the unique properties of these new fossils and the complexities of their classification. After all, much remains unknown about the variety of the recently found fishes.
More jawed fishes from the Early Silurian have been found at these locations, although these have not yet been characterized. As a result, the study of primitive jawed fishes has entered a new and interesting epoch. (Nature, 2022; doi: 10.1038/s41586-022-05136-8; doi: 10.1038/s41586-022-05233-8)
Motion sickness affects both humans and some animals, including fish.
Motion sickness is caused by a conflict between sensory information.
Fish can experience symptoms similar to human motion sickness, including vomiting and loss of orientation.
When a ship pulls out of port and the ship begins to rock in open water, many passengers start to feel sick. They frequently suffer from headaches, vertigo, and cold sweating in their palms. It frequently extends beyond these few symptoms. Motion sickness quickly develops into nausea, frequent vomiting, and the desire to pass out, which makes the journey impossible to complete. Those who have been affected only want to get to land. But is motion sickness something that only humans are susceptible to, or can animals also get it? For example, are fish susceptible to getting seasick?
Known Examples of Seasickness in Fish
Yes, but it’s possible that they wouldn’t be seasick in their natural habitat. Because if there is turbulence on the surface of the water where a fish is swimming, the fish will simply dive to avoid it.
However, when fish are snared in a fishing net in a short amount of time, this unique situation arises. Seasickness may sometimes occur even when ornamental fish are transported from one location to another in an enclosed vehicle.
The same can be said for some animals, which are sent into space as “animal space tourists” for scientific research purposes and are able to survive there despite the absence of gravity.
A conflict between visual information and the organs of balance causes motion sickness, which affects all higher animals to varying degrees. Although they can’t throw up, certain animals like rats and horses still experience the discomfort of seasickness.
How to Tell If a Fish is Seasick
A school of fish swimming in a loop. (Credit: Michael Haluwana)
But how can you tell which fish are seasick? For example, are they able to throw up as well? The animals eventually develop symptoms that are identical to those seen in people at this point.
They would begin to spin and make a variety of gestures in an attempt to reassert their authority over their surroundings. Animals who occasionally experience feelings of nausea may even turn somersaults while swimming in the water, similar to a swimming loop.
There is evidence that fish can also throw up. For instance, fish breeders will withhold food from their animals before transporting them so that they will not engage in this behavior.
There was another attempt to learn whether fish experience motion sickness. After placing almost 50 fish in a tank and boarding an aircraft, the researchers watched the fish undergo a steep dive to simulate zero gravity. A few of the fish then swam in circles, seemingly bewildered.
During the test, eight free-falling fish demonstrated seasickness. The fish looked to be vomiting and swimming in circles after their release by the scientists. This demonstrates, much like with humans, that certain fish are prone to motion sickness while others are not. This “seasick” fish would be easy prey in the wild.
According to Stuttgart zoologist Dr. Reinhold Hilbig:
“The fish lost their orientation… They completely lost their sense of balance, behaving like humans who get seasick.”
Dr. Reinhold Hilbig
This also applies to the fish in a tank on the ship during wavy seas that show signs of distress. Their distress appears to be related to the vibrations in the tank and their loss of eye contact with the motion of the water.
Why Does Seasickness Happen?
But what exactly causes humans and other animals to experience motion sickness in the first place? This frequently occurs when the input the sense organs receive does not coincide with the body’s movement and spatial location. Scientists refer to this phenomenon as a conflict between the senses.
After a brief period of time, the brain loses its bearings and is unable to determine which piece of information to trust. This is something that can happen on a rocking ship as well as in the back seat of a moving car or on the drooping wings of an airplane.
(Credit: Emory University)
Imagine that you’re on a train that’s stopped in the middle of nowhere. A train is about to leave the station on the nearby track. When this occurs, the organ of balance in the ear reports that you are not moving, whereas the eyes report that you are moving.
The brain at first has trouble making sense of this apparent contradiction. However, it eventually comes to the conclusion that the train has come to a stop and that everything has returned to its usual state after analyzing the signals from other sensory organs.
However, motion sickness is possible if the predicament lasts for an extended period of time, such as when one is on a ship experiencing a significant surge.
Due to the nature of the brain, it is likely that an individual will incorrectly diagnose themselves as having food poisoning. Then they would throw up in order to get rid of the allegedly revolting food. That can be considered a hypothesis, at the very least.
Even fish have organs to help them keep their balance. They are positioned, one on each side of the head, specifically on the left and right sides. A fish may momentarily lose its sense of orientation and feel dizzy or ill if a vortex or strong wave movement rocks it back and forth.
The investigation into the phenomenon in both people and fish is by no means complete. It is unknown, for instance, why some organisms experience seasickness even when making only very slight movements, while others do not experience this phenomenon.
The Reason for Motion Sickness in Animals
The causes of seasickness in animals are still a mystery. Many hypotheses attempt to explain why our species developed such a robust reaction. There’s some speculation that this helps shield nerve cells from neurotoxins.
Because back in the day, the only time our senses were at odds with one another, as they are during motion sickness, was when we were poisoned. Therefore, to expel the toxins, one could only vomit.
Ernest Shackleton, the intrepid explorer of the Antarctic, carried ponies with him on his journey by sea and wrote in his journals of the terrible hardships they endured in the midst of the storms. It’s rather common to see seasickness in our dog and cat friends.
