The Prophecy That Made Him Famous: The Death of Henry II
In 1555, Nostradamus wrote the following quatrain:
The young lion will overcome the older one; On the battlefield in a singular duel; He will pierce his eyes in a golden cage; Two wounds in one, then he will die a cruel death.
Four years later, on July 1, 1559, the young Count of Montgomery (who can be identified as the “young lion”) struck King Henry II (the “older one”) in the eye during a tournament (a “battlefield”). During the joust, the king was wearing a golden helmet (“golden cage”). After days of agony, he succumbed to his wounds. Quite unsettling, isn’t it?
His Predictions Weren’t Always Spot-On…
To say the least. In 1564, Catherine de’ Medici visited Salon-de-Provence. Worried about the future of her son, the young King Charles IX—then only 14 years old—she consulted Nostradamus. He reassured her, predicting that the king would live to be 90 years old. Charles IX, however, died on May 30, 1574, at the age of 24.
Nostradamus Was the Heir to an Ancient Astrological Tradition
Michel de Nostredame, known as Nostradamus, was born in 1503 in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. He came from a Jewish family that had converted to Catholicism in the 15th century. To emphasize his commitment to his new faith, his great-grandfather chose the surname Notre Dame. His distant ancestors were said to belong to the Tribe of Issachar, renowned for its astronomical studies.
He Invented a Prophylactic Remedy Against the Plague
During the plague epidemic that struck the Aix-en-Provence region in 1546, Nostradamus, who was trained as a physician, treated the sick with a potion he concocted himself. The mixture contained cypress leaves, the juice of red rose petals, and cloves. To protect against the “corruption of the air,” people were instructed to rub this mixture on their mouths and noses. Did it actually work? Hard to say. However, one thing is certain—his remedy must have smelled better than those of his colleagues, who relied on garlic and goat urine.
His Prophecies Were a Bestseller in the 16th Century
The quatrains of the Provençal seer, published as collections in 1555, became incredibly popular during his lifetime. His success even extended beyond the borders of France, as his writings were translated into Italian in 1556 and into English two years later, in 1558.
He Was a Poet with a Vast Vocabulary
A computer analysis of Nostradamus’ writings found that he used 8,000 different words. For comparison, this is more than the Old Testament but about half the number found in Shakespeare’s plays. In the 20th century, the writer Blaise Cendrars praised Nostradamus, declaring: “As a great French poet, Nostradamus is one of the greatest.”
His Revelations Were Never Condemned by the Church
Despite their controversial nature, Nostradamus’ works have survived the centuries without ever facing condemnation, censorship, or execution by the Church. His books were never placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (the list of forbidden books), even when Pope Paul IV updated it in 1559. However, no original version of The Prophecies exists today—only copies that have been “edited” over the centuries or translations that may contain alterations.
He Reportedly Made a Prophecy from Beyond the Grave
This story likely belongs more to legend than to history, but it is so captivating that it deserves to be told. Nostradamus died in Salon-de-Provence on July 2, 1566, and was initially buried in the chapel of the Cordeliers Convent (his remains were later transferred to the Church of Saint-Laurent). In 1791, soldiers of the National Guard from Vaucluse desecrated his tomb and, according to legend, discovered his skeleton with a copper plaque on his chest. The plaque allegedly bore the exact date of the tomb’s violation.
After the 9/11 Attacks, Nostradamus Went Viral on the Internet
As the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center collapsed, Nostradamus’ name quickly spread like wildfire across the internet. According to historian Stéphane Gerson, author of Nostradamus: The Prophet of Our Misfortunes (Éditions Tallandier), his name ranked higher than Osama bin Laden’s in search engines. The Prophecies even became a bestseller on Amazon.
Why? Because the French seer was said to have predicted the attacks! However, upon closer inspection, the text circulating online in the aftermath of 9/11 did not actually exist in Nostradamus’ writings. It was, in reality, a fabricated passage, pieced together from various quatrains.
The Battle of Camarón (Mexico, 1863) is a foundational episode for the French Foreign Legion, which celebrates this “French version of the Alamo” every year. In 1862, France came to the aid of Emperor Maximilian, whom they had installed on the Mexican throne. On April 30, 1863, a detachment of about sixty legionnaires distinguished themselves at Camarón by standing their ground against 2,000 Mexicans. This minor historical event, within the context of the Mexican expedition launched by Napoleon III, has been elevated by the Legion to become a cornerstone of its tradition.
Context of the Battle of Camarón
Since its independence, Mexico had been a weakened country both territorially (having ceded California, Utah, Nevada, Colorado, New Mexico, and part of Wyoming to the United States), politically (with strong divisions between conservatives and liberals), and especially economically. In 1858, under the presidency of the anticlerical Benito Juarez, a rebellion led by conservative generals shook the country.
By 1861, President Juarez had finally pushed back the rebels, but the conflict delivered a fatal blow to Mexico’s economy. Despite the nationalization of church assets, the country found itself unable to repay its European creditors. Juarez decided to suspend debt payments for two years to Spain (9 million pesos), France (3 million), and especially the United Kingdom (70 million).
For Napoleon III, the French emperor, this was an opportunity. A military intervention could replace the weak republic, which was embroiled in civil war and defaulting on its debts, with a Catholic empire allied with France. This was a good way for France to extend its informal empire and its “soft power” over the New World. The opportunity was even more favorable since the United States, embroiled in its own civil war, was in no position to intervene with its Mexican neighbor.
However, the Mexican expedition was not to appear as a purely French imperialist initiative. Everything was decided in collaboration with other powers affected by Mexico’s debt: Spain and the United Kingdom. Thus, on October 31, 1861, the London Convention took place, providing the framework for a military expedition in the name of debt repayment and the protection of European nationals. The official and shared goal of the intervention was to pressure the Mexican government by seizing ports on the east coast.
But for Napoleon III, the idea was to offer the Mexican crown to Archduke Maximilian, brother of the Austrian emperor, which would also strengthen ties between France and Austria in Europe. Mexican émigrés had convinced him that the people were tired of civil wars and awaited a monarchical restoration, promising to rise as one to fight alongside the French.
International Operation Against Mexico
Thus, a coalition intervened against the Mexican republic: the Spanish, who were already in Cuba, sent General Joan Prim with 6,300 men against their former colony. The British contributed their key asset, the navy, under Admiral Dunlop. France deployed the largest contingent. On December 17, 1861, the Spanish landed, followed by the French under Admiral Jurien de La Gravière on January 8, 1862. The French expected a jubilant crowd in Veracruz, eager for the return of the monarchy, which would provide many local recruits. However, that was not the case. They only rallied the modest, ragtag group of General Galvez (about 200 men).
Worse, the sanitary conditions quickly deteriorated in this region, known as the “Hot Lands,” where yellow fever and black vomit (vomito negro) were rampant. Facing this precarious situation and the Mexican republic’s desire to find a peaceful solution to the conflict, a convention was signed at La Soledad. This agreement allowed the allies to advance further inland, where the fever was less severe, while they negotiated a debt settlement. The allies signed the convention, although Jurien de La Gravière disliked this implicit recognition of the Mexican government.
Anxious to leave this inhospitable region, the Spanish and British quickly concluded a new financial agreement (which would be no more respected than the previous ones) and withdrew their troops.
However, the French side saw a different outcome. Jurien de La Gravière was dismissed, General Latrille de Lorencez took command of the troops, and France embarked alone on a phase of conquest. Citing the mistreatment of French residents in Mexico, the French Empire declared war on a “wicked government that had committed unprecedented outrages.”
Beginning of the Mexican Expedition: The Siege of Puebla
The French expeditionary corps, numbering fewer than 7,000 men, with 10 cannons (small 4-pounder pieces), few supplies, and no reserves, was about to embark on a hazardous conquest of Mexico. On April 27, Lorencez marched on Puebla de Los Angeles, a city portrayed to him as loyal to monarchists and ready to open its gates. However, on May 4, he found himself facing a fortified city defended by 12,000 Mexicans. Outnumbered and receiving little support from the hoped-for popular uprising, Lorencez attempted an assault, which ended in failure.
Fully aware of his lack of military resources to carry out any conquest, Lorencez retreated (in what is called the Retreat of the Six Thousand) to Orizaba, where he dug in, awaiting reinforcements from France. Lorencez’s reports detailed the absence of any monarchist faction supporting France. As if this defection wasn’t enough, Maximilian himself seemed hardly invested in the future of his hypothetical kingdom. However, for Napoleon III, withdrawal so soon after a failure was not an option, so he sent reinforcements: around 23,000 men landed during the summer under General Élie-Frédéric Forey, who reestablished contact with Lorencez, now dismissed from his duties.
For Napoleon III, the situation had become increasingly complex. His plan now seemed to be to overthrow Juarez’s republic and establish a stable government while awaiting a popular consultation to determine the country’s future political direction (which was barely feasible in a country without an administrative structure). Whether this ended with an Austrian or a Mexican in power mattered little to France as long as they remained a loyal ally in the future.
For the moment, it was necessary to conquer the territory, and for that, Forey took the time to equip his forces, purchase mules and horses (from Cuba and the United States), and familiarize himself with the new theater of operations: a hostile country both geographically (lack of roads) and in terms of its inhabitants (the development of guerrilla warfare). Between him and Mexico stood General Ortega and the Mexican army, as well as the city of Puebla. Forey decided to organize a formal siege around Puebla, where he arrived on March 12, 1863. After heavy artillery preparation, Fort San-Javier was taken on March 28, marking the start of a long street battle that would only end in mid-May with a French victory.
Battle of Camarón
During the siege of Puebla, the communication line with Veracruz was crucial. Supplies and ammunition arrived through this route, making it a vital axis for the French army. Naturally, it became a prime target for Mexican guerrillas, who constantly harassed French troops in the area. To secure the zone, the French deployed 400 men from the Egyptian Negro Battalion (provided by the Viceroy of Egypt), counter-guerrilla troops under General Dupin, and four battalions of the Foreign Regiment.
It was in this context that the 3rd Company of the 1st Battalion of this regiment was annihilated in the village of Camarón (later known as Camerone) after a heroic resistance. The details of the combat at the hacienda are only known through reports from survivors. From these testimonies, the official and epic account of the battle was written and read to legionnaires every April 30th:
“The French army was besieging Puebla. The Legion’s mission was to ensure the movement and safety of convoys over 120 kilometers. Colonel Jeanningros, the commander, learned on April 29, 1863, that a large convoy carrying three million in cash, siege equipment, and ammunition was en route to Puebla. Captain Danjou, his adjutant-major, decided to send a company to meet the convoy.
The 3rd Company of the Foreign Regiment was selected, but no officers were available. Captain Danjou took command himself, and Sub-lieutenants Maudet, the standard-bearer, and Vilain, the paymaster, volunteered to join him.
At 1 a.m. on April 30, the 3rd Company, consisting of three officers and 62 men, set out. They had traveled about 20 kilometers when, at 7 a.m., they stopped at Palo Verde to make coffee. At that moment, the enemy revealed itself, and the battle immediately began. Captain Danjou formed a square formation, and while retreating, successfully repelled several cavalry charges, inflicting significant losses on the enemy.
Upon reaching the inn at Camarón, a large building with a courtyard surrounded by a three-meter-high wall, he decided to fortify there to hold off the enemy and delay their ability to attack the convoy for as long as possible.
While the men hastily organized the defense of the inn, a Mexican officer, highlighting their overwhelming numbers, demanded Captain Danjou’s surrender. He responded, ‘We have ammunition, and we will not surrender.’ Then, raising his hand, he swore to defend to the death and made his men take the same oath. It was 10 a.m. For eight hours, these 60 men, without food or water since the previous day, resisted 2,000 Mexicans: 800 cavalry and 1,200 infantry, in extreme heat, hunger, and thirst.
At noon, Captain Danjou was shot in the chest and killed. At 2 p.m., Sub-lieutenant Vilain was struck in the forehead and fell. At that point, the Mexican colonel succeeded in setting the inn on fire.
Despite the heat and smoke that increased their suffering, the legionnaires held their ground, though many were wounded. By 5 p.m., only 12 men capable of fighting remained around Sub-lieutenant Maudet. At that moment, the Mexican colonel gathered his troops and told them how shameful it would be if they failed to defeat this small group of brave men (a legionnaire who understood Spanish translated his words as they were spoken). The Mexicans were preparing for a general assault through the breaches they had opened, but before attacking, Colonel Milan once again summoned Maudet to surrender; Maudet scornfully refused.
The final assault began. Soon, only five men remained with Maudet: Corporal Maine, and legionnaires Catteau, Wensel, Constantin, and Leonhard. Each still had one cartridge left; they fixed bayonets and, taking refuge in a corner of the courtyard with their backs to the wall, prepared for a final stand. At a signal, they fired point-blank at the enemy and charged with bayonets. Maudet and two legionnaires fell, mortally wounded. Maine and his two comrades were about to be massacred when a Mexican officer intervened and saved them. He shouted, ‘Surrender!’
‘We will surrender if you promise to care for our wounded and allow us to keep our weapons,’ they replied, with their bayonets still threatening.
‘We refuse nothing to men like you!’ responded the officer.
Captain Danjou’s 60 men had kept their oath to the end. For 11 hours, they resisted 2,000 enemies, killing 300 and wounding as many. Through their sacrifice, they saved the convoy and completed their mission.
Emperor Napoleon III decided that the name “Camarón” would be inscribed on the Foreign Regiment’s flag, and that the names Danjou, Vilain, and Maudet would be engraved in gold letters on the walls of the Invalides in Paris.
Additionally, a monument was erected in 1892 at the site of the battle. It bears the inscription:
‘Here, fewer than sixty men Faced an entire army. Its mass crushed them. Life rather than courage Abandoned these French soldiers On April 30, 1863. To their memory, the nation erected this monument.’
Since then, when Mexican troops pass by the monument, they present arms.”
However, the official account says nothing of the events that allowed the survivors to tell their story. In fact, Captain Saussier’s company, which arrived at the scene the next day, found only the drummer Laï, who had been left for dead with nine bullet and lance wounds. General Dupin’s counter-guerrilla troops attacked the village of Cueva Pentada on June 13 and liberated one of Camarón’s survivors, Legionnaire de Vries.
On June 28, they took the village of Huatusco, defended by guerrillas who had participated in Camarón, and discovered Sub-lieutenant Maudet’s grave, which two Mexican officers had entrusted to their sister’s care in vain. Finally, on July 14, 1863, twelve surviving prisoners were exchanged for Mexican Colonel Alba. Thus, 14 legionnaires survived the battle. Most of them were promoted and decorated.”
Camarón: the Founding Myth of the Foreign Legion
In the broader context of French history, and even within the scope of the Mexican expedition, the Battle of Camarón is just a small event—essentially a skirmish involving only about sixty French soldiers. Nevertheless, this “French Thermopylae” has been completely mythologized and glorified, to the point that it overshadows the collective memory of the expedition’s ultimate failure in Mexico. So why this fascination with Camarón? Every military corps needs its traditions, its “founding myths” of sorts, with memorable events where past heroes are held up as examples. The Foreign Legion, which was still quite new at the time (founded in 1831), needed its own.
A few months after the event, Colonel Jeanningros obtained permission from the emperor to have the name “Camarón” embroidered on his regiment’s flag (a practice now extended to all Legion flags). Napoleon III also had the names “Camarón, Danjou, Maudet, Vilain” inscribed on the walls of Les Invalides. On May 3, 1863, Colonel Jeanningros erected a wooden cross at the battle site, inscribed with “Here lies the 3rd Company of the 1st Battalion of the Foreign Legion.” This cross was later replaced with a stone column. In 1892, the French consul Edouard Sempé raised a monument through public subscription, which was rebuilt and inaugurated in 1965.
Camarón is, therefore, a real historical event in which a small group of legionnaires distinguished themselves. However, through commemoration, the event has been essentialized to embody a certain spirit. What is called the “spirit of Camarón,” which is meant to inspire every legionnaire, is the ability to obey and fight to the death (since almost the entire force was wiped out) for the success of the mission (the Mexicans were delayed, and the convoy was saved). In other words, it symbolizes true self-sacrifice and a sacred sense of duty.
The sacred aspect is not an exaggeration, especially considering that Camarón includes what could be seen as a relic: Captain Danjou’s wooden hand. This prosthesis was searched for in vain by the relief column and was allegedly taken by a Mexican guerrilla before ending up in the hands of a French ranch owner near Tesuitlan, where Austrian lieutenant Karl Grübert reportedly purchased it.
According to other sources, it was found during the arrest of General Ramirez. Colonel Guilhem deposited it at Sidi Bel Abbes (the Legion’s headquarters) in 1865. Today, it is housed in the crypt of the Legion’s Museum of Remembrance in Aubagne and is only brought out for commemorations of the battle. Danjou’s hand has all the characteristics of a religious relic: a debated origin, sanctification in a significant place, and regular exhibition for an important celebration.
Since 1906, the official account presented above has been read to legionnaires every April 30th, so that the example of these sixty men from the Second Empire becomes a model. The phrase “faire Camarón” has spread beyond Legion ranks and into society, becoming synonymous with “fighting to the ultimate sacrifice.
Claude of France (1499-1524), daughter of a king and first wife of Francis I, was known for her great charity, kindness, and gentleness toward everyone. Her motto, “Candida candidis” (pure among the pure), symbolized her purity and innocence, accompanied by an image of a wounded swan pierced by an arrow. She became Duchess of Brittany in 1514 and Queen of France in 1515, holding the titles of Countess of Soissons, Blois, Coucy, Étampes, Montfort, and Duchess of Milan. Claude died prematurely at the age of 24, after giving birth to seven children, including the future Henry II.
Claude’s Royal Childhood
Claude was born joyfully on October 13, 1499, in Romorantin, the daughter of King Louis XII and Queen Anne of Brittany. Her father, overjoyed, declared her “duchess of the two most beautiful duchies in Christendom, Milan and Brittany.” She was cherished, living alongside her parents and becoming the focus of Easter celebrations in 1505.
From an early age, her parents planned her marriage, which led to one of the greatest conflicts between them. As Brittany was to be her inheritance, it was a significant dowry.
Her mother, Anne, shortlisted only a few suitors, focusing on Charles of Ghent, the future Charles V, who was four months younger than Claude and heir to the Netherlands, Artois, Franche-Comté, Austria, Hungary, Aragon, and Castile. However, there were risks involved. Louis XII then promised Claude’s hand to Francis of Angoulême, the heir presumptive to the French throne, who would defend France’s interests. But Anne detested this lively boy, and she equally despised his mother, Louise of Savoy, who always promoted her son.
Louis XII did not oppose his wife openly, but secretly, in April 1501, he had a declaration drawn up stating that any marriage agreement for Claude other than with Francis of Angoulême would be invalid.
The Treaty of Blois, signed in September 1504, concerning Claude’s engagement to Charles, revealed a dowry that included Milan, Genoa, Asti, Brittany, Blois, Burgundy, Auxerre, Mâcon, and Bar-sur-Seine. Anne did everything to ensure the marriage took place, but the ailing king expressed his desires in letters patent in May 1505. When Anne prepared to leave for Brittany, threatening to take Claude with her, Louis XII spread hostile rumors about Charles of Ghent across the kingdom, causing the people to demand Claude’s marriage to her cousin Francis, “who is wholly French.”
Louis XII had his way. The betrothal took place on May 21, 1506, and Anne of Brittany was forced to attend, despite her displeasure. Claude, barely six years old, dressed in brocade and gold, was carried to the ceremony. She was sweet, pious, and not particularly beautiful; she inherited her father’s nose and her mother’s limp but was even shorter. She also had a slight strabismus and, over time, became overweight, which worsened with her pregnancies.
As time passed, Francis was now 19, and Claude was nearing 15. Although they were still not married, they had known each other for a long time, and Claude had no fears on her wedding night in May 1514. However, the marriage was sad, with everyone in mourning as Anne of Brittany had just died. Three months later, Louis XII followed. Claude was left with no family, only her royal husband.
A Queen on the Sidelines
Portrait of Claude of France painted thirty years after his death in the Book of Hours of Catherine de’ Medici.
Hoping for support from her mother-in-law and sister-in-law, Claude found herself alone in her new family. Louise of Savoy and Marguerite of Navarre formed a tight bond around Francis. Louise had hoped for a more beautiful and intelligent wife for her son, someone worthy of his qualities. Claude, viewed as an outsider, was merely tolerated, and the welcome she received was far from warm. In the end, Louise accepted Claude: she posed no threat, and the union was prestigious, as Claude was the eldest daughter of the King of France. Additionally, her dowry was impressive: she held Brittany and the Duchy of Milan.
Claude remained discreet, always in the background. She accompanied her husband to his coronation in Reims and was seen on a platform during their official entrance into Paris, though she would not be crowned until May 1517. At that time, she was already pregnant, and on August 15, she gave birth to a daughter, Louise. Meanwhile, Francis was waging war in Italy, with Louise of Savoy acting as regent and Marguerite serving as ambassador.
Claude faded into the background. She was not strong, nor did she possess the brilliance or wit of the other two women. She had no court or clientele of her own and was simply “a vessel for securing the dynasty.” Even her children were taken from her care, with Louise of Savoy overseeing everything, including the nursery, the care of the children, their deaths, and future alliances.
At least one positive aspect was that the king did his conjugal duty willingly. He did not reject her and admired their children. While he had mistresses, he treated Claude with kindness and kept his extramarital affairs discreet. No royal mistress was ever officially acknowledged at court.
Claude of France’s Children
During their ten years together, Claude gave birth to seven children. As she endured these successive pregnancies, her health deteriorated. She became weak, gained excessive weight, and eventually became unable to move on her own. Despite her condition, she accompanied the king on his travels, as a queen needed to be seen by the people, as a symbol of peace. Francis I loved to travel and attend festivities. Soon after their first child, Louise, was born in August 1515, Claude joined Francis in the south, where he had just triumphed at Marignano.
In early 1516, they stopped near Marseille at Sainte Baume, and by October 1516, their second child, Charlotte, was born. In the spring of 1517, Francis set out again on a year-and-a-half-long journey. During that time, Claude gave birth to the Dauphin, François, in February 1518 (he would later become Duke of Brittany as François III). They traveled to Brittany and Nantes, where Claude learned of her first daughter’s death, but it was Louise of Savoy who returned to Amboise to organize the funeral.
Continuing their royal tour through Vendôme and Chartres, Henry (the future King of France) was born in March 1519 at Saint-Germain. The court traveled to Châtellerault in the winter of 1519-1520, and then to Cognac for three weeks of festivities in February 1520. The negotiations for the Holy Roman Empire against Charles V began, including the famous Field of the Cloth of Gold in June 1520. Claude, always present, was seven months pregnant at the time (the ambassadors were astonished by her size), and she endured the ceremonies, tournaments, and banquets with great difficulty. Madeleine was born on August 10, 1520 (she would marry James V and become Queen of Scotland in 1537).
Travel ceased due to financial difficulties and the king’s poor health. Once Francis recovered, Claude made a pilgrimage to Notre-Dame de Cléry to thank the Virgin for her husband’s recovery. Although they might have expected the births to stop, another child, Charles, was born in January 1522, followed by Marguerite in June 1523 (who would later become Duchess of Savoy through her marriage in 1559 to Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy).
Tributes to the Queen of France
Exhausted, Claude remained bedridden, her face covered in skin lesions. She was not dying from syphilis, as rumored, but from sheer exhaustion. Francis kissed her one last time on July 12 before departing for a campaign in Provence.
Louise of Savoy and Marguerite, notified of her condition, were still in Bourges when Claude died on July 20, 1524, in Blois. They arrived too late.
The queen was mourned. Louise had come to appreciate her for her discretion and devoted herself to raising Claude’s six children with great tenderness. Marguerite praised her virtues and grace. Francis realized that he had loved her deeply, saying, “I never thought the bond of marriage ordained by God would be so hard and difficult to break.”
Claude was a popular, kind, and simple queen, leaving behind nothing but her children and a sweet, juicy fruit—the “Reine Claude” plum. Numerous eulogies were given, describing her as “one of the most honorable princesses ever to walk the earth and the most beloved by all, both great and small. If she is not in Paradise, then few will ever go there.”
Catherine de’ Medici was born on April 13, 1519, in Florence, Italy. Wife of Henry II and Queen of France from 1547 to 1559, she was also the mother of three kings of France: Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III; as well as, among others, Elizabeth of France (1546–1568), who became Queen of Spain by marrying Philip II, Marguerite (known as “Queen Margot,” wife of the future Henry IV), and Claude of France (1547–1575), Duchess of Lorraine. After the death of her son Francis II in 1560, she assumed the regency of the kingdom for her second son, Charles IX, who was then 10 years old. From that point on, she played a predominant role in French political affairs, serving as regent of the kingdom of France until 1574.
Starting in 1562, when the Wars of Religion broke out between Catholics and Protestants, she constantly sought to find agreements between the belligerents to bring peace to France. Catherine de’ Medici was thus behind the signing of many peace treaties but was also, paradoxically, the instigator of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre. She died on January 5, 1589, in Blois, France, without having been able to end the French Wars of Religion, which bloodied France from 1562 to 1598.
Genealogy of Catherine de’ Medici
Daughter of Lorenzo II de’ Medici (1492–1519), Duke of Urbino, and Madeleine de la Tour d’Auvergne (1495–1519), Catherine de’ Medici grew up in Italy, her father’s homeland. At the death of her parents, she became Duchess of Urbino, and later Countess of Auvergne after the death of her aunt, Anne of Auvergne, in 1524. She married the future Henry II in 1533 and through this union, became Dauphine and Duchess of Brittany from 1536 to 1547, before her husband’s accession to the throne made her Queen of France from 1547 to 1559.
Margaret (1553–1615), married to King Henry III of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France)
Francis, Duke of Anjou (1554–1584); his death without issue made the Protestant Henry of Navarre the heir to the French throne
Jeanne and Victoire, twins (1556)
Husband of Catherine de’ Medici
Catherine de’ Medici
The marriage between Catherine de’ Medici and Henry II of France (Duke Henry of Orléans) took place in 1533. He was the second son of King Francis I of France and was not expected to reign. However, after the death of his older brother, the Dauphin Francis, in 1536, Henry, Duke of Orléans, became King Henry II in 1547. During her husband’s reign, Catherine de’ Medici had to step aside for Diane de Poitiers, the king’s mistress. King Henry II died in 1559.
Regency of Catherine de’ Medici
Born on April 13, 1519, in Florence as Caterina Maria Romola di Lorenzo de’ Medici, Catherine de’ Medici lost both her parents at a very young age. She spent her early years in Rome and later married Duke Henry of Orléans. This marked her first steps at the French court. However, the young Italian was quickly overshadowed by her husband’s mistress, Diane de Poitiers. Once in the background, Catherine de’ Medici increasingly took on political roles after the deaths of her husband, Henry II, and her son, Francis II. When her other son, Charles IX, ascended the throne, she became regent of the country and quickly had to deal with religious dissensions.
Advocating conciliation and supported by Minister Michel de l’Hospital, she initially favored tolerance and sought to establish peace between Protestants and Catholics (Edict of Amboise, 1563, and Peace of Saint-Germain, 1570). A devout Catholic, Catherine de’ Medici still supported the marriage of her daughter, Marguerite of Valois, to the Protestant Henry of Navarre, the future Henry IV, in 1572. However, she remained distrustful of the Huguenots and Admiral Coligny, which contributed to her involvement in the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572.
Catherine de’ Medici and Nostradamus
Catherine de’ Medici brought Nostradamus to court and appointed him as the king’s physician and advisor in 1564. In the 16th century, astrologers were regarded as highly respected scholars. Since her marriage to Henry, the second son of Francis I, at the age of 14, Catherine de’ Medici had consulted astrologers. Highly superstitious, she also regularly summoned Cosimo Ruggieri, a Florentine astrologer, to France. The famous Nostradamus is said to have predicted for Catherine, among other things, the circumstances of her husband’s death and that her three sons would succeed each other on the French throne before being replaced by Henry of Navarre.
Charles IX: Son of Catherine de’ Medici
Born on June 27, 1550, and died on May 30, 1574, Charles IX was the fifth of Catherine de’ Medici’s ten children. After the death of his brother Louis, who died on October 24, 1550, at the age of 1 year and 8 months, Charles became Duke of Orléans. He ascended to the throne after the death of his older brother Francis II in 1560. In 1570, he married Elizabeth of Austria, with whom he had one daughter. He reigned until his death in 1574 at the age of 24.
Death of Catherine de’ Medici
Still regent at the ascension of her third son, Henry III, in 1574, Catherine de’ Medici’s influence began to wane. She died on January 5, 1589, at the age of 70, a few months before the death of her last son, Henry III. He ultimately ceded the throne to the Bourbons and Henry IV, his brother-in-law. A patron of the arts, Catherine de’ Medici contributed to the construction of parts of the Louvre and the Tuileries Palace.
Catherine de’ Medici: Key Dates
Catherine and Henry’s marriage, painted seventeen years after the event
April 13, 1519: Birth of Catherine de’ Medici in Florence, Italy.
October 28, 1533: Marriage of the Henry II of France (Duke of Orléans) and Catherine de Medici Pope Clement VII officiates the marriage of Henry of Orléans and his niece, Catherine de Medici, in Marseille. When the Duke of Orléans becomes Henry II in 1547, Catherine de Medici will become the Queen of France. Together, they will have ten children.
January 19, 1544: Birth of Francis II After 11 years of marriage to Dauphin Henry II (son of Francis I), Catherine de Medici gives birth to a son, Francis, the future Francis II. Married to Mary Stuart of Scotland, he will become King of France at 15 in 1559. However, his reign, dominated by the Guise family, will last only a year and a half. Francis II dies on December 5, 1560, from an ear infection.
June 27, 1550: Birth of Charles IX Charles IX will succeed his elder brother Francis II at the age of 10.
September 19, 1551: Birth of Henry III The third son of Henry II and Catherine de Medici is baptized Alexander-Edward at birth. He will take the name Henry upon confirmation. His mother will have him elected King of Poland in 1573 at the age of 22. However, he will not have time to exercise this role as he is abruptly called to succeed his brother Charles IX on the French throne. Henry III will often be criticized for his complex personality and fondness for his favorites, the “mignons.”
December 5, 1560: Charles IX succeeds Francis II After the death of Francis II from an ear infection, his brother Charles IX, aged 10, succeeds him but cannot govern alone. Queen mother Catherine de Medici takes over as regent and will rule behind the scenes until her son’s death in 1574.
September 9, 1561: Start of the Colloquy of Poissy, which attempts to reconcile Catholics and Protestants The Colloquy of Poissy takes place from September 9 to October 14, 1561. Convened at the initiative of Catherine de Medici, it aims to achieve reconciliation between Catholics and Protestants. However, the inability to agree on the presence or absence of Christ during the Eucharist leads to a breakdown. Catherine de Medici abandons hopes for religious unity.
January 17, 1562: Signing of the January Edict Pressured by his mother, Catherine de Medici, and Chancellor Michel de l’Hôpital, King Charles IX signs the January Edict in Saint-Germain-en-Laye. It grants Protestants freedom of worship outside city walls, in exchange for their relinquishment of churches they had seized. However, this edict only intensifies Catholic anger, especially from the Duke of Guise, who will soon organize the Massacre of Wassy, sparking the first War of Religion.
September 28, 1567: Attempted abduction of Charles IX Fearing the consequences of Catherine de Medici’ negotiations with Catholic Spain, Prince of Condé organizes the abduction of King Charles IX. The plot fails, leading to the second War of Religion. In November, the Protestants suffer a devastating defeat by the Duke of Montmorency at Saint-Denis, leading them to sign the Peace of Longjumeau.
March 23, 1568: Peace of Longjumeau Signed between Charles IX and Prince of Condé, this peace ends the second War of Religion. The conflict between Protestants and Catholics had resumed in September 1567. Both sides, financially ruined, are forced to negotiate again. The treaty reaffirms the rights granted to Protestants by the Peace of Amboise, signed on March 19, 1563. However, the truce will be short-lived as the third War of Religion begins five months later.
March 13, 1569: Protestants defeated at Jarnac The third War of Religion erupts following King Charles IX’s decision, influenced by Catherine de Medici, to order the arrest of Prince of Condé. Forced to take up arms again, the Protestants face the Catholics once more. The Battle of Jarnac ends with a Protestant defeat and the death of Condé.
August 18, 1572: Marriage of Henry of Navarre and Queen Margot To attempt reconciliation between Protestants and Catholics, Jeanne d’Albret and Catherine de Medici arrange the marriage of their children, Henry of Navarre and Marguerite de Valois. The Catholics take advantage of the gathering of Protestants for the wedding in Paris to order the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (night of August 23-24, 1572). Henry of Navarre, who becomes King of France as Henry IV in 1589, will have the marriage annulled in 1599 and marry Marie de Medici in 1600.
August 22, 1572: Coligny escapes assassination Gaspard de Coligny, increasingly influential with King Charles IX, arouses suspicion in Catherine de Medici and revives Catholic hatred. The Protestant leader tries to convince the king to intervene in the Netherlands against Spain. This likely motivates the Guise family, staunch defenders of Catholicism, to attempt his assassination.
Coligny is one of the first Protestants to be killed.
August 24, 1572: St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre On the night of August 23-24, 1572, Protestants gathered in Paris for the wedding of their leader Henry of Navarre to Marguerite de Valois are massacred. Two days earlier, the assassination attempt on Coligny, likely orchestrated by the Guise family, had created dangerous tensions. Fearing a coup by the Guise family, Catherine de Medici, wary of Coligny’s influence over her son Charles IX, convinced him to order the massacre of Protestant leaders. When the bells of Saint-Germain-l’Auxerrois ring, Parisians unleash violence on Protestants, men, women, and children.
This is one of the bloodiest episodes of the Wars of Religion that ravaged the kingdom from 1562 to 1598.
February 13, 1575: Coronation of Henry III The fourth son of Henry II and Catherine de Medici is crowned King of France in Reims. Henry III is in Kraków, on the Polish throne, when he learns of the death of his brother King Charles IX (May 30, 1574). His return journey to France takes five months, during which his mother serves as regent. Two days after his coronation, Henry III marries Louise of Lorraine-Vaudémont.
January 5, 1589: Death of Catherine de Medici Queen mother Catherine de Medici dies at the age of 70 at the Château de Blois.
Louis XIII (1601-1643) was a King of France from the Bourbon dynasty, nicknamed “the Just.” He reigned from 1610 to 1643. The eldest son of Henry IV, Louis XIII succeeded his father at the age of nine. His mother, Marie de’ Medici, served as regent. In 1624, he appointed Cardinal Richelieu as his principal minister.
From that point, the kingdom’s policies took a new direction: together, the king and the cardinal fought against the influence of the Habsburgs in Europe and limited the power of the nobility within the kingdom. They reduced the privileges enjoyed by Protestants since the issuance of the Edict of Nantes, which reignited the war between Catholics and Protestants. Louis XIII’s reign is marked by the establishment of a strong, centralized state, ushering in France’s “Grand Siècle.”
The Dauphin: Future Louis XIII
Louis was the son of Henry IV, King of France and Navarre, and Marie de’ Medici. He was not the first-born of the “Vert-Galant” (Henry IV), known for his numerous illegitimate offspring. The marriage between Henry IV and the Florentine princess was driven by diplomatic (preserving French influence in Italy), dynastic (providing the Bourbon lineage with an heir), and financial (canceling the kingdom’s debt to Florentine bankers) reasons. Personal feelings were secondary to these calculations, and Henry IV remained infatuated with his various mistresses.
The young Queen, who came from Florence with an extensive entourage (including her confidante and lady-in-waiting, the famous Leonora Dori, wife of Concino Concini, who will be discussed later), nevertheless fulfilled the dynastic hopes of the king. She bore him six children, of whom two sons reached adulthood: Louis and Gaston (the Duke of Orléans, known as Monsieur).
Louis’ childhood is well documented in the journal left by his doctor and friend, Jean Héroard. Raised at the Château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Louis shared his daily life with his siblings, both legitimate and illegitimate. The child had a keen interest in outdoor activities, hunting, and the arts, particularly dance and drawing.
The young Louis greatly admired his father, who was known for his love of children. However, the relationship between mother and son was much more distant. Marie, fond of pleasures and frivolity, made little effort to adapt to France and remained under the influence of her Italian favorites, the Concini couple. Additionally, she preferred her younger son Gaston, whom she considered more graceful and intelligent than Louis, whom she found unattractive and slow-witted.
Fascinated by military life, Louis was not the most diligent student but demonstrated a certain intelligence. Despite his speech impediment (he was a stutterer) and shyness, he was aware of his status and demanded respect. There is no doubt that the example of his father, an authoritative king, greatly influenced him.
May 1610: The Assassination of Henry IV
France was on the brink of war. For both diplomatic reasons (the succession of Cleves and Jülich) and domestic concerns (the flight of the Prince of Condé to Brussels), Henry IV planned to confront the Habsburgs once again. However, he never fulfilled his plan as he was assassinated on May 14, 1610, by Ravaillac, a disturbed fanatic who may have been manipulated by the ultra-Catholic faction opposed to the war.
Louis, still a child, experienced a trauma that would haunt him for the rest of his life. His mother, who had been officially crowned the day before, became the regent of the kingdom.
The Regency of Marie de Medici and Concini
Louis XIII. Image: Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, c. 1635
Previously uninterested in governance, Marie de’ Medici quickly developed a taste for power. Favoring the pro-Spanish and ultra-Catholic faction, the regent pursued a policy of appeasement on the international stage. She successfully arranged the marriage of the Spanish Infanta, the beautiful Anne of Austria, to her son Louis, securing peace between the Bourbons and Habsburgs. However, Marie was ill-prepared to manage a kingdom still divided.
While the Protestant-Catholic conflict persisted, the main threat to the kingdom’s stability was the Grands—representatives of the most powerful aristocratic families, such as the Condé, Guise, Nevers, and Montmorency. In times of regency, when royal authority was perceived as weak, their influence grew. Furthermore, the Grands sought to take revenge on a monarchy that relied on the nobility of the robe (the administrative class) and the rising bourgeoisie.
Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, c. 1635
This burgeoning bourgeoisie, with its growing wealth, increasingly accessed high offices, which at the time were purchasable. This system of venality of office was used by Henry IV to fill the state’s coffers. In response, the aristocracy maintained its dominance by deliberately fostering instability in the provinces, even to the point of rebellion. Faced with this challenge, Marie de’ Medici was forced to buy peace through generous pensions.
Additionally, the kingdom’s financial situation suffered from the regent’s extravagant spending on entertainment and the greed of the Concini couple, who became highly unpopular. Concino Concini, a minor Italian noble, displayed excessive ambition, acquiring prestigious titles and honors through his wife’s influence over the queen. He soon became the Marquis of Ancre and a Marshal of France, amassing immense wealth and controlling ministerial careers.
Despite his unpopularity, Concini remained a royal favorite, enjoying both the queen’s affection and trust. He was a key instrument of the monarchy’s absolutist tendencies, which did not go unnoticed by the Grands. They soon denounced Concini’s influence over the queen and retreated to their provinces, sowing the seeds of rebellion.
The Grands found an unexpected ally in the young king. Although, like his father, Louis was attached to the prestige of the monarchy and disliked the nobility’s pretensions, he harbored a fierce hatred for Concini. The Italian favorite openly scorned the king and wounded his adolescent pride. When Louis appealed to his mother, he found only further humiliation. This was a dark time for the young king, who began to suffer from the illness that would plague him throughout his life—likely Crohn’s disease, a severe intestinal condition.
Despite the often unbearable pain, Louis was determined to assert himself as king. In secret, this shy and brooding fifteen-year-old prepared Concini’s downfall. He could count on the help of several supporters, notably Charles d’Albert, the future Duke of Luynes. A minor noble and France’s Grand Falconer, he had become Louis’ best friend, sharing a passion for hunting. This relationship reflects Louis’ tendency to form close bonds with male friends and father figures.
On April 24, 1617, Concini was arrested at the Louvre and assassinated by conspirators on the pretext that he had resisted. Louis, who had not opposed the physical elimination of his favorite, simply declared, “At this hour, I am king.”
From Luynes to Richelieu
This coup d’état, or “majestic coup” as it was referred to at the time, reveals the strength of character of the man taking control of France’s destiny. Louis XIII intended to be a king who ruled without sharing power. Nonetheless, with the elimination of Concini, it marked the triumph of Luynes. This new favorite, though lacking great talent, was charismatic and the primary beneficiary of the downfall of the Italian couple, taking advantage of the young king’s inexperience.
Blinded by his friendship with the grand falconer, Louis soon made Luynes a duke and peer, then a marshal (despite Luynes being a poor military leader). Such rapid success naturally led to jealousy and discontent among the nobility, as well as Queen Mother Marie de’ Medici, who saw Concini’s elimination, and especially that of his wife, as a personal affront. She held the belief that the king could not govern France without her “good counsel” and was resentful of her marginalization in Blois.
She soon took the lead of the discontented faction, gathering behind her the very nobles who had caused her so much trouble during her regency. After escaping Blois, Marie de’ Medici triggered two short civil wars, both of which she eventually lost.
At the heart of the negotiations that ended these “wars of mother and son” (from 1619 to 1620), one figure stood out: Armand du Plessis, Bishop of Luçon, the future Cardinal Richelieu. Originally one of Marie de’ Medici’s secretaries of state, the ambitious cleric skillfully maneuvered to bring peace back to the kingdom. Though Louis XIII was wary of him, he recognized that Richelieu shared his vision of royal authority and was equally hostile to religious or noble dissent. Louis would remember this…
From 1620 to 1621, the young king, having proven himself a capable captain during his recent campaigns, asserted his character and gained popularity with his people. He ended religious exceptionalism in Béarn (a Protestant state at the time) and turned his provincial travels into effective political communications. His entrances into towns were occasions to present himself as a sovereign who was both warrior and peacemaker, but above all, as a dispenser of justice—a role he cherished. He never missed an opportunity to position himself as the defender of the people against the greed of the nobility.
Louis’ authority grew even more during this period, especially after the death of his favorite, the Duke of Luynes, in 1621. With Luynes gone, Louis was freed from this cumbersome friendship, a vestige of his adolescence. However, the situation remained difficult for Henri IV’s son. Despite some affection for Anne of Austria, Louis had a distant relationship with her. He showed little interest in physical pleasures, likely unsettled by their unremarkable wedding night.
As a result, the king still had no heir, leaving the door open to various conspiracies. Meanwhile, the Protestants had risen in rebellion, supported by high-ranking aristocrats and foreign powers, notably England. Given this domestic unrest, the king could not take advantage of the Thirty Years’ War that had broken out within the Holy Roman Empire. His efforts were hampered by the hesitant leadership of his key ministers, whose incompetence paved the way for Cardinal Richelieu, who had patiently positioned himself and developed a coherent political program.
Louis XIII and Richelieu: Absolutism in Action
Cardinal Richelieu joined Louis XIII’s council in April 1624. Like the king, he advocated firmness towards both the nobility and the Protestants. Both men shared a vision of a regenerated Catholicism, shaped by the Counter-Reformation, characterized by deep spirituality and aligned with strong royal authority.
Jealous of their kingdom’s independence, the king and cardinal believed they should not be overly dependent on Rome and aimed to rival the Habsburgs. In this respect, they followed in the footsteps of the last Valois monarchs and Henri IV. Realizing this agenda would not be without challenges. The internal war against the Protestants was fueled by both the rebellion of certain nobles and the support they received from England. It wasn’t until 1628 that the citadel of La Rochelle surrendered.
The resulting peace treaty (the Peace of Alès in 1629), while confirming freedom of worship, abolished Protestant strongholds, a legacy of the Wars of Religion. This marked the first step in dismantling the Edict of Nantes, which would gradually lose its substance. It also affirmed royal power, which sought to assert control over military infrastructures.
The Era of Conspiracies
Marie de’ Medici confronts Cardinal Richelieu before Louis XIII. Image: Richelieu, Collection d’albums historiques, Paris: Boivin & Cie., p. 55 OCLC: 1012269.
Alongside their struggle against the Protestants, Louis XIII and Richelieu faced numerous noble conspiracies and revolts. At the center of many of these was the king’s younger brother, Gaston d’Orléans, known as “Monsieur,” and the Duchess of Chevreuse. Monsieur took every opportunity to trouble his brother in hopes of advancing his claim as the presumed heir to the throne, as seen in the Chalais conspiracy.
The stunning Duchess of Chevreuse, first married to Luynes and later to a Lorraine duke, managed to turn Anne of Austria against the king. Relations between the royal couple had soured. Louis struggled to show affection for his wife, while Anne opposed his anti-Spanish policies, even leaking military secrets to the Spanish court.
One of the most significant events of Louis XIII’s reign was the famous “Day of the Dupes” on November 10-11, 1630. On this occasion, Marie de Medici tried to turn her son away from Richelieu’s influence. At first, the king seemed to yield to her. Richelieu believed he was condemned to exile, while the queen mother and the nobility savored what they thought was their victory. But in the end, Louis XIII renewed his trust in Richelieu, appointing him as his principal minister and elevating his lands to a duchy-peerage. It was Marie de Medici who was forced to flee, and her supporters were imprisoned.
From 1626 to 1638 (the year of the birth of the heir to the throne, the future Louis XIV), there were at least half a dozen major plots, often leading to armed revolts. These revealed the tense context, driven by the assertion of royal authority. During this twelve-year period, France underwent numerous reforms. The king and cardinal rationalized and strengthened administration, ended certain feudal practices (such as dueling), developed the navy, commerce, and colonies, and oversaw cultural advancements. This period laid the groundwork for the reign of Louis XIV and the emergence of a modern state.
Struggle Against the Habsburgs and the Death of Louis XIII
In governing, the king and cardinal proved to be complementary. Where the king displayed audacity and firmness, the cardinal acted with caution and flexibility. Richelieu excelled at executing the king’s will, giving it the substance and pragmatism needed for success. The two men respected and valued each other, though a certain distance remained between them due to their differing personalities. Nevertheless, their partnership was a success, as demonstrated by France’s resurgence on the European stage. A warrior king, Louis XIII could not remain on the sidelines of the conflict ravaging the Holy Roman Empire. The Thirty Years’ War offered France an opportunity to weaken the Habsburgs that encircled it. Initially, France merely supported the enemies of Vienna and Madrid, particularly Sweden.
In 1635, this “cold war” ended when France declared war on Spain. It was a cruel and costly conflict. Due to their holdings in Franche-Comté, Milan, and the Netherlands (modern Belgium and part of northern France), the Spanish were able to strike at all French borders. Habsburg troops could rely on numerous allies and betrayals. The early years were tough for French forces. The king, commanding in person, did not spare himself and worsened his already fragile health.
It was during this difficult time that Louis became a father. The birth of Louis Dieudonné (a revealing name) was seen as a miracle. In a great act of piety, so characteristic of his fervent faith, Louis even consecrated his kingdom to the Virgin Mary. The following years saw the tide of the war turn in France’s favor, but neither Richelieu nor the king would live to see its end. Armand du Plessis died in December 1642, having ensured his succession through another cardinal: Mazarin. As for Louis XIII, exhausted by war and overwhelmed by illness, he died on May 14, 1643, exactly 33 years after the death of his father.
The Reign of Louis XIII: What is the Legacy?
France in 1643 is heavily burdened by the king’s ambitious policies. The countryside, the cities, commerce, and productive activities have all suffered from continuous wars and revolts. The tax system struggles to bear the military expenses as well as those of an administration that is still in its infancy. And yet, France in 1643 is on the verge of becoming the leading European power of the Grand Siècle. The kingdom has managed to preserve its independence against the Habsburgs and even break free from the encirclement they had imposed. Spain and Austria are exhausted, in decline… Strategic territories (Artois, Roussillon, part of Alsace) have been conquered by French troops.
Domestically, royal authority has progressively asserted itself against the nobles, the Protestants, and various troublemakers. The kingdom’s unity has never been so strong. Key infrastructures and administrative systems crucial for development have been reinforced. Ultimately, a modern monarchical state emerges under Louis XIII. It is true that this king, with his somber appearance, few words, and brooding nature, never garnered the affection his father did, nor did he shine as much as his son Louis XIV. Yet, he was the last French king to be mourned by his people, who considered him worthy of his title: “the Just.”
Charles VII (1403-1461), known as “the Victorious”, was a king of France from the Valois dynasty. His reign, which lasted nearly forty years (1422-1461), is inseparable from the end of the Hundred Years’ War. It covers one of the richest periods of events in French history and could also be seen as a time when the Capetian dynasty appeared on the brink of disappearing. The epic of Joan of Arc allowed the “King of Bourges” to regain his throne and legitimacy, initiating the reconquest of his kingdom from the English.
Having become Charles VII the Victorious, he would long remain in the shadow of the glory of the Maid of Orléans. This once-overlooked sovereign, now rehabilitated, restored the authority of the monarchy in France, reforming and modernizing finances and the military.
Charles VII: The “Little King of Bourges”
The son of Charles VI the Mad and Isabeau of Bavaria, Charles became dauphin in 1417 after the suspicious deaths of his two elder brothers. He appeared frail and ill-equipped to bear the heavy responsibility of restoring the name and prestige of a faltering monarchy. Expelled from Paris during the struggle between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians, he took refuge in Bourges, where he maintained a small court with his last loyal followers. Meanwhile, the King of England seized Normandy, and John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, took control of the government by allying with his mother, Isabeau of Bavaria, who had declared Charles a “bastard.”
John the Fearless attempted to secure an alliance with the dauphin to control him. However, their meeting at Montereau degenerated into an altercation, and John the Fearless was killed. The vengeance of the new Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, and Isabeau of Bavaria fell upon Charles. He was disinherited in favor of the King of England, Henry V, through the Treaty of Troyes (1420), signed by Isabeau and Charles VI, who was no longer in full possession of his faculties.
Henry V claimed the crown of France while preserving its institutions. Isabeau of Bavaria resisted in vain. The premature death of Henry V on August 31, 1422, followed by the death of Charles VI on October 21, did nothing to change the dual Lancastrian monarchy, which passed to Henry VI, with the Duke of Bedford acting as regent. However, the dauphin now claimed the throne as Charles VII, and the war for the crown began.
Yolande of Aragon and the Victory at La Brossinière
Charles VII of France. Image: Wikimedia, Public Domains
Charles, with a rather lackluster character, was poorly surrounded and placed too much blind trust in unreliable advisors who cast no shadow over him, unlike the flamboyant lords of the time. The young Charles found providential support in Yolande of Aragon, the wife of the Duke of Anjou, who happened to be his mother-in-law. Through patient effort, Yolande forged alliances and reconciliations to present a united front against the invader.
In 1423, the Battle of La Brossinière marked the first significant victory for the French armies. After a raid led by the Duke of Suffolk, Lord William Pole, across Maine and Anjou, Queen Yolande of Aragon convinced several supporters of her son-in-law, the King of France, to intervene militarily to avenge the damage done. Ambroise de Loré, along with John VIII of Harcourt, Count of Aumale and Mortain, among others, gathered their troops and prepared an ambush on the return path of the English.
After a brief skirmish between scouts, the French knights charged in battle formation, forcing the English to dismount. Despite solid resistance, the English troops were decimated, and few soldiers escaped French reprisals. This victory marked the starting point for a gradual reconquest of French lands.
Joan of Arc and Charles the Victorious
Joan of Arc at the coronation of Charles VII with her white flag. Image: Wikimedia, Public Domains
Militarily, the situation remained precarious despite the success at La Brossinière. The English won several victories near Crevant (1423) and Verneuil (1424). Most notably, they laid siege to Orléans. If the city fell, the English would gain access to the south of the Loire and reach Charles in his last refuge. It was at this moment that a young shepherdess from Lorraine, Joan of Arc, intervened providentially.
Charles regained his legitimacy only after being recognized by Joan of Arc, who liberated Orléans (1429) and had him crowned at Reims on July 17, 1429. Together with Joan, he undertook the reconquest of the kingdom, partly occupied by the English and their Burgundian allies. While they succeeded in reclaiming parts of the regions north of the Loire, Joan of Arc was captured and burned in Rouen (May 30, 1431). Charles VII made little effort to save her, and this is often referred to as a “cowardly abandonment.”
To detach the Burgundians from the King of England, Charles VII made significant concessions to Duke Philip III the Good of Burgundy in the Treaty of Arras (1435). The Anglo-Burgundian alliance was broken. Paris was reconquered, and the king made a triumphant entry into the city in 1437 but stayed only briefly, preferring his castles in Berry and Touraine. Normandy and then Guyenne (1450-1453) were retaken thanks to remarkable military leaders.
Rouen rose up and opened its gates to Charles VII, who made a triumphant entry alongside Jacques Cœur (1449). The English retaliated by sending an army, which landed in Cherbourg and marched toward Caen, only to be defeated by the French near Formigny (1450 / Battle of Formigny). In Guyenne, victory at the Battle of Castillon (1453) drove the English out. Soon, the English retained only Calais in France. With the Hundred Years’ War over (although no formal treaty was signed), Charles VII focused on reorganizing his kingdom.
The Reforms of Charles VII
He fought against the Écorcheurs (mercenaries who terrorized the countryside) by maintaining permanent troops tasked with restoring security and summoned the Estates General at Orléans. Some lords, unhappy with the progress of royal authority and encouraged by the Dauphin Louis (the future King Louis XI), rebelled. Charles triumphed over these revolts, known as the “Pragueries,” named after the disturbances in Bohemia. Between 1445 and 1448, he established a permanent army, consisting of a cavalry of compagnies d’ordonnance, recruited from the nobility, and an infantry of francs-archers, composed of commoners exempted from the taille tax (hence their name).
Currency was stabilized, regular taxes were levied, making it unnecessary to convene the Estates General, and France experienced a commercial revival, thanks to Jacques Cœur, the king’s chief financial officer. Charles signed the great ordinance of Saumur in the autumn of 1443, while various measures were taken to stimulate commerce in a country slowed by war. Privileges were granted to the major fairs of Lyon and Champagne, and silk weaving workshops were created. Demonstrating his ingratitude once again, Charles VII sacrificed Jacques Cœur to the jealousy of courtiers in 1453, and the great financier ended his days ruined and exiled.
Charles also addressed church matters at a national council held in Bourges in 1438. A “pragmatic sanction” gave French churches more autonomy and reduced the tributes that the pope collected on ecclesiastical benefices, such as annates, reserves, and expectations.
He ordered the various customary laws of the country to be written down, signaling the future unification of legal codes.
He created two new parliaments: one in Toulouse (1447) and another in Grenoble (1453). The end of his reign was marked by a commercial resurgence and the strengthening of royal authority. Ultimately, only one threat remained: the power of the Duchy of Burgundy.
A Favorite and a Rebellious Son
An innovation with a long-lasting legacy, the reign of Charles VII witnessed the public emergence of a royal mistress in the charming figure of Agnès Sorel. Around 1443, she became the king’s mistress, possibly following the manipulations of Pierre de Brézé, who then held significant sway over royal policy.
The king showered her with gifts, making her the lady of Loches, the lady of Beauté-sur-Marne (hence her nickname “Lady of Beauty”), and the countess of Penthièvre. He legitimized the three daughters she bore him in the early years of their relationship.
Her presence at court overshadowed that of Queen Marie of Anjou, as she enjoyed baring her shoulders and sporting extravagant dresses and hairstyles. She obtained her fashion items from the businessman Jacques Cœur, with whom she likely had an affair. Agnès Sorel exerted significant influence (though often exaggerated) over royal governance, often linked to the influence of the Brézé family.
King Charles VII married Marie of Anjou, having been raised at the court of Anjou, which explains the influence of Marie’s mother, Yolande of Aragon, on him. The royal couple had twelve children, five of whom survived. Among them was the Dauphin Louis, the future Louis XI. Estranged from his father, Louis troubled the court with his conspiracies, to the point that the king exiled him in 1447. Charles VII never saw his son again before his death in Mehun-sur-Yèvre on July 22, 1461.
King of France from 1461 to 1483, Louis XI, nicknamed “the universal spider,” had the heavy responsibility of restoring France’s prosperity, which had been lost during the Hundred Years’ War. A turbulent son of Charles VII, he earned a reputation as a harsh ruler, sometimes considered a tyrant. Nonetheless, his reign was crucial, not only because of his mortal struggle against Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, but also due to the increasing centralization of power around the king. As France experienced renewed economic growth, Louis XI’s authoritarian reign paved the way for the Renaissance kings and, with them, France’s emergence as the leading European power.
Louis XI: The Turbulent Son of Charles VII
Born in 1423, at a time when France was in a dire position against the English (the Treaty of Troyes was signed in 1420), Louis was the son of Charles VII (not yet king) and Marie of Anjou. He received a high-quality education, particularly in law and theology. However, after becoming Dauphin, he was also a political tool for his father, who married him in 1436 to Margaret of Scotland, who apparently retained a very poor memory of him (she died at just 21).
As Charles VII entrusted him with increasingly important responsibilities, Louis asserted his independence. Along with Jean II of Alençon, he joined the revolt known as the Praguerie at just sixteen years old! This revolt by the princes was crushed by Charles VII, who sent his son to Dauphiné. There, Louis managed his principality autonomously, establishing a parliament in Grenoble in 1451 and marrying Charlotte of Savoy against his father’s wishes. Throughout the 1440s, Louis continually opposed his father, both directly and indirectly, while also building a solid network of supporters.
By 1456, Charles VII directly threatened Dauphiné, and Louis took refuge at the court of Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy. He remained in the Netherlands until his father’s death in 1461, returning to France to be crowned in Reims.
“The Universal Spider”
Louis XI wearing his Collar of the Order of Saint Michael, c. 1469
Louis XI’s political skill, which would later define his reputation, was not yet fully evident at the start of his reign. In his desire to break with his father’s rule, he alienated many competent officials, driving them into the arms of his enemies. Nevertheless, he began to engage in foreign politics, intervening in the affairs of Aragon. His financial support of John II of Aragon against the Catalonian cities’ revolt allowed him to acquire Roussillon and Cerdagne (although his son Charles VIII would later return them to Aragon to secure his position in Italy). He had to subdue Perpignan in 1463 to achieve this. That same year, Louis XI negotiated with Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy to purchase the cities along the Somme, thereby contributing to France’s territorial expansion.
To control a nation increasingly unsettled by the chaos caused by his father’s dismissed officials, Louis XI embarked on a journey to connect with his people, even making symbolic appearances riding a donkey, evoking a direct reference to Christ. These grand journeys became a distinctive feature of his reign.
It was by gradually regaining control of the kingdom that Louis XI earned his famous nickname, “the universal spider,” coined by Philippe de Commynes (1447-1511). The king wove his web, often plotting, while slowly becoming paranoid. This reassertion of control was slow and challenging, involving not only intrigue but also warfare.
The War of the Public Weal
Louis XI’s authoritarian policies and the kingdom’s disarray in the early 1460s encouraged the great lords to rebel against the king. Nearly all of them were involved, including the Count of Charolais (Charles, son of the Duke of Burgundy, and the future “Charles the Bold”) and, most notably, Louis XI’s brother, Charles of France. The rebellious princes gained the support of the Duke of Brittany, claiming to act “for the public good” by proposing reforms to restore the kingdom’s stability, which had been undermined by the king’s policies.
The Battle of Montlhéry (July 16, 1465) did not resolve the situation, and Louis XI began to cultivate a reputation as a skilled negotiator.
Through targeted concessions (some of which he did not always honor, such as when he seized Normandy), he managed to divide the coalition. He was also supported by the cities.
However, the war led by the League of the Public Weal gradually shifted toward a direct confrontation with Burgundy when Charles, Count of Charolais, succeeded his father Philip the Good as Duke of Burgundy. By 1467, the ten-year conflict between Louis XI and Charles the Bold had begun.
Louis XI Against Charles the Bold
The King and the Duke of Burgundy met in 1468 in Péronne. At the same time, Louis XI encouraged the revolt of the Liégeois against Charles. However, it failed, and Louis had to retreat and negotiate, though he still managed to gain the support of Philippe de Commynes. The Duke of Burgundy, on the other hand, benefited from the backing of Edward IV of England through marriage to his daughter. Thus, Louis XI appeared relatively weaker compared to his rival.
However, the 1470s turned in favor of the King of France, despite some early successes by Charles the Bold at the onset of renewed conflict. The Duke of Burgundy was defeated in 1472 at Beauvais, and he then temporarily shifted his ambitions away from France, focusing on the Empire. This only earned him new enemies, including the cities of Alsace, supported by the Swiss. In his attempt to regain control, Charles the Bold eventually failed before the walls of Nancy, where he was found dead in January 1477.
Thus, Louis XI was rid of a formidable adversary, and he was long suspected of having orchestrated the Alsatian revolts, although his role is now considered less significant. However, he faced greater challenges in seizing the possessions of the Duke of Burgundy. The Duke’s daughter, Marie of Burgundy, married Maximilian of Habsburg, and the conflict did not conclude until the Treaty of Arras in 1482. While Louis XI gained Picardy, the Duchy of Burgundy, and Franche-Comté, the Netherlands passed to Philip the Handsome. This had significant consequences, as Philip was the father of Charles V, who would later claim Burgundy during his conflict with Francis I.
Louis XI Beheads the Nobles
Both literally and figuratively, Louis XI took advantage of his power in the 1470s to eliminate some of his remaining rivals. The death of his brother Charles of France confirmed the succession for Louis’ son, born in 1470. Jean d’Armagnac was assassinated in 1473, while the Constable of Saint-Pol and Jacques d’Armagnac were executed in 1475 and 1477, respectively. A conspiracy involving Burgundy, Brittany, and England erupted in 1475, but failed to gain support among the cautious French nobility. The king even secured peace with England through the Treaty of Picquigny (August 29, 1475).
The last obstacle to Louis XI’s dominance over the kingdom was the powerful René of Anjou, his cousin. However, once again, fate favored the French king when René died in 1480, followed shortly by his son. Thus, all Anjou’s possessions reverted to the French crown! Louis XI’s son, Charles VIII, would use this to claim the Kingdom of Naples in 1494, marking the beginning of the Italian Wars.
A Wise Administrator
Throughout his reign, Louis XI focused on promoting France’s economic development and revitalizing agriculture in regions still suffering from the effects of the Hundred Years’ War. He granted tax exemptions, direct subsidies, and invited populations from Spain and Italy to stimulate the cultivation of abandoned lands.
Relying on the urban bourgeoisie — to whom he granted many privileges, fostering industrial and commercial expansion — Louis XI encouraged luxury industries (notably by establishing silk workshops in Lyon and Tours), regulated the cloth and mining industries, expanded printing, and developed major fairs (such as the one in Lyon, surpassing its rival in Geneva). He also improved the road network, waterways, and ports.
In the military realm, Louis XI continued his father’s work, increasing the number of ordinance companies and free-archer corps, while also instituting a mounted courier service, a precursor to a genuine postal system (1464). The return of prosperity allowed him to levy heavy taxes, which made him increasingly unpopular.
While Louis XI is not usually associated with the arts, he was nonetheless a shrewd and sometimes tyrannical political figure. Though often seen as lacking the refinement of Italian patrons or even Charles V (1364-1380), recent scholarship suggests that Louis XI did take an interest in the arts, albeit for political reasons rather than personal taste.
Louis XI and Art as a Political Tool
Louis XI had a reputation for sobriety and simplicity, often avoiding ostentation and luxury, which is reflected in most portrayals of him. This extended to his court and residences, making him stand apart from contemporaries like Borso d’Este, Lorenzo the Magnificent, and Federico da Montefeltro, as well as his rivals, the Dukes of Burgundy, who were great patrons of the arts and lovers of opulence.
Despite this, Louis XI’s court was not devoid of grandeur, with over 200 individuals reportedly present at the Hôtel du Roi. The King, always mindful of expenses, nonetheless possessed significant wealth (France was the richest monarchy in the West at the time), and he did not hesitate to display it during official receptions for foreign dignitaries, ambassadors, or sovereigns. For instance, during the reception of the Earl of Warwick in 1468 and the Queen of England three years later, elaborate ceremonies were organized.
Louis XI also used the arts as a tool against his enemies. For example, after the death of Charles the Bold in 1477, the king ordered the removal of the Duke’s arms and their replacement with his own. He even resorted to defamatory paintings, such as one depicting the Prince of Orange hanging upside down, which was displayed in Dijon in 1477. He promoted pamphlets against the English and the Burgundians and used jesters in public squares to spread positive messages about himself.
Much like the Italians of that time, and foreshadowing the early modern period, Louis XI understood the importance of maintaining a visible image of his person throughout the kingdom. He became one of the most frequently depicted French kings through statues, stained glass, paintings, and medals, such as those created by Francesco Laurana. These depictions particularly emphasized recently acquired territories, such as Anjou after the death of King René.
Louis XI and Artists
Louis XI’s approach to the arts influenced his patronage and choice of artists. He followed the tradition of his predecessors, such as his father Charles VII, by bringing Jean Fouquet to his court. Following the example of René of Anjou, he surrounded himself with renowned artists like musician Jean Ockeghem and painters Colin d’Amiens and Coppin Delf. Louis XI attracted both national artists, like Fouquet and Bourdichon, and foreigners like Francesco Laurana and Georges Hermonyme. He also stood out by recruiting local artists and craftsmen, even for major works (such as the Notre-Dame de la Salvation in Compiègne in 1468).
His interest in the arts extended beyond painting, architecture, and goldsmithing; he also supported humanist literature, engaging figures like François Filelfe, Robert Gaguin, and Francesco Gaddi.
Louis XI rigorously managed the recruitment of his artists, testing them, creating competition, and assigning them different ranks. For example, Jean Galant was appointed royal goldsmith, Jean Fouquet royal painter, and Jean Ockeghem master of the royal chapel choir. These artists were rewarded with both financial compensation and honorary titles. However, Louis XI did not form close relationships with them, though he trusted Ockeghem enough to send him on a diplomatic mission to Spain.
Louis XI’s Artistic Taste
Louis XI had the reputation of being devout, and this was reflected in his artistic preferences. His primary focus was religion, and he made numerous donations to churches, which even his advisor Philippe de Commynes considered excessive. His goldsmithing was mostly religious in nature, such as the arm reliquary of Charlemagne offered to Aachen in 1481. Louis XI expressed his piety through art and patronage, glorifying God, Mary, and various saints, such as Saint Martin of Tours and Saint Michael, after whom he named his chivalric order, established in 1469.
This religious devotion extended to his early desire to have a unique funerary monument, initially commissioned from Fouquet and Michel Colombe in 1471, then later from Colin d’Amiens in 1481 after being disappointed with the initial work. He had specific requirements, including being depicted kneeling rather than recumbent like previous sovereigns. The monument was placed in the Basilica of Notre-Dame de Cléry, where Louis XI refused to be buried at Saint-Denis.
For secular arts, Louis XI favored architecture that reflected his personality. His palaces, like the Château of Plessis (purchased in 1463 and regularly improved), emphasized comfort over luxury. Few of his paintings survive, but it is known that he greatly enjoyed illuminated manuscripts (such as those by Jean Colombe) that adorned his library. He is also recognized as a learned and erudite king, especially interested in political works. Sculpture, tapestry, and music were appreciated by the monarch, though seemingly to a lesser extent, as few traces remain.
While Louis XI did not ignore the arts, he understood their political importance and used them accordingly. The arts he promoted were simple and deeply religious, reflecting his personality. As historian Sophie Cassagnes-Brouquet notes, the king practiced “a tempered and interested patronage with political aims.”
A Difficult End of Reign
Over the course of his reign, Louis XI managed to find a certain balance between authoritarianism and negotiations, particularly with the lower nobility, who, unlike the higher nobility, never really revolted against him. For a time, he benefited from the economic prosperity and population growth observed at the end of Charles VII’s reign, and he initiated reforms that demonstrated a certain unity within the kingdom (such as the creation of the royal postal service in 1477).
However, the early 1480s proved to be more challenging, and Louis XI had to impose a fiscal policy that sparked new tensions, especially with the cities, which had until then been important supporters of the king.
Increasingly devout and had a fragile health condition that had persisted for a long time, Louis XI died on August 30, 1483. Unlike other French monarchs, he was not buried at Saint-Denis but in the Basilica of Notre-Dame de Cléry, where he had commissioned a funerary monument from several prominent artists of his time as early as the late 1460s, showing an appreciation for the arts that historians had long denied him.
His son, Charles VIII, still a minor, succeeded him after the regency of Anne of France and Pierre de Bourbon-Beaujeu. France then fully entered the Renaissance.
On September 24, 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Rear Admiral Febvrier-Despointes officially took possession of New Caledonia for France, an island in the Pacific located 18,000 km from mainland France and 2,000 km from Australia. The capital, Port-de-France, now known as Nouméa, was founded in June 1854. This was the era when the French were rediscovering overseas territories and rebuilding a colonial empire to replace the one they had lost a century earlier, during the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763, where they gave up Quebec.
1864: The Beginning of Penal Colonization
The settlement of New Caledonia began in 1864 with penal colonization, with more than 20,000 convicts detained there until 1897. Among them were thousands of political prisoners deported after 1871, the year in which the Paris Commune and a Kabyle insurrection in Algeria, another former French colony, were violently suppressed.
1878: The Great Kanak Revolt
“Reserves” were established for the indigenous people, the Kanaks, who were dispossessed of their lands and subjected to forced labor. The exploitation of nickel, the economic lifeblood of the archipelago, now in crisis, triggered several waves of migration, including from Asia, Tahiti, and the Caribbean.
By 1878, a Kanak revolt erupted against the land confiscation.
Some 600 insurgents and 200 Europeans were killed, tribes were wiped out, and 1,500 Kanaks were forced into exile.
1988: The Ouvéa Cave Assault
While New Caledonia became an overseas territory (TOM) in 1946, and the Kanaks gained French citizenship and the right to vote, violence between them and the Caldoches (European settlers) occurred in the 1980s, peaking with the Ouvéa cave hostage-taking and assault in May 1988. About 19 Kanak militants and two French soldiers died. A month later, the Matignon Accords sealed reconciliation through economic rebalancing and shared political power. This was followed in 1998 by the Nouméa Accord, which granted the archipelago a unique status within the French Republic, based on progressive autonomy.
2004: The “Citizenship Day”
Declared a public holiday in 1953 by the French authorities, the date of France’s takeover of New Caledonia was renamed “Citizenship Day” in 2004 to celebrate all communities. However, it remains a day of mourning for part of the Kanak independence movement.
In 2024, a controversial electoral reform reignited the troubled history of this South Pacific archipelago. On May 13, violent riots broke out, unprecedented in scale since the “events” of the 1980s and the 1988 Ouvéa hostage crisis. The riots left 13 dead, including two gendarmes. Four months later, the situation remains unresolved. On this Tuesday, September 24, the people of New Caledonia are more divided than ever as they mark their day of celebration.
In 1787, France entered an economic downturn that gradually turned into a crisis: production was declining, and cheaper British goods flooded the French market. This was compounded by poor harvests and natural disasters, which led to the destruction of crops and vineyards. Additionally, France had spent heavily on unsuccessful wars and support for the American Revolution. Revenue was insufficient (by 1788, expenses exceeded income by 20%), and the treasury took out loans, the interest on which became unbearable. The only way to increase state revenues was to strip the first and second estates of their tax privileges.
Attempts by the government to abolish the tax privileges of the first two estates failed, encountering resistance from the noble parliaments (the highest courts of the Old Regime period). The government then announced the convening of the Estates-General, which included representatives of all three estates. Unexpectedly for the crown, this sparked a broad public awakening: hundreds of pamphlets were published, and voters wrote instructions for their deputies. Few aimed for a revolution, but all hoped for change.
The impoverished nobility demanded financial support from the crown while hoping for a limitation of its power; peasants protested against seigneurial rights and hoped to acquire land ownership; among the townspeople, Enlightenment ideas about equality before the law and equal access to positions became popular (in January 1789, the widely known pamphlet by Abbot Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès “What is the Third Estate?” was published, containing the following passage: “1. What is the Third Estate? — Everything. 2. What has it been heretofore in the political order? — Nothing. 3. What does it want to be? — Something“).
Relying on Enlightenment ideas, many believed that the supreme power in the country should belong to the nation, not the king, that absolute monarchy should be replaced by a limited one, and that traditional law should be replaced by a constitution — a set of clearly defined laws applicable to all citizens.
The French Revolution and the Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy
The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Painting by Jean Pierre Uel, 1789. Image: Bibliothèque nationale de France
On May 5, 1789, the Estates-General convened in Versailles. Traditionally, each estate had one vote. The deputies of the Third Estate, who were twice as numerous as those of the First and Second Estates, demanded individual voting, but the government refused. Moreover, contrary to the deputies’ expectations, the authorities only put forward financial reforms for discussion. On June 17, the deputies of the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, representing the entire French nation. On June 20, they swore not to disperse until a constitution was drafted. Shortly afterward, the National Assembly proclaimed itself the Constituent Assembly, thereby declaring its intention to establish a new system of government in France.
Soon, rumors spread in Paris that the government was moving troops to Versailles and planned to disperse the Constituent Assembly. A rebellion began in Paris; on July 14, hoping to seize weapons, the people stormed the Bastille (Storming of the Bastille). This symbolic event is considered the beginning of the revolution.
Following this, the Constituent Assembly gradually became the supreme authority in the country. Louis XVI, who sought to avoid bloodshed at any cost, eventually approved all its decrees. Thus, from August 5 to 11, all peasants became personally free, and the privileges of the two estates and individual regions were abolished.
Overthrow of the Absolute Monarchy
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. On October 5, a crowd marched to Versailles, where Louis XVI was, and demanded that the king move with his family to Paris and approve the Declaration. Louis was forced to agree — and absolute monarchy ceased to exist in France. This was enshrined in the constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly on September 3, 1791.
After adopting the constitution, the Constituent Assembly dissolved. Laws were now approved by the Legislative Assembly. Executive power remained with the king, who had become a servant of the people’s will. Officials and priests were no longer appointed but elected; church property was nationalized and sold off.
Symbols
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: The formula “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité,” which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on December 5, 1790, in an unspoken speech by Maximilien Robespierre, one of the most influential French revolutionaries, elected to the Estates-General from the Third Estate in 1789.
The Bastille: By July 14, only seven prisoners were held in the Bastille, an ancient royal prison, so its storming had a symbolic rather than pragmatic meaning, although it was hoped to find weapons there. By municipal decision, the captured Bastille was demolished to its foundation.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen: The declaration stated that “men are born and remain free and equal in rights” and proclaimed the natural and inalienable rights of man to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. It also guaranteed freedom of speech, press, and religion and abolished estates and titles. As a preamble, it became part of the first constitution (1791) and remains the foundation of French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.
Execution of the King and the Establishment of the Republic
Execution of Louis XVI – German copperplate engraving, 1793, by Georg Heinrich Sieveking
On August 7, 1791, in the Saxon castle of Pillnitz, Prussian King Frederick William II and Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (brother of Louis XVI’s wife, Marie Antoinette), under pressure from aristocrats who had emigrated from France, signed a document declaring their readiness to support the King of France, including militarily. The Girondists, republic supporters, used this to persuade the Legislative Assembly to declare war on Austria, which occurred on April 20, 1792. When French troops began suffering defeats, the royal family was blamed.
The Overthrow of the Constitutional Monarchy
On August 10, 1792, a rebellion occurred, resulting in Louis being deposed and imprisoned on charges of treason against national interests. The Legislative Assembly dissolved itself: now, in the absence of a king, a new constitution needed to be drafted. For this purpose, a new legislative body was convened — the elected National Convention, which first proclaimed France a republic.
In December, the trial began, which found the king guilty of conspiracy against the nation’s freedom and sentenced him to death.
Symbols
La Marseillaise: A march written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (a military engineer, poet, and composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, La Marseillaise became the national anthem of France, lost this status under Napoleon, and finally regained it in 1879 during the Third Republic. By the second half of the 19th century, it had become an international song of left-wing resistance.
The Jacobin Dictatorship: The Thermidorian Coup, and the Establishment of the Consulate
The execution of Robespierre on 28 July 1794 marked the end of the Reign of Terror.
Despite the execution of the king, France continued to face setbacks in the war. Inside the country, monarchist uprisings erupted. In March 1793, the Convention established the Revolutionary Tribunal to try “traitors, conspirators, and counter-revolutionaries,” followed by the Committee of Public Safety, which was meant to coordinate the country’s domestic and foreign policy.
Expulsion of the Girondins
The Girondins gained significant influence in the Committee of Public Safety. Many of them did not support the king’s execution and the introduction of emergency measures; some were outraged that Paris was imposing its will on the country. Competing with them, the Montagnards turned dissatisfied urban poor against the Girondins.
On May 31, 1793, a crowd gathered at the Convention, demanding the expulsion of the Girondins, who were accused of treason. On June 2, the Girondins were placed under house arrest, and on October 31, many of them were guillotined by the verdict of the Revolutionary Tribunal.
The expulsion of the Girondins led to civil war. While France was simultaneously waging war with many European states, the constitution adopted in 1793 never came into force: until peace was achieved, the Convention established a “temporary revolutionary order of governance.” Practically all power was now concentrated in its hands; the Convention sent commissioners to the regions with enormous authority. The Montagnards, who now held significant sway in the Convention, declared their opponents enemies of the people and sentenced them to the guillotine. The Montagnards abolished all seigneurial dues and began selling émigrés’ lands to the peasants. Additionally, they imposed maximum prices on essential goods, including bread; to prevent shortages, they forcibly seized grain from the peasants.
By the end of 1793, most of the rebellions had been suppressed, and the situation on the front turned — the French army went on the offensive. However, the number of terror victims did not decrease. In September 1793, the Convention passed the “Law of Suspects,” which mandated the detention of all individuals who were not accused of any crime but might commit one. From June 1794, the Revolutionary Tribunal abolished the questioning of defendants, their right to lawyers, and the mandatory questioning of witnesses; the only punishment for those found guilty by the tribunal was now death.
Thermidorian Coup
In the spring of 1794, Robespierrists began talking about the need for a final wave of executions to purge the Convention of its enemies. Almost all members of the Convention felt their lives were threatened. On July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor Year II, according to the revolutionary calendar), the leader of the Montagnards, Maximilien Robespierre, and many of his supporters were arrested by Convention members who feared for their lives. They were executed on July 28.
After the coup, the terror quickly subsided, and the Jacobin Club was closed. The power of the Committee of Public Safety was reduced. The Thermidorians declared a general amnesty, and many surviving Girondins returned to the Convention.
Directory
In August 1795, the Convention adopted a new constitution. According to it, legislative power was vested in a bicameral Legislative Corps, and executive power was given to the Directory, composed of five directors chosen by the Council of Elders (the upper house of the Legislative Corps) from a list presented by the Council of Five Hundred (the lower house). Members of the Directory sought to stabilize the political and economic situation in France but were not particularly successful: on September 4, 1797, the Directory, with the support of General Napoleon Bonaparte — who was highly popular due to his military successes in Italy — declared martial law in Paris and annulled the election results in many regions of France, where royalists, now a substantial opposition, had won the majority.
Coup of 18 Brumaire
A new conspiracy brewed within the Directory itself. On November 9, 1799 (or 18 Brumaire, Year VIII of the Republic), two of the five directors, along with Bonaparte, carried out a coup, dispersing the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. The Directory was also stripped of its power. In its place arose the Consulate — a government consisting of three consuls, all of whom were the conspirators.
Symbols
Tricolor: In 1794, the official flag of France became the tricolor. To the white of the Bourbons, used on the pre-revolutionary flag, were added blue, the symbol of Paris, and red, the color of the National Guard.
Republican Calendar: On October 5, 1793, a new calendar was introduced, with 1792 as its first year. All months were given new names; time was to start anew from the revolution. The calendar was abolished in 1806.
Louvre Museum: Although some parts of the Louvre were open for visitation before the revolution, the palace became a full-fledged museum only in 1793.
Napoleon Bonaparte’s Coup and the Establishment of the Empire
Napoleon Bonaparte
On December 25, 1799, a new constitution (the Constitution of Year VIII), created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte, was adopted. The government consisted of three consuls, named directly in the constitution, and elected for ten years (as a one-time exception, the third consul was then appointed for five years). Napoleon Bonaparte was named the first of the three consuls. Almost all real power was concentrated in his hands: only he had the right to propose new laws, appoint members of the State Council, ambassadors, ministers, high-ranking military officials, and prefects of departments. The principles of separation of powers and popular sovereignty were effectively abolished.
In 1802, the State Council submitted a referendum on whether Bonaparte should be made consul for life. As a result, the consulate became lifelong, and the first consul gained the right to appoint his successor.
In February 1804, a monarchist conspiracy aiming to assassinate Napoleon was uncovered. Following this, proposals arose to make Napoleon’s power hereditary to prevent such attempts in the future.
Establishment of the Empire
On May 18, 1804, the Constitution of Year XII was adopted and approved by a referendum. The republic was now governed by the “Emperor of the French,” who was declared to be Napoleon Bonaparte.
In 1804, the Napoleonic Code — a set of laws regulating the lives of French citizens — was adopted, drafted with Napoleon’s participation. The Code established, among other things, the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of land ownership, and civil marriage. Napoleon managed to stabilize the French economy and finances: by constantly recruiting soldiers from both rural and urban areas, he resolved the surplus of labor, leading to increased incomes. He harshly dealt with the opposition and restricted freedom of speech. Propaganda, glorifying the invincibility of French arms and the greatness of France, played a massive role.
Symbols
Eagle: In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms featuring an eagle, a symbol of the Roman Empire, which was present on the coats of arms of other great powers.
Bee: This symbol, tracing back to the Merovingians, became Napoleon’s personal emblem, replacing the fleur-de-lis in heraldic ornaments.
Napoléon d’or: During Napoleon’s rule, a coin called the “Napoléon d’or” (“Golden Napoleon”) came into circulation, featuring Bonaparte’s profile.
Legion of Honor: This order, established by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802, was modeled after knightly orders. Membership in the order signified official recognition of special merits before France.
Restoration of the Bourbons and the July Monarchy
Liberty Leading the People (French: La Liberté guidant le peuple). Image:
Eugène Delacroix
As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the French Empire became the most powerful European state, with a stable governmental system and well-organized finances. In 1806, Napoleon banned all countries under his control in Europe from trading with England; due to the Industrial Revolution, England was displacing French goods from the markets. The so-called Continental Blockade damaged the English economy, but by 1811, the resulting economic crisis affected all of Europe, including France. The French army’s failures on the Iberian Peninsula began to destroy the image of an invincible French army. Finally, in October 1812, the French were forced to begin retreating from Moscow, which they had occupied in September.
Restoration of the Bourbons
From October 16 to 19, 1813, the Battle of Leipzig took place, in which Napoleon’s army was defeated. In April 1814, Napoleon abdicated the throne and went into exile on the island of Elba, while Louis XVIII, the brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended to the throne.
Power returned to the Bourbon dynasty, but Louis XVIII was forced to grant the people a constitution — the so-called Charter of 1814, according to which every new law had to be approved by two chambers of parliament. Constitutional monarchy was reestablished in France, but not all citizens, or even all adult men, had the right to vote, only those with a certain level of wealth.
Taking advantage of the fact that Louis XVIII lacked popular support, Napoleon escaped from Elba on February 26, 1815, and landed in France on March 1. A significant part of the army joined him, and in less than a month, Napoleon took Paris without a fight. Attempts to negotiate peace with European countries failed, and he was forced to go to war again. On June 18, the French army was defeated by Anglo-Prussian forces at the Battle of Waterloo, and on June 22, Napoleon abdicated again. On July 15, he surrendered to the British and was sent into exile on the island of Saint Helena. Power returned to Louis XVIII.
July Revolution
In 1824, Louis XVIII died, and his brother, Charles X, ascended the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, while the Chamber of Deputies was not in session, Charles appointed the extremely unpopular Prince Jules Auguste Armand Marie de Polignac as Minister of Foreign Affairs. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees with the force of state law) — temporarily abolishing freedom of the press, dissolving the Chamber of Deputies, raising the electoral property requirement (allowing only landowners to vote), and calling for new elections to the lower house. Many newspapers were shut down.
Charles X’s ordinances caused widespread outrage. On July 27, riots began in Paris, and by July 29, the revolution was over, with major urban centers occupied by the insurgents. On August 2, Charles X abdicated and went into exile in England.
The new king of France became Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, a representative of the younger branch of the Bourbons, who had a relatively liberal reputation. During his coronation, he swore an oath on the Charter of 1830, drawn up by the deputies, and became not “king by the grace of God,” like his predecessors, but “king of the French.” The new constitution lowered not only the property requirement but also the age requirement for voters, stripped the king of legislative power, banned censorship, and restored the tricolor flag.
Symbols
Lilies: After Napoleon’s overthrow, the coat of arms with the eagle was replaced by the coat of arms with three lilies, which had symbolized royal power since the Middle Ages.
Liberty Leading the People: The famous painting by Eugène Delacroix, depicting Marianne (a symbol of the French Republic since 1792) holding the French tricolor, was inspired by the July Revolution of 1830.
The Revolution of 1848 and the Establishment of the Second Republic
Louis Philippe I, the last King of the French
By the end of the 1840s, the policies of Louis Philippe and his Prime Minister François Guizot, supporters of gradual and cautious development and opponents of universal suffrage, no longer satisfied many: some demanded expanded voting rights, others the return of the Republic and the introduction of suffrage for all. The harvests of 1846 and 1847 were poor, and famine began. Since rallies were banned, political banquets gained popularity in 1847, where the monarchy was actively criticized, and toasts were made to the Republic. In February, political banquets were also banned.
The Revolution of 1848
The ban on political banquets led to mass unrest. On February 23, Prime Minister François Guizot resigned. A huge crowd awaited his exit from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
One of the soldiers guarding the ministry fired a shot — likely by mistake — triggering a violent confrontation. After this, Parisians built barricades and moved towards the royal palace. The king abdicated and fled to England. France was declared a republic, and universal male suffrage for those over 21 was introduced. The parliament (now called the “National Assembly” again) became unicameral.
On December 10-11, 1848, the first general presidential elections were held, unexpectedly won by Napoleon’s nephew, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, who received about 75% of the vote. In the elections to the Legislative Assembly, the Republicans secured only 70 seats.
Symbols
Barricades: Barricades were erected on the streets of Paris during every revolution, but it was during the 1848 revolution that almost the entire city was barricaded. Materials used for the barricades included Parisian omnibuses launched in the late 1820s.
Napoleon III was known as Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
The Republicans were no longer trusted by the president, the parliament, or the people. In 1852, Louis-Napoleon’s presidential term was coming to an end. According to the 1848 constitution, he could only be re-elected after another four-year term. In 1850 and 1851, Louis-Napoleon’s supporters repeatedly demanded a revision of this article, but the Legislative Assembly opposed it.
The Coup of 1851: On December 2, 1851, President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, relying on the army’s support, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested its opposition members. The ensuing unrest in Paris and the provinces was harshly suppressed.
Under Louis-Napoleon’s leadership, a new constitution was drafted, extending presidential powers for ten years. Moreover, a bicameral parliament was restored, with its upper chamber’s deputies appointed for life by the president.
Restoration of the Empire
On November 7, 1852, the Senate, appointed by Louis-Napoleon, proposed the restoration of the Empire. A referendum confirmed this decision, and on December 2, 1852, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.
Until the 1860s, the powers of the parliament were limited, and the freedom of the press was restricted. However, from the 1860s, the course changed. To strengthen his authority, Napoleon began new wars. He planned to overturn the decisions of the Congress of Vienna and reconstruct all of Europe, giving each nation its own state.
The Revolution of 1870 and the Establishment of the Third Republic
Barricades of the Paris Commune, April 1871. Corner of the Place de l’Hôtel-de-Ville and the Rue de Rivoli. Image: Pierre-Ambroise Richebourg
In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian War began. From the outset, the French suffered military defeats, and on September 2, Napoleon III himself was captured along with his army. This news shattered the already fragile authority of the emperor in Paris.
On September 19, the Germans began the siege of Paris. Hunger set in, and the situation worsened. In February 1871, elections were held to the National Assembly, where the monarchists gained the majority. Adolphe Thiers became head of the government. On February 26, the government was forced to sign a preliminary peace treaty, followed by a German parade on the Champs-Élysées, perceived by many Parisians as betrayal.
In March, the government, having no funds, refused to pay the National Guard and attempted to disarm it.
Paris Commune
On March 18, 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, resulting in a group of left-wing radicals seizing power. On March 26, they held elections to the Paris Commune — the city council of Paris. The government, led by Thiers, fled to Versailles. However, the Commune’s power did not last long: on May 21, government troops launched an offensive. By May 28, the uprising was brutally suppressed — the week of fighting between the troops and the communards became known as the “Bloody Week.”
After the fall of the Commune, the monarchists’ position strengthened again, but since they supported different dynasties, the Republic was ultimately preserved. In 1875, Constitutional Laws were adopted, establishing the position of president and a parliament elected based on universal male suffrage. The Third Republic lasted until 1940.
Since then, France’s form of government has remained a republic, with executive power passing from one president to another through elections.
Symbols
The Red Flag: The traditional republican flag was the French tricolor, but the Commune members, many of whom were socialists, preferred a plain red flag. The symbolism of the Paris Commune — one of the key events in the formation of communist ideology — was also adopted by Russian revolutionaries.
The Vendôme Column (Place Vendôme): One of the significant symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the dismantling of the Vendôme Column, erected in honor of Napoleon’s victory at Austerlitz (Battle of Austerlitz). In 1875, the column was re-erected.
Sacré-Cœur: The basilica in the neo-Byzantine style was laid in 1875 in memory of the victims of the Franco-Prussian War and became one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.
Eleanor of Aquitaine, also known as Eleanor of Guyenne, was Queen of France from 1137 to 1152 after her marriage to Louis VII, then Queen of England from 1154 to 1204 after marrying Henry II Plantagenet in her second marriage. As a “lively” young woman, and later mother of three kings, she challenged the masculine tradition of power by administering her lands and playing a preeminent role in public affairs. A seductress, she is credited with originating courtly love; intelligent and cultured, she protected troubadours, novelists, and poets. Her effigy is located in the Abbey Church of Fontevraud, where she took the veil at the end of her life and where she passed away on March 31, 1204.
Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Coveted Princess
Daughter of William X, Eleanor of Aquitaine was born around 1123 near Bordeaux. Through her father, she would inherit an immense domain covering the entire southwest of France: Gascony, Guyenne, Périgord, Limousin, Poitou…. Her grandfather, the Duke of Poitiers, William IX, was perhaps the most illustrious of the princes of Aquitaine, also known for his talents as a troubadour. Initiator of a cultural movement that flourished in the 12th century, William enabled the emergence of literature in the Occitan language alongside the expansion of lyric poetry.
Beautiful and alluring, with a charming smile, a gentle gaze, noble manners, a quick and cultivated mind, Eleanor loved parties and flowers. She was only fifteen when her father proposed her in marriage to the son of King Louis VI the Fat, the future Louis VII: the king, ill, could die in peace. She welcomed her future husband, accompanied by five hundred gentlemen, in Bordeaux, where the marriage was celebrated on July 25, 1137, with Louis VII becoming king in August of the same year. The new Queen Eleanor proved perfect: present at jousts and tournaments, she received the nobility, welcomed and listened to troubadours… while single-handedly managing the Duchy of Aquitaine. But she was ambitious and desired power.
Queen of France
Louis VII the Young was a weak, very devout king. Little respected by his vassals, whose possessions were often more important than the royal domain, he withdrew from everything, no longer participating in anything, partly entrusting the government to Abbot Suger. Eleanor said, “he is more monk than king,” but their first daughter Marie of France was born in 1145 (she married Count Henry I of Champagne and died in 1198). The king’s only salvation lay in the crusade requested by Pope Eugene III in March 1146. Convinced by the words of Saint Bernard, Louis VII set out for the Holy Land, followed by his court and a “light and dissipated” Eleanor occupied with amusing herself. From Constantinople to Asia Minor, Eleanor discovered magnificent landscapes but… was caught in an ambush by the Saracens near Iconium. Thanks to the knights, she escaped, yet the bulk of the army was defeated.
King Louis of France, arriving shortly after, was involved in the battle for four hours and fortunately found Eleanor in Antioch, where they were royally received by the queen’s uncle: Raymond of Poitiers, Duke of Antioch. The festivities had a particular character due to the customs and practices of Asia, Eleanor gave herself up gaily to the pleasure of these festivities, and the king held it against her. He found the relationship between Eleanor and her uncle dubious, he was indignant and decided to leave the place.
The queen refused to leave and spoke of separation, the situation deteriorated… but she had to obey nonetheless. The rumor was launched about the queen’s extramarital adventures… with her uncle. The king embarked for Europe thanks to the vessels of the King of Sicily. Stopping later in Rome, he confided in the Pope about Eleanor: he wanted to repudiate her…
Failure of the Marriage With Louis VII
Queen Eleanor (Frederick Sandys, 1858)
Returning to France after four years of absence, Louis VII found his friend Abbot Suger who calmed him, helped him with his worries and explained that he was strongly against this repudiation. The royal couple reconciled and a second daughter was born in 1150: Alix, who would marry Count Thibault the Good of Blois and who would die in 1195. But Suger died in January 1152, the king lost a wise friend and the situation worsened again in the couple. Finally, at Easter 1152, he presented his request before an assembly of prelates: a request for the annulment of the marriage.
The chancellor had this speech: “It is unnecessary,” he said, “to insist on the king’s sorrows, and on what happened in Palestine; there is no one who does not know the rumors that have circulated, and the king, who wants to respect the honor of this great princess, must not delve into the truth of the facts whose certainty would oblige him to deploy all his severity. He relies on the queen herself. When she wanted to separate from the king her husband in Antioch, she invoked kinship as evidence of the nullity of her marriage; this is what the king submits to the judgment of the Assembly. If kinship is proven, Louis’s union with Eleanor will be annulled.”
The Archbishop of Bordeaux then admitted that kinship indeed existed to the fourth degree through the women of Burgundy. The nullity was immediately pronounced during this council of Beaugency. At the announcement of this news, Eleanor fainted, then recovering herself, she was surprised by the king’s decision: “Ah! Gentlemen, what have I done to the king that he wants to abandon me? How have I offended him? What fault has he found in my person? I am young enough for him, I am not barren… I am rich enough; I have always obeyed him…“
Quickly regaining her senses, at the head of Poitou and all of Aquitaine, she felt threatened with abduction (the Count of Anjou, Geoffrey Plantagenet wanted to stop her in order to marry her), fled Blois, passed through Tours and took refuge in Poitiers, hoping to marry Henry Plantagenet, Duke of Normandy, Geoffrey’s brother. Their first meeting had taken place in 1151 and had been very successful. He had everything to please the rich heiress: a bearing announcing his high birth, golden blond hair, a gentle gaze, an adroitness for all bodily exercises, at ease at court, he was twenty years old. Six weeks after the repudiation, Henry asked for her hand in marriage.
Queen of England
Although Louis VII did everything to prevent this union, Eleanor married Henry in May 1152; the latter became King of England and took the name Henry II. Eleanor, Duchess of Normandy, Queen of England did not find happiness, her husband being unfaithful and moreover, he had no intention of letting her have power! She just had the right to take care of the eight children who would be born: William (1153-1156); Henry the Young (1155-1183); Matilda (1156-1189) wife of Henry the Good, mother of Emperor Otto IV; Richard the Lionheart (1157-1199) King of England; Geoffrey (1158-1186) father of Arthur; Eleanor (1161-1214) wife of the King of Castile, mother of Blanche of Castile; Joan (1165-1199) wife of William II King of Sicily, then Raymond V Count of Toulouse, became abbess of Fontevraud; John Lackland (1166-1216) King of England to the detriment of Arthur.
Furious, Eleanor made scenes to her husband, going from anger to tenderness, even turning the children against their father, providing them with weapons, pushing them to ally with Scotland against him. She left England and retired to Poitiers, in the midst of her court of poets. Henry II, suspecting Eleanor of being behind the death of his former mistress Rosamund and at the end of his patience, imprisoned her for sixteen years, in Chinon, and in various castles in England.
She only came out when her eldest son Richard the Lionheart, once on the throne after the death of Henry II in July 1189, freed her. From that day, still governing Aquitaine and Poitou, she visited her lands and decided to open all the prisons.
While Richard the Lionheart was on crusade, she ensured the Regency and received a more than warm welcome at each of her passages in the various regions.
But out of jealousy and need for power, she evicted Richard’s young fiancée, sister of Philip Augustus: she wanted no one but herself on the throne! She eventually accepted and negotiated the marriage of Berengaria of Aragon and Richard.
A little later, she struggled and devoted herself body and soul to free Richard who had just been captured and delivered to Emperor Henry VI, on his return from the crusade. She spared no effort to gather the enormous ransom demanded. Richard was freed in February 1194, but a few years later, he was wounded and died in Limousin in 1199.
Rather than see another lineage accede to power, she pushed John Lackland, her last son, to ascend the throne. She went to fetch her granddaughter Blanche from Castile and participated in negotiating the marriage with the son of Philip Augustus, the future Louis VIII.
End of Eleanor of Aquitaine’s Life at Fontevraud
Having reached the end of her life, she left her inheritance to her grandson Henry III, then retired definitively to the Abbey of Fontevraud in Maine. She took the veil there while making donations and alms to the poor. After a very eventful life, “the most beautiful and richest flower of Aquitaine, the incomparable pearl of the South” died in March 1204 at the age of 82. She rests at Fontevraud, first alongside her husband, then her son Richard and her daughter-in-law Isabella of Angoulême (wife of John Lackland). Today, one can see their four polychrome effigies facing the high altar of the abbey church.
Considered for a time by historians as the cause, by her conduct, her divorce and her remarriage, of three centuries of conflicts with England, this famous figure is perceived differently today. Eleanor of Aquitaine embodies the liberated woman of the 13th century, symbol of an enlightened and pleasant Middle Ages; however, some would like to present her as the archetype of the medieval princess, more to be pitied than admired. If Eleanor continues to provoke such strong positions, it is because she remains above all a central female figure in our history.
Elizabeth Charlotte of Bavaria (1652-1722), known as the Princess Palatine, was the second wife of Monsieur Philippe d’Orléans, brother of Louis XIV. A renowned letter writer, she was also nicknamed Madame Europe or the “Gossip of the Grand Siècle”.
Thanks to the approximately 60,000 letters written by Elizabeth Charlotte across Europe (as she corresponded with England, Sweden, Denmark, the courts of Lorraine, Savoy and Modena, Spain, Sicily…), we can trace her life, filled with joy and sorrows, and especially gain knowledge of the customs of the Palace of Versailles. She did not mince her words but was fair and honest in her writings. Her abundant correspondence constitutes a valuable testimony of her time.
Born in May 1652, Elizabeth Charlotte of Bavaria was nicknamed the Princess Palatine because she was the daughter of Charles Louis, Elector Palatine of the Rhine. She was also the ancestor of most Catholic princes and of Marie Louise (2nd wife of Napoleon Bonaparte), great-grandmother of Marie Antoinette and the emperors Joseph II and Leopold II, great-granddaughter of a King of Bohemia as well as a King of England and Scotland. Skinny at birth, she became plump at six, played with her brother’s swords and guns, walked in her native Palatinate picking grapes, spoke dialect, and listened to folk tales. Torn between estranged parents, her aunt Sophie of Hanover took her under her wing for five years, teaching her languages, dance, music, and writing (she would keep fond memories of Christmas, Carnival, and Pentecost celebrations).
When her parents spoke to her about marriage, she was eighteen (several suitors such as William of Orange Nassau, the Prince of Denmark, the King of Sweden, the Electoral Prince of Brandenburg, the heir to the Polish Duchy of Courland), but she wished for a true love marriage. Thanks to the Palatine Princess Anne of Gonzaga, Elisabeth Charlotte converted to the Roman religion, then was married by proxy in November 1671 to the Duke of Orléans (a contract where Philippe received all his wife’s assets!). She arrived in France completely abandoned by her family, crying incessantly during the nine-day journey. Her trousseau consisted of “a blue taffeta dress, a sable scarf, six night shirts and as many day shirts”.
Madame was surprised at the sight of Philippe, of modest height, perched on high heels and adorned with rings, bracelets, and jewels: “without looking ignoble, Monsieur was short and plump, with very black hair and eyebrows, large dark eyes, a long thin face, a large nose and a too-small mouth with ugly teeth. However, the clothes are magnificent“. As for Monsieur, he could only say: “how could I sleep with her?“. She was not a beauty, but not ugly either. Blonde, fresh, massive, with rosy cheeks, blue eyes, fair complexion. She lacked the grace, seduction, and charm of the Court. She formed, with Philippe, a couple with reversed roles: he effeminate, small, precious, coquettish; she masculine, robust, simple, natural. The ten-day honeymoon at Villers-Cotterêts was up to Philippe’s sumptuous standards. The king was quickly won over by Madame, who spoke fluent French. He even pitied her, knowing his brother and his attractions.
Princess Palatine: Wife of Philippe, the King’s Brother
Princess Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate
The couple got along well at first. Elisabeth Charlotte discovered Saint Cloud “the most beautiful place in the world“, the Palais Royal and Paris (which she would hate for life, due to the noise and smells), the ovations of the people who would always love her… and the minions whom she distrusted. She did not meddle in Philippe d’Orléans’ affairs, but the most disturbing thing was that he used Elisabeth Charlotte’s assets to offer gifts to the minions!
Not having had a boy yet, Philippe did his duty: Alexandre-Louis was born in June 1673 but would only live for three years, then Philippe Duke of Chartres future regent in August 1674, Mlle de Chartres in September 1676. From this date on, they slept in separate rooms. Elisabeth Charlotte would later write: “I was quite pleased, for I never liked the business of making children. When His Highness made this proposal to me, I answered yes, gladly, Monsieur, I will be very content provided you do not hate me and continue to have some kindness for me…“. Especially since Philippe had transmitted to her “a beautiful disease“! She quickly replaced his presence in her bed… with 6 spaniels!
The following ten years (the golden age of music, letters, theater) were the best for Elisabeth Charlotte: she discovered Versailles, enjoyed walks in the gardens, was highly appreciated by the king for her frankness, uprightness, spontaneity, especially her lack of hypocrisy. Having common tastes, he invited her to hunt, to the theater, to the opera, to evening gatherings. Louis XIV, won over by her humor and common sense, offered her his friendship.
From 1680, “the wind turned”. Elisabeth Charlotte lost her father and Anne of Gonzaga, faced a plot organized by the minions to oust her, destroying the good understanding between the two spouses, Philippe’s double tertian fever, the king destroyed the Palatinate, Philippe suppressed positions in his wife’s household, imposed Effiat as their son’s tutor… Madame rebelled, the king reprimanded her and added: “if you were not my sister-in-law, I would have dismissed you from the court“. He turned away from her… the king began the 2nd part of his life: more serious, more pious, Elisabeth Charlotte’s frankness almost offended him. She lost all credibility and did not realize the rising favor of Mme de Maintenon.
The worst was reached when the king married the Duke of Chartres (in order to channel him as he was too gifted in war) to Mlle de Blois, his illegitimate daughter. Elisabeth Charlotte left the salons of Versailles Castle, in the midst of courtiers “like a lioness from whom one tears away her cubs”. She felt increasingly alone and lost. Philippe no longer taking care of her, she wished to enter a convent. She complained to the king who replied: “as long as I live, I will not consent to it. You are Madame, and obliged to hold this post, you are my brother’s wife, so I will not allow you to make such a scene… I do not want to deceive you, in all the quarrels you may have with my brother: if it’s from him to you, I will be for him; but also if it’s from other people to you I will be for him“. Only her aunt Sophie of Hanover was there for her. Elisabeth Charlotte’s only consolation was her mail, she wrote freely, recounted her misfortunes, depicted the Court’s antics, without forgetting anyone. Her letters were opened and shown to the king…
“Gossip of the Grand Siècle”
Elisabeth Charlotte and Philippe, neglected by the king, grew closer. She took on worrying proportions, he was worn out, tired by his excesses. Wanting to defend his son, Monsieur got so angry and upset with the king that he had an apoplectic fit. On June 9, 1701, Elisabeth Charlotte was alone, threatened with spending the rest of her life in a convent. Following the advice of her entourage, she made peace with Madame de Maintenon on June 11… everyone embraced but the atmosphere remained tense.
Having neither the Palais Royal nor the domain of Saint Cloud left, she was left with the old castle of Montargis and the king’s goodwill! She settled definitively at Versailles, became philosophical and aspired “only to spend her life peacefully”. Serene, no longer under the pressure and sarcasm of the minions, in good friendship with the king and Mme de Maintenon, the rest of her life alternated between joy and sorrow: the happiness of having a new grandson on her daughter’s side neutralized the grief caused by the death of her favorite dog, the birth of the new Duke of Chartres had no effect on her, her aunt Sophie of Hanover’s daughter died of a throat tumor. Elisabeth Charlotte fell seriously ill by twisting her foot and knee, and deprived of “Marly”, hunts and walks, she wrote: “one changes nature as one ages“. She went through the very harsh winter of 1709 with its numerous deaths, and noticed in July 1710 that her treasurer had subtracted 100,000 écus from her…
She spent more and more time in her study, playing the guitar, enlarging her collection of beautiful books (3000 volumes) and antique medals (964). She navigated between Virgil, Honoré d’Urfé, Saint Evremond and the Bible. Interested in medicine and sciences, she spent moments studying insects and other things through the three microscopes she owned. Her twenty-page letters did not serve History, they were a testimony of her time, “these little nothings” of everyday life that one tells, a bit like nowadays. In our time, we would say “she chatters”.
Between Melancholy and Lucidity
Elisabeth Charlotte was infinitely sad at the death of her aunt Sophie in 1714 and no longer had a taste for life. At the king’s death, she fainted, so real and deep was her grief. Among her occupations, she laid the first stone of the church of the Abbey-aux-Bois, rue de Sèvres, she supported her son during the Cellamare conspiracy. Finally, in 1719, Mme de Maintenon passed away at St Cyr! She exclaimed: “the old Maintenon has croaked. It would have been a great happiness if this could have happened some thirty years ago“. Another contentment: the death of the Marquis d’Effiat. She reconciled with doctors and accepted certain prescriptions, but she was wearing out, tiring very quickly.
No longer able to walk, but still of sound mind, she was perplexed by this new Parisian wealth produced by the Law system. She still had time to attend the coronation of Louis XV before dying. Courageous to the end, she passed away on December 8, 1722, at the same time as a solar eclipse.
Mathieu Marais would say: “we lose a good princess, and that is a rare thing“. A princess of the old times, preserving and applying the principles of propriety, always ready to serve the people of her household, having had difficulty understanding the evolution of mores during the Regency.
Louise of Lorraine-Vaudémont was the last Queen of France from 1575 to 1589, during the Valois era, without offspring. Her marriage to Henry III was the only one not arranged for political reasons, but inspired by a “true and sincere inclination.” Gentle, beautiful, unpretentious, without fortune, and an ally of Catherine de’ Medici, she was an ideal queen with a sovereign’s behavior. She is the only queen to actually rest in the tomb bearing her name at Saint-Denis!
Louise of Lorraine: A Wife for Henry III
Upon the death of Marie of Cleves, Henry’s youthful love, the young king was prostrate, exhibiting macabre behavior (his clothes bore skull emblems), experiencing mystical crises, and following penitent processions. Catherine de’ Medici urgently needed to marry him off and proposed several candidates: Doña Juana, Philip II’s sister; Mary Stuart, widow of Francis II; his sister-in-law Elizabeth, widow of Charles IX; and the Queen of England, of whom Henry had a strong opinion: “she’s an old creature with a bad leg.”
To cut short other proposals (a Swedish or Danish princess), the king declared his choice was made: it would be Louise of Vaudémont!
A Discreet Lady
Born in April 1553 to Nicolas of Mercœur, Count of Vaudémont, belonging to the cadet branch of the House of Lorraine, Louise, cousin of the Guises, was the eldest of fourteen children and only a year old when her mother, Margaret of Egmont, died. Nicolas of Mercœur’s second wife, Jeanne of Savoy-Nemours, was affectionate and introduced her to the court of Nancy when Louise was ten.
Catherine of Aumale, her father’s third wife, was harsh and jealous, but Louise could count on the friendship of Claude, Catherine de’ Medici and Henry II’s second daughter.
Tall, blonde, of delicate beauty, and discreet, Henry had met her in Lorraine when he was leaving for Krakow. She had moved him with her modesty and gentleness. She may have been a young woman without rank, fortune, or pretensions, but “he wanted to take a wife of his nation who was beautiful and agreeable, saying he desired one to love well and have children with, without going to seek others from afar, as his predecessors had done.” Catherine de’ Medici loved her son so much that she approved!
She was won over by “the gentle and devout spirit of this princess whom she judged more suited and inclined to pray to God than to meddle in affairs.”
As for Louise, she renounced two suitors (François of Luxembourg and the Count of Salm), and the king offered one of them his current mistress, the lady of Châteauneuf!
A Non-Political Marriage…
Portrait of Louise de Lorraine (1553-1601) Portrait of Louise of Lorraine (1553-1601), Queen of Henry III of France
Louise’s father gave his consent very quickly, and in a month, “everything was settled”: the king arrived in Reims on February 11, was crowned on the 13th, and the wedding took place on February 15, 1575! Louise was radiant with joy, the king’s heart melted with tenderness. They entered the capital, and she was Queen of France!
From that day on, Louise never changed her attitude and remained dazzled and amazed. Her love for her husband would withstand time, trials, infidelities, and death! Occupying little space, she blended into the king’s entourage, always by his side at all ceremonies, all festivals, all feasts. She was associated with the creation of the Order of the Holy Spirit (the insignia bore their initials). Etiquette required the king to pay her a daily visit, but he did more: they went for walks in Paris, visited monasteries, discovered the sea in Normandy, the port of Dieppe, and stayed on the land of Ollainville (a castle the king gave her and had renovated).
All these attentions lasted well beyond the honeymoon: in 1581, she was seen sitting on the king’s lap; in 1587, he “spent almost the whole day with her and tried with words full of affection to exhort her to keep courage” when she was seized with a tertian fever; like Francis I, the king did not officially introduce a royal mistress, as Louise meant a lot to him.
Yet not everything was “rosy.” The king had a mistress, a lady advised Louise to take a lover: she was chased away! A conspiracy was led by one of the king’s favorites who entered the queen’s chamber, the favorite became Henry’s nemesis, and the affair turned into a matter of state! But this strengthened the bonds between the king and queen, as Louise had the qualities of a queen of the time: piety, discretion, obedience, love for the monarch…
Brantôme recounted, “One can and must praise this princess for much; for in her marriage, she behaved with the king her husband as wisely, chastely, and loyally as the knot by which she was bound in conjunction with him always remained so firm and indissoluble that it was never found undone or untied, even though the king her husband loved and sometimes went to change”; “She devoted herself to nothing else but serving God, going to devotions, continually visiting hospitals, tending to the sick, burying the dead.”
…But No Children
She participated in a procession in penitent costume, hoping for a child! For from the beginning of their union, she wished to offer a dauphin to the king. Unfortunately, the couple was and remained childless, many thinking it was due to the king’s sterility (because of his inclinations). They had themselves examined, called upon potion “makers,” went to thermal cures, the king engaged in prayers and devotional gestures, he undertook pilgrimages from 1580 to 1586, she did not adhere to her husband’s mystical sessions, she tried to understand him, to help him, but did not approve.
An irreproachable Catholic, she devoted herself to the poor, orphans, and prisoners. She patronized a Charity House in the Mouffetard district. She is also credited with bringing light to crossroads, thanks to statues of the Madonna illuminated by a lamp. Her popularity increased when in 1586 she allocated an annuity to two students so that “they ensure the preaching on Sundays and annual feasts in the prisons of the Conciergerie, the grand and petit Châtelet of Paris.”
During the troubles of the League, she supported her husband against her Lorraine family: it was an act of honor. She even went so far as to reproach him for rebelling! When the king decided to arrest the Duke of Guise, she approved; during the days of the barricades, cloistered in Paris, she faced the Duke of Guise alone; she supported her husband when he decided on the death of his enemy; she was still by his side for the meeting at Plessis-lès-Tours.
But on August 4, 1589, she received a last letter: the king had just been the victim of an attack, and wanted to reassure her “My love, I hope I will be very well; pray to God for me and do not move from there.”
She Mourned But Did Not Forgive!
Louise took on white mourning, settled in Chenonceau in a room facing the river, and organized her life: walks, embroidery, reading of the Lives of Saints, Sunday service in the small church of Francueil. In her room, there were mementos of her husband everywhere: a portrait on the fireplace with the motto “saevi monumenta doloris,” flaming torches, widow’s cords, all on a black velvet background.
She did not forgive those who had killed her husband and “desires no more life than to see punishment done to those who make it so miserable for her.” Only half satisfied when the prior of the convent to which Jacques Clément belonged was sentenced to death, and because the Guises were responsible, she appealed to Henry IV: he evaded the question and absolved the Duke of Mayenne and the Lorraine princesses in 1596!
She would never forgive! She begged the pope for the Church to make amends for all that had been done against the king, and many years later, finally, the pope annulled the excommunication and proclaimed Henry III dead in peace with the Church.
But Louise was tired and worn out by this struggle. She received a final blow: she had to leave Chenonceau! Catherine de’ Medici’s will presenting more liabilities than assets, Louise would have to pay her share of her mother-in-law’s debts if she wanted to keep the castle, which was impossible!
The estate was sold at auction in December 1593; Louise’s half-brother, a Mercœur, bought back Chenonceau, left it to Louise, but charged her with donating it to the young future spouses: Mercœur’s only daughter and little César (who had just been born), son of Henry IV and Gabrielle d’Estrées. She had the usufruct, but preferred to leave these places of sorrow and settled in the Duchy of Bourbonnais, in Moulins. She died at the end of January 1601, after catching a cold in a church during a sermon the previous December.
She is the only queen to actually rest in the tomb bearing her name at Saint-Denis: she was first installed in the Capuchin convent in the Faubourg Saint-Honoré, then in the new Capuchin church near Place Vendôme, was transported to Père Lachaise during the Revolution, and accessed Saint-Denis in 1817. While all the kings’ tombs had been violated and the remains thrown into the common grave!
