During the Gallic era, the Aedui were a Celtic people who occupied the region of present-day Burgundy, with Bibracte, located on Mount Beuvray, as their capital. The mention of “our ancestors, the Gauls” often sparks controversy today, and the teaching of their history (and, through them, ours) is frequently caricatured. However, we now know that the Gauls were diverse, both in their structures and their relations with Rome, as well as with one another. This plurality is perhaps one of the rich elements of our “roots.” The Aedui were one such people, unique in many ways, particularly in their interactions with Rome.
Geography and Territory
The Aedui’s territory was in central Gaul, and they controlled important trade routes, particularly along the Saône River and overland routes that connected the Rhone Valley to northern Gaul.
Their proximity to other major tribes, such as the Arverni to the west and the Sequani to the east, meant that they often had to compete for influence and dominance in the region.
The Gauls were part of the Celtic people who originated from Central and Eastern Europe and settled in what would become Gaul around the 6th century BCE. Little is known about them until the 2nd century BCE, when the “civilization of oppida” (singular: oppidum) developed. The Aedui were a good example of this, establishing themselves in what Caesar referred to in “The Gallic Wars” as cities, and primarily becoming an economic and commercial power.
While oppida were fortified places, they were above all major economic and cultural centers, well-connected by transport routes and always located near raw material deposits. The oppida of Bibracte (135 hectares) and Alesia (97 hectares) demonstrate the importance of these places, far from the disorganized barbarian image typically associated with the Gauls.
The history between the Aedui and Rome begins around 120 BCE when the Romans defeated the Arvernian king Bituitus, ending Arvernian dominance over the peoples of future Gaul. The Aedui benefited most from this and quickly aligned with Rome through trade and military agreements.
While the exact details of this alliance remain unclear, Latin authors such as Tacitus tell us it was very strong; indeed, the Aedui were referred to as “fratres consanguineique populi romani” (brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people), a title previously only granted to the Trojans (the people of Aeneas, founder of Rome).
The relationship between the Aedui and Rome was therefore very strong, particularly on the economic front, which was advantageous for the Roman Republic to have allies in such a strategic location. It’s no surprise then that when the Aedui called on Rome for help in 58 BCE against the Helvetian threat, a certain Julius Caesar came to their aid.
Bibracte and the Gallic Wars
At that time, Caesar was the governor of Cisalpine Gaul and used this opportunity to assist the Aedui as a means to establish his presence. Though not called a conquest, it had begun. The Aedui were divided on how to respond to Caesar’s actions. He met with the three main leaders based in Bibracte, their capital. Liscos, the supreme Aedui magistrate, opposed Dumnorix, accusing him of betraying Rome. Dumnorix was a wealthy nobleman with his own cavalry and harbored ambitions for a more independent Aedui nation.
Diviciacus, Dumnorix’s brother, was “the most respected of the Aedui,” a member of the druidic college, and had personally traveled to Rome to request Senate assistance against the Sequani and Arverni (unsuccessfully). He repeated his plea directly to Caesar to drive out the Germanic forces of Ariovistus. This time, it worked, but the Aedui became even more dependent on Caesar’s legions, whom they had to support and supply. Dissent grew, and Dumnorix took advantage by refusing to accompany Caesar to Britain in 54 BCE. Caesar, less patient this time, had the Gallic leader caught and executed. Legend says that Dumnorix cried out for his freedom and that of his people before his death. Around the same time, Diviciacus “disappeared.”
The revolt against Roman occupation was brewing across Gaul, leading to the uprising led by Vercingetorix, the Arvernian. But the Aedui were caught between a relative “Gallic solidarity” among peoples who had long been at war and their logical interests aligned with Rome. They chose not to engage while avoiding helping the Romans. Caesar, however, pressured the Aedui, exploiting their internal divisions by backing Convictolitavis, who placed Litaviccos in charge of the Aedui army tasked with supporting the Roman legions.
On the way to Gergovia, Litaviccos turned against the Romans, pillaging the supply convoy and fleeing. Caesar managed to recapture his troops, while the Gallic leader reached Gergovia alone. But after being repelled from Gergovia, Caesar had to deal with a rebellion from the Aedui as he planned to retreat to Bibracte. The rebellion was led by Eporédorix. At this point, the Aedui had finally chosen the Gallic side. An assembly was convened in Bibracte, and Vercingetorix was elected leader of the Gauls near the Wivre Stone.
Little is known about the Aedui’s participation in the remainder of the Gallic Wars. Caesar did not attack Bibracte, the center of the rebellion, and eventually defeated Vercingetorix at Alesia. However, Caesar, now aware of the Aedui’s fickleness, decided to station his troops in Bibracte, where he wrote his “Commentaries” during the winter of 52 BCE.
From Bibracte to Autun: The Romanization of the Aedui
As seen, Bibracte was an oppidum, the “capital” of the Aedui and a significant economic and cultural hub. Its fortifications, especially the “murus gallicus” reconstructed at the Rebout Gate, highlight its importance. Excavations have shown that the city was organized by districts over an area of 135 hectares. Metalworking seemed to be a specialty of Bibracte, as evidenced by numerous workshops and nearby mines. One of Bibracte’s mysteries is the famous basin, made from Mediterranean materials. Its function is unknown, constructed according to Pythagorean geometry. It may have been religious or marked the city’s center.
Despite Bibracte’s importance, it began to lose influence by the end of the Republic, gradually becoming deserted. This decline wasn’t due to Roman repression, as Caesar quickly forgave them, needing Aedui support. Perhaps the peace that followed the civil wars led Rome to move the Aedui capital to a more accessible location in the plains: the founding of Augustodunum (Autun) occurred around 16-13 BCE.
Unlike Bibracte, Autun was a true “Roman city,” both in its construction and institutions. It quickly became an important economic and cultural center, and the Aedui regained their privileged status with Rome. Thus, the city served as a showcase and starting point for the Romanization of the vast region under its control. However, Autun’s history was not always smooth. Under Tiberius (14-37 CE), some of its privileges were revoked, sparking a quickly quashed revolt.
Later, Emperor Claudius (41-54 CE) proposed to the Roman Senate that Gauls, including the Aedui, be admitted. They were the first among the Gauls to do so.
After the death of Nero in 68 CE, the Aedui supported Galba and then Vitellius.
For nearly two centuries, Autun and the Aedui vanish from historical sources until they reappear during the events leading to the creation of the Gallic Empire. Rome was in crisis, besieged by barbarian invasions, and Autun was sacked by the Alemanni in 259 CE.
Julius Caesar‘s conquest of Gaul in 51 BC led to its provincialization and integration into the Roman Empire, particularly under Augustus, who created the provinces of Lugdunensis, Aquitania, and Belgica, while the Transalpine region became Narbonensis. But what about the Gallic elites? Did they also succeed in integrating into the imperial elites? What was their relationship with Rome and the emperor?
Sources
Discussing the Gallo-Roman elites presents a source issue, as they are limited. Regarding texts, besides Caesar’s Commentaries, we can cite Livy (who died in 17 AD and was close to Augustus), Strabo (who died around 25 AD), but especially Tacitus and Suetonius, both living in the 2nd century AD.
Epigraphy is a major source, as inscriptions were often made by the elites. Lastly, funerary monuments also inform us about the Romanization of these elites.
Here, we will address the Gallo-Roman elites broadly, meaning the Gallic notables following the Romanization of Gaul.
These individuals were socially recognized at the local level for political, administrative, or even broader activities, such as in the economic domain. They became elites by integrating into the highest spheres of power, even reaching the Senate in Rome. We will discuss the Three Gauls and Narbonensis until the Antonine period.
A “Pro-Roman” Gallic Elite?
Even before the Gallic Wars, there was already an elite that could be described as “pro-Roman.” This was particularly the case with the Aedui. Their relations with Rome date back to around 120 BC, when the Romans defeated the Arvernian king Bituitus, benefiting the Aedui. They became privileged partners of Rome, especially in trade, so much so that they were considered “fratres consanguineique populi romani” (brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people). It is no coincidence, then, that Caesar claimed to respond to their call for help in 58 BC, and that after the Gallic Wars, Aedui, with his help, became the first Gauls to enter the Senate.
This Aeduan dominance persisted later under Claudius.
However, the Aedui were not the only ones already close to Rome. From the Republican era, the elites of Narbonensis were culturally and institutionally Romanized, giving them a more positive image in Rome compared to the notables of Gallia Comata, Aedui included.
The Dominance of the Iulii
After his victory, Caesar rewarded his allies with Roman citizenship, a distribution considered generous and criticized, according to Suetonius (a much later source): “Caesar leads the Gauls to triumph, and also to the Curia. The Gauls have left their trousers; they have taken up the broad stripe.” However, the reward was individual, as were grants of magistracies or land. The same applied under Augustus, who founded Autun (Augustodunum), the new Aeduan capital, where universities were created to teach Gallo-Roman notables Latin.
The Gauls elevated to Roman citizenship by Caesar and Augustus were called Iulii, after Julius. They mainly came from a military nobility and landowning aristocracy. The fate of two Aedui is noteworthy: Eporédirix, an Aeduan leader mentioned by Caesar in his Commentaries, was initially pro-Roman (he was with them at Gergovia!), but later joined Vercingetorix and was captured (or his namesake, as Caesar’s account is unclear) at Alesia.
Inscriptions from the 1st century BC later mention a C. Iulius Eporédirix (a Roman citizen from the 40s–30s BC), and we can trace them to the 1st century AD and a figure named Iulius Calenus, who, in 69 AD, was tasked by Vitellius’ victors with negotiating with the defeated at Cremona. This tribune, an Aeduan, seems to be a distant descendant of Eporédirix, illustrating the transition from an Aeduan chief to a Roman knight, a journey of a Gallic family seemingly fully integrated into the Empire.
However, this progression should neither be generalized nor idealized. The integration of Gallic notables into the imperial elite did not happen overnight and was not systematic. This explains the request made to Claudius and his response in 48 AD.
Claudius’ Role in Favor of the Gallo-Roman Elites
Born in Lyon in 10 BC, becoming emperor in 41 AD (after succeeding Caligula), Claudius had close ties with Gaul. Upon his accession, the Gauls of Gallia Comata did not yet have full citizenship, and the notables had no access to the ius honorum (the right to hold public office). Although under Caesar and early Augustus, some Gauls (Iulii from the Three Gauls, Domitii, Valerii, or Pompeii from Narbonensis) had gained equestrian rank and even Senate membership, this ceased after 18 BC. Narbonensis regained this right in 14 AD, but Gallia Comata had not. Hence the request made to Emperor Claudius.
He responded with a famous text, which we know from Tacitus and especially from the Claudian Table, a bronze plaque discovered in the 16th century. Claudius decided to grant the ius honorum to the Aedui (and later to other Gauls). This caused outrage among Roman senators, as Claudius had anticipated, evidenced by his words: “Indeed, I see well in advance the objection that will be made to me…” Gaul, especially Gallia Comata, still had a negative image in Rome, tainted by the terror gallicus.
The Council of the Gauls
As in the rest of the Empire, the imperial cult served as the link between local elites and the emperor.
In 12 BC, Drusus, the father of the future Emperor Claudius, constructed a federal sanctuary for Gaul at Condate, near Lyon. Each year, on August 1st, the elites of the Three Gauls gathered there to celebrate their loyalty to the emperor around the altar dedicated to Rome and Augustus. The Assembly of the Gauls (or concilium) was led by an elected sacerdos, the first being logically an Aeduan, Caius Julius Vercondaridubnus. Under Tiberius, the construction of an amphitheater allowed for games to accompany the assembly’s meetings.
The purpose of creating this Council of Gauls was to integrate and Romanize the indigenous elites. The institution was above the provincial governor (also based in Lyon), answered only to the emperor (to whom it could present requests), and its members were of equestrian rank. It was a mandatory gathering of the Gallo-Roman elites, representing the sixty peoples of Gallia Comata. The Assembly thus played a real political role, and emperors, like Claudius or even Caligula, who in 39 AD organized an oratory competition, attended it.
The Evergetism of Gallo-Roman Elites
Another marker of the Romanization of the Gallo-Roman elites is their practice of evergetism, which refers to the benevolent acts offered to cities (and indirectly to the emperor), often in the form of monuments.
One famous example in Gaul is the amphitheater of Lyon, mentioned earlier. Its construction was initiated in 19 AD by the sacerdos of the Santones, Caius Julius Rufus. This prominent local figure also gifted an arch to his city of Saintes, where, in an inscription, he does not hesitate to compare himself to Germanicus.
Other examples exist, such as a portico donated by the Bituriges to the baths of Néris, a theater in Eu, or another in Jublains.
Transformations and Integration
The integration of Gallic notables was essential for the Empire. By maintaining good relations with the indigenous population, the imperial elites could better exercise their functions in the province. Meanwhile, the local elites could aspire to social advancement.
However, these relations were not always straightforward, especially in Gaul, and often proved asymmetrical. This partly explains the relative integration of Gallo-Roman elites into the imperial elites, with notable differences between Narbonensis and northern Gaul (Gaule chevelue).
Other factors are at play: we previously mentioned the military and landowning background of the Iulii. They appear to have struggled following the revolt of Vindex in 69 AD, which led to repression among their ranks. They lost influence within the Gallo-Roman elite, which began to diversify, integrating, for instance, notable merchants—a trend that intensified under the Antonines. However, these conclusions should be tempered, as sources are scarce.
This heterogeneity of Gallo-Roman elites, combined with a level of urbanization that was less pronounced than elsewhere (and since elites are formed in cities), ultimately resulted in Gaul being less represented within the imperial elites (the equestrian order, and even more so the senatorial order) compared to provinces like Spain or North Africa.
Under his real name, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavius, Augustus was the first and most famous Roman emperor. When his uncle Julius Caesar died in 44 BCE, Octavius began a long political struggle to gain power. In 31 BCE, he won the naval Battle of Actium against his main rivals, Mark Antony and Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt.
Upon returning to Rome, Octavius laid the foundation for a new regime in 27 BCE: the Principate. Now called Augustus, he gradually accumulated all the powers, thus laying the foundation for the Roman Empire. His reign was marked by peace and prosperity, particularly in the arts, and this period is known as the “Augustan Age,” considered the golden age of Roman classicism.
Octavius: Caesar’s Heir
The future Augustus was born Gaius Octavius on September 23, 63 BCE (the year of Cicero’s consulship), in Rome, on the Palatine Hill. His father served as governor of the province of Macedonia until 59 BCE and died upon his return in 58. Octavius barely knew him, and his mother took on a significant role in his life. Atia Balba Caesonia, his mother, was the niece of Julius Caesar. The young Octavius was then under the tutelage of Gaius Toranius but also under the protection of his maternal grandmother, Julia.
Thanks to her, he was educated until age twelve by some of the greatest masters of rhetoric. It was during this period that he formed important friendships, such as with Agrippa, who would later play a crucial role in his life. While Octavius excelled in politics, he was not particularly skilled in military affairs. Agrippa, a brilliant strategist on both land and sea, would act as his right-hand man in military matters.
Rome’s political situation was becoming increasingly tense, with the rivalry between Caesar and Pompey as the backdrop. Octavius soon aligned himself with his great-uncle and played a political role alongside his sister in the unfolding intrigues. In 48 BCE, Caesar admitted Octavius to the college of pontiffs, and by 45 BCE, he was already on a military campaign in Spain against Pompey’s supporters. During this time, his first health problems emerged, and he especially struggled to present himself as a capable military leader, unlike his friend Agrippa. In the same year, Julius Caesar, who had no sons, named Octavius as his heir in his will, leaving him three-quarters of his wealth.
Upon Caesar’s assassination in March 44 BCE, Octavius was in Apollonia, and his life was at risk. However, against his mother’s wishes, Caesar’s heir decided to return to Rome to assert his rights. He was only nineteen when he arrived in Brindisi and chose to be called Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, or Octavian. Determined to play a central role in resolving the ongoing civil wars, he sought to avenge his adoptive father’s death.
The Civil War
Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century. Credit: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0
As Caesar’s legitimate heir, Octavian initially positioned himself as a rival to Mark Antony, who was popular with the Roman people and saw himself as Caesar’s natural successor. However, through his political acumen and with the military support of his allies (particularly Agrippa), the future Augustus gradually marginalized his rival. Octavian benefited from Cicero’s support, which aimed to help him secure the Senate’s decisive backing. Antony was defeated at Modena in 43 BCE, and both sitting consuls were killed. Cicero had planned to share the consulship with the young Octavian, but the Senate refused.
This was a significant moment in the early political career of the future emperor, as he began to see the Senate as his main adversary. The senators did not welcome the rise of a young man who might become another Caesar. However, Octavian eventually secured the consulship and organized the punishment of Caesar’s assassins.
By the end of 43 BCE, Octavian had gained the upper hand over his opponents and, after tough negotiations, secured the alliance of Mark Antony and Lepidus, forming the Second Triumvirate.
The time had come for Caesar’s assassins to pay: they were hunted down the following year and defeated at the Battle of Philippi. The main conspirators, Brutus and Cassius, committed suicide. The triumvirs then divided control of the Roman world, not yet an empire. The last threat, Sextus Pompey, was crushed in 36 BCE.
However, the peace did not last long, as rivalry continued between Antony and Octavian, despite Antony’s marriage to Octavian’s sister. Octavian’s popularity grew, while Antony increasingly came under Cleopatra’s influence. Lepidus was quickly sidelined, and his African provinces fell into Octavian’s hands. War eventually broke out between the two heirs of Caesar, culminating in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BCE: Antony and Cleopatra were defeated, and Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome.
The Beginnings of Augustus’ Principate
A bust of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated c. 30 BC. Capitoline Museums, Rome
As early as 38 BC, Octavian obtained the title of Imperator; but his victory over Antony allowed him to accumulate titles, and therefore power: Princeps Senatus in 28 BC (that year, he completed his sixth consulship, with Agrippa as colleague). The Senate gave him the honorary title of Augustus in 27 BC, the tribunician power in 23 BC, and his imperium was renewed for ten years. Although not officially declared, a new regime was established to replace the Republic: the Principate.
Despite his speeches emphasizing the importance of the Senate and the people, Augustus was clearly the sole decision-maker. He then initiated reforms: in the army, administration, organization of the provinces, as well as significant public works in Rome. He shaped what would become the Roman Empire for centuries to come.
A strict observer of Roman virtues, Augustus strove to regulate public morals by enacting sumptuary laws (limiting expenditures) and natalist laws (encouraging marriage). In the economic field, he promoted the development of agriculture in the Italian peninsula. His religious policy had two aspects: on the one hand, Augustus worked to restore and renovate traditional religion, and on the other, he founded the imperial cult.
A protector of the arts, Augustus was a friend of poets such as Ovid, Horace, and Virgil, as well as the historian Livy, to whom he extended his support and generosity. With the help of his friend and advisor, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Augustus sought to embellish Rome by constructing the Forum of Augustus, the Theatre of Marcellus, the Temple of Apollo Palatinus, the Pantheon, and the Baths of Agrippa. According to Suetonius, “he left a Rome of marble where he had found a city of bricks.”
Augustus in Gaul
While Caesar had formed only one province in Transalpine Gaul, Augustus, taking into account the ethnic subdivisions of the region, divided it into four areas. In 22 BC, the former Province, bounded by the Rhône and the Cévennes, was renamed “Narbonensis” and became a senatorial province governed by a proconsul. The rest of Gaul, called Gallia Comata, was divided into three regions, each governed by a legate: Aquitania, between the Loire and the Pyrenees; Lugdunensis, between the Loire, Seine, and Saône; and Belgica, east of the Saône and north of the Seine.
The former Roman colony of Lugdunum, founded in 43 BC, became the capital of the Roman province under Augustus and the starting point of the five major imperial roads leading to Aquitania, Italy, the Rhine, Arles, and the Ocean. The emperor built the Amphitheatre of the Three Gauls there, dedicated to his cult and that of Rome, as well as a mint. Augustus visited the province at least four times, taking particular care to pacify it, while his friend and son-in-law Agrippa personally oversaw the administrative organization of the region by conducting a complete land survey of Gaul and constructing an extensive road network.
Despite the pacification efforts initiated during the last years of Julius Caesar’s dictatorship, some tensions persisted locally, and several outbreaks of violence revealed the last remnants of rebellion by certain Gallic peoples against Roman domination. The Aquitanians (in 39 BC), the Morini (in 30 BC), the Treveri (in 29 BC), and the Aquitanians again (in 28 BC) revolted, prompting the intervention of Roman legions.
In 25 and 14 BC, Augustus subdued the peoples of the upper valleys of the Alps, and in 6 BC, a trophy was erected at La Turbie to commemorate his victory over them.
A Difficult End to His Reign
Internal peace did not necessarily mean peace with Rome’s neighbors. Augustus had to address, and often relied on the talented Agrippa to suppress, various threats around the Empire. The goal was primarily to consolidate the borders rather than expand Rome’s territory: he fixed the limits of the Empire at the Euphrates, facing the Parthians, and pushed the northern borders to the Danube. However, he suffered a traumatic setback in AD 9, when the legate Varus and three legions were massacred by the Germans. Tiberius then took over, but Augustus had to accept that the border would remain on the left bank of the Rhine.
His reign became increasingly painful: his health problems were compounded by conspiracies (such as Cinna’s, from 16-13 BC), and especially by succession issues. Despite several marriages (including his last with Livia), Augustus had no surviving sons.
He adopted Agrippa’s sons, Gaius and Lucius, in 17 BC, but they died before him. He eventually adopted his stepson Tiberius, Livia’s son, in AD 4.
Additionally, Augustus saw his friends and companions, such as Agrippa, Maecenas, and Drusus, die before him. Thus, he passed away almost alone on August 19, AD 14, and was deified the same year, as he had previously deified Caesar. Upon Augustus’ death, Tiberius, who had married his daughter Julia, succeeded him.
Legacy of Emperor Augustus
Historians, both ancient and modern, have expressed varied opinions about Augustus. Some condemned his ruthless quest for power, particularly his role in the proscriptions during the triumvirate era. Others, like Tacitus, who critiqued the imperial regime, acknowledged his achievements as a ruler.
Modern historians sometimes criticize his unscrupulous methods and authoritarian style of governance, but they generally credit him with establishing an efficient administration, a stable government, and bringing security and prosperity to what would become the Roman Empire. His authority over the provinces and military power ensured the Pax Romana, or “Roman Peace,” in an empire spanning the entire Mediterranean, Asia Minor, and almost all of Western Europe.
It was during the “The Age of Augustus” that the historian Livy published his History of Rome from its Foundation.
Emperor Augustus: FAQ
The Education of the Future Emperor Augustus
Augustus received a classical education typical of the Roman elite of his time. He studied literature, rhetoric, philosophy, and the arts. Caesar ensured he received a solid education to prepare him for a political career, along with thorough military training. This education and Julius Caesar’s influence helped prepare Augustus for his future political career.
The Various Names of Octavian
Octavian, or Emperor Augustus, had different names reflecting various stages of his political career and life. These are the names used to refer to Augustus:
Gaius Octavius Thurinus (his birth name)
Gaius Octavius (family name without title)
Gaius Octavius Caesar (after his adoption by Julius Caesar)
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (after his adoption by Caesar)
Octavian (commonly used to distinguish him from his rival Mark Antony during the Second Triumvirate)
Imperator Caesar Divi Filius (official title as the first Roman emperor)
Augustus (honorary title received in 27 BC, meaning “venerable” or “sacred,” which gave him the name Augustus that we know today)
In antiquity, the Gallic Wars corresponds to the Roman conquest of Gaul, a territory roughly equivalent to present-day France, as well as Belgium, the Netherlands, parts of Germany, Luxembourg, and Northern Italy. Gaul was then composed of numerous populations with different customs and laws. During this war, Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gauls, who faced the Romans in two major battles: Gergovia, where the Gauls emerged victorious, and Alesia, marking their definitive defeat.
Julius Caesar conquered Gaul in less than 8 years, from 58 to 50 BCE, with approximately 100,000 men. Caesar himself narrates this campaign in his work titled “Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War),” portraying himself as an inspired and victorious leader to appeal to the Senate, to whom he was accountable. It is worth noting that this war, ostensibly aimed at protecting Rome and its allies, also served the purpose of advancing the proconsul’s political career, bringing military glory, and settling his debts.
Key Battles of the Gallic Wars
Battle of the Arar (58 BC): Caesar’s first major battle against the Helvetii tribe, a Germanic Celtic tribe, resulting in a decisive Roman victory.
Battle of Bibracte (58 BC): Another battle against the Helvetii, fought near the Mont Beuvray in present-day Burgundy. The Romans, led by Caesar, emerged victorious.
Battle of Vosges (58 BC): An engagement during the pursuit of Vercingetorix, where Caesar achieved a victory over the rebellious Gallic chieftain.
Battle of the Axona (57 BC): Engagement against the Belgae confederation, where Caesar successfully defeated the forces of the Belgic tribes.
Battle of the Sabis (57 BC): An encounter with the Germanic Suebi tribe led by Ariovistus, resulting in a victory for Caesar and securing Roman influence over the region.
Battle of Lutetia (52 BC): A skirmish fought near present-day Paris during the rebellion.
Battle of Gergovia (52 BC): A significant defeat for Caesar against the united Gallic tribes led by Vercingetorix. This marked a rare setback for Caesar in the course of the war.
Siege of Alesia (52 BC): A decisive siege where Caesar’s forces surrounded and defeated Vercingetorix and his Gallic allies, effectively ending organized Gallic resistance.
Battle of Gergovia (52 BC): Following the siege of Alesia, Caesar faced further resistance at Gergovia but ultimately succeeded in capturing the city.
Battle of Alesia (52 BC): Not to be confused with the Siege of Alesia, this earlier battle was part of Vercingetorix’s rebellion. Caesar emerged victorious, further establishing Roman dominance.
Why Was the Gallic Wars Fought?
Vercingetorix statue by Frédéric Bartholdi, on Place de Jaude, in Clermont-Ferrand, France.
The causes of the Gallic Wars are manifold. Some Gallic tribes could potentially pose a threat to the Roman Republic, but Julius Caesar had much to gain from it. In his Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, Caesar justifies each of his campaigns in Gaul as a pacifying mission or as assistance to a threatened tribe. According to his rhetoric, Caesar is not conquering; he is protecting the weaker ones. It is true that the Aedui, an allied tribe of the Romans, seek Roman support against the Helvetii, who have decided to join Aquitaine.
Rome already had a foothold in the southern Gaulish territory, in Gallia Narbonensis (Transalpine Gaul), and allies among these peoples. Furthermore, Rome worries that the opportunistic and belligerent Germanic peoples might invade the Helvetii’s territory. However, Julius Caesar saw this primarily as an opportunity to gain military glory over Pompey and Crassus, fellow members of the triumvirate with him, who jointly led Rome.
Support for the Aedui elicits hostile reactions from other tribes, and Caesar eventually deems it necessary to conquer the entirety of Gaul to pacify the region. Every pretext is used to defend the interests of Rome. Between preventive action and the desire for glory, the Gallic Wars conveniently serves Julius Caesar, who seizes the opportunity.
Where and When Did the Gallic Wars Take Place?
Multi-year overview of the Gallic Wars. Image: CC BY-SA 3.0.
The Gallic Wars took the form of a series of military campaigns directed against various Gallic tribes that then constituted the territory. Initially, the objective was to contain the Helvetii, which was accomplished in two campaigns during the same year, 58 BC. The following year, Julius Caesar turned his attention to the Belgians, who had raised an army of allied tribes. The proconsul gradually subdues the different peoples of Belgic Gaul. Military operations continued in Britain and then in Aquitaine. In 55 BC, Germanic tribes threatened the last Belgian tribes subjected to Rome. The formidable Germanic peoples put up a strong resistance before Caesar managed to cross the Rhine, a technical feat achieved through the construction of a bridge.
Julius Caesar then set his sights on Britain (modern-day Great Britain), accused of sending reinforcements during minor Gallic uprisings. This opportunity allowed the general to regain favor in Rome after the challenges faced by the Germanic peoples. Caesar is subsequently harassed by various revolts, necessitating his intervention across the region. He is compelled to continue fighting, while Pompey, with whom rivalry intensifies, is in Rome at the heart of power. However, Pompey lends him legions for reinforcement. The only tribes left to conquer in 53 BC were the Treveri, Menapii, and Eburones, under the leadership of Ambiorix. It is through the ingenuity of Lieutenant Titus Labienus that Julius Caesar achieves this.
In 52 BC, a new revolt looms. The massacre of Cenabum, executed by the Carnutes, sparks rebellious sentiments throughout Gaul. Under Vercingetorix, of Arvernian origin, many Gauls unite. After a defeat at Avaricum, the Gallic leader is victorious at the Battle of Gergovia before eventually surrendering in the Battle of Alesia. The Bituriges and then the Carnutes rise again the following year. However, the last resistors to Roman domination were defeated during the Siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC. Julius Caesar, adorned with glory, finally returned to Rome to seize power. Crossing the Rubicon with a legion, he triggered the Civil War in 49 BC.
Which Gallic Peoples Were Subdued by Julius Caesar?
The campaigns of 58 BC (In Italian). Note the Roman territory in yellow does not yet include modern day France, the Low Countries, or Germany. Image: CC BY-SA 3.0.
During the Gallic War, Julius Caesar subdued many Gallic peoples, often facing repeated resistance as different tribes continued to revolt:
58 BC: the Helvetii, towards present-day Switzerland;
57 BC: the Nervii, Atrebates, and Viromandui, towards present-day Belgium;
56 BC: the Armoricans and Venelli, towards present-day Brittany;
55 BC: the Morini and Menapii towards Belgium, the Usipetes and Tencteri towards the Rhine;
54 BC: the Breton coalition;
53 BC: the Eburones, in the northeast of Gaul;
52 BC: the Arverni, Sequani, and Parisii, in the central-eastern part of Gaul and towards present-day Paris;
51 BC: the Bellovaci (towards Belgium), the Pictones (towards present-day Poitou), the Bituriges (Celtic Gaul between the Loire and the Massif Central), the Cadurci (around Cahors), the Treveri (Gaul Belgium), and the Carnutes (Beauce).
Why Did Julius Caesar Write the Book Gallic Wars?
Caesar receives Divicon’s ambassadorship on the Arar River after the Roman victory over the Helvetians.
The primary account of the Gallic War comes from Julius Caesar himself, who is both the judge and the party involved, as he writes about it. His Commentaries on the Gallic Wars were divided into seven volumes, one for each year of the military campaign. They were regularly published in Rome in batches of two or three volumes. Aulus Hirtius, a close friend of Julius Caesar, will write an eighth book to describe the situation in Gaul in 50 BC and the final conflicts in 51 BC.
While Caesar and Aulus Hirtius consider these works as historical documents, one must approach the pages with a critical perspective, keeping in mind that the author is not neutral and consistently portrays himself in a favorable light.
When Caesar depicts his adversaries as formidable and challenging to defeat, it is to highlight his own victory and downplay the role of his lieutenants. Julius Caesar sought glory during the Gallic Wars and aimed to persuade the Roman aristocracy, through his Commentaries, that his military campaigns were justified. These are indeed commentaries, concise remarks that stick to the facts in the form of raw notes.
Cicero praises Caesar’s straightforward and effective writing style. However, a certain level of caution is warranted when interpreting these writings. Many individuals who participated in the war, particularly the lieutenants, could testify in cases of falsehood. The complete text of The Gallic Wars is available online.
What Was Vercingetorix’s Role in the Gallic Wars?
An Arvernian named Vercingetorix led the largest uprising of the Gallic tribes. It all begins with the massacre of Cenabum on January 23, 52 BC, where the Carnutes executed Roman citizens. The entire Gaul was inflamed following this event. A nobleman newly in power, Vercingetorix takes the lead in the rebellion and gathers the Senones, Parisii, Pictones, Cadurci, Turones, Aulerci, Lemovices, Andes, and other clans from the oceanic border, as well as the Bituriges.
Having previously served in the Roman army, Vercingetorix employs their strategies. He adopted the scorched-earth policy of destroying cities and fields to hinder the Roman army’s supply lines. After the Gallic defeat at Avaricum, resulting in a massacre, Vercingetorix’s forces retreat to the oppidum of Gergovia.
Despite successfully foiling the betrayal by the Aedui, the Romans abandoned the siege after significant losses in skirmishes. They head towards Lutetia to confront the Parisii, Senones, and Aulerci. The entire Gaul revolts at this moment and unites behind Vercingetorix at Bibracte, except for the Remi, Lingones, and Treviri. In August 52 BC, Vercingetorix attempted to crush the Roman troops but was forced to retreat to Alesia, where he eventually surrendered.
Why and How Did the Gauls Lose the Gallic Wars?
The defeat of Vercingetorix took place in September 52 BC at Alesia, where 95,000 Gauls were entrenched in the oppidum and resisted a siege. Julius Caesar undertook significant encirclement works to prevent the Gauls from going out to resupply. The idea was also to make combat more challenging for the Gauls during their skirmish attempts. The Gallic relief army was insufficient to free Vercingetorix and his troops.
The vast multitude of Gallic tribes, often divided, tended to betray each other regularly. It was also through the Germanic cavalry that the Romans managed to win the final battle. The Romans had indeed enlisted German mercenaries to tilt the odds in their favor.
Key Dates in the Gallic Wars
58 BC: Caesar Annexes Switzerland: Julius Caesar invades the land and manages to assert his authority over the Helvetii people. Roman dominance gradually extended across the entire territory, which takes on the name Helvetia. Initially, it fell under the province of Belgica before being integrated into the Gallia Lugdunensis.
57 BC: Julius Caesar Subdues the Belgian Territory: Caesar managed to subdue the Celtic and Germanic peoples of Belgium despite fierce resistance and uprisings. Roman Belgium then encompassed a much larger territory than it would later become. It is divided into three provinces: Belgica Prima, Germania Inferior (Germania Secunda), and Belgica Secunda. The region experienced some development, and significant cities were founded (Tournai, Tongres).
In the years to come, it will be marked in the north by the presence of Frankish Germans (future Flemish) and in the south by a population of more Latinized Franks (future Walloons).
52 BC: The Siege of Gergovia: Located in the Arverni region, Gergovia was the site of a major battle in the Gallic Wars. The Arverni and Bituriges tribes, which Vercingetorix led, won the battle with the Romans. Julius Caesar had six legions in addition to his Gallic allies, especially the Aedui. To conceal his defeat from the Senate, Caesar pretends to prefer supporting his lieutenant Labienus further north.
May 52 BC: The Romans Capture Lutetia: Lutetia, which the Romans, under the command of Lieutenant Labenius, have held since the third century BCE, falls into their hands. Residents of the fortified city destroy it because they won’t give up to the invaders. This action allowed the Romans to quickly spread their own architecture. The Gaulish people gave the city the name Paris, which the Romans called “Civitas Parisorium,” or the city of the Parisii.
52 BC: The Battle of Alesia: The Siege of Alesia lasted 6 to 8 weeks. Vercingetorix and his troops retreated to this oppidum after the failure of an attack that was meant to be decisive. In response, Caesar built significant fortifications that greatly hindered the Gauls. Furthermore, reinforcements are delayed, arriving only after 6 weeks. The Romans eventually prevailed, thanks to Germanic reinforcements.
What Were the Consequences of the Gallic Wars?
The Gallic Wars marked the beginning of Rome’s significant expansion and the onset of the civil war in Rome, known as Caesar’s Civil War, pitting Julius Caesar against Pompey. Following his victory in Gaul, Julius Caesar returned to Italy with great prestige, seizing power as imperator and later as dictator for life, thereby ending the Roman Republic in favor of the Roman Empire.
In Gaul, an entire civilization undergoes transformation, as Caesar’s triumph gives rise to Gallo-Roman culture, leaving enduring legacies evident today in various aspects such as roads, architecture, law, and other elements resulting from the Roman conquest of Gaul.
Vercingetorix, also known as Vercingetorix in Latin (circa 82 BCE–46 BCE), was the leader of the Celtic tribe Arverni in central Gaul, opposing Julius Caesar in the Gallic War. His name in Gaulish means “ruler over” (ver-rix) and “warriors” (cingetos). He was the son of the Arverni leader Celtillus, who was executed on charges of aspiring to rule over all of Gaul. According to some accounts, Vercingetorix received his education in Britain under the Druids. Dion Cassius testified that he was once a friend of Caesar.
During the Gallic War, Vercingetorix led a rebellion of united Gallic tribes against Caesar, who had effectively subdued the entire Gaul by 52 BCE. Caesar described the rise of Vercingetorix as follows:
“This highly influential young man, whose father once led all of Gaul and was killed by his fellow countrymen for his desire for kingly power, gathered all his dependents and easily incited them to rebellion. Upon learning of his intentions, the Arverni took up arms. His uncle Gobannitio and the other chiefs, seeing no opportunity to try their luck at that moment, opposed him, and he was expelled from the city of Gergovia. However, he did not abandon his intention and started recruiting the poor and riffraff from villages. With this band, he roams through the community, attracting supporters everywhere, urging them to take up arms for the struggle for common freedom. Amassing considerable forces in this way, he drives his opponents out of the country, those who had recently expelled him. His followers proclaim him as their king. He sends embassies everywhere, urging the Gauls to keep faith with their oath. Soon, the Senones, Parisii, Pictones, Cadurci, Turones, Aulerci, Lemovices, Andes, and all the other tribes along the Ocean join him by unanimous decision. By their unanimous resolution, they entrust him with supreme command. Invested with this authority, he demands hostages from all these communities; he orders them to provide a specified number of soldiers in the shortest possible time; he determines how much weaponry each community should manufacture within a given period.
” — Caesar. Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War), Book VII, 4.
The signal for the uprising was the attack by the Carnutes tribe on Cenab (or Kenab, modern-day Orleans) and the killing of all the Romans in it, mainly traders. The attackers hoped that the Roman Republic, engulfed in a political crisis after the assassination of the politician Publius Clodius Pulcher, would not be able to react effectively. Robert Étienne suggests that Vercingetorix not only became the leader of the rebels before the massacre in Cenab, but also planned the entire rebellion, including the unusual start of the war in winter.
This forced Caesar, who was wintering to the south of the Alps under different circumstances, to traverse the snow-covered Cevennes mountains (Caesar writes about a snow cover height of 6 feet – about 170–180 centimeters) to reach the stationed legions in Gaul. The Gaulish leader’s plan was to block the Roman legions in the north and invade Narbonese Gaul in the south. According to this plan, Caesar would have had to divert all his forces to defend the Roman province, while Vercingetorix with the main army could act unhindered in central Gaul.
Vercingetorix
Having invaded the lands of Vercingetorix’s native tribe, the Arverni, Caesar left Decimus Brutus with cavalry there and, through the lands of the Aedui who remained loyal to Rome, reached two legions wintering among the Lingones. From there, he called the remaining legions from the territories of the Belgae.
Thus, Caesar managed to secretly reach his main forces, and Vercingetorix learned about it when the Roman forces were almost united. In retaliation, the Gallic leader attacked the Boii tribe, whom the Aedui had resettled in their lands. This compelled Caesar to make a difficult choice: either the commander started a campaign in the continuing winter, guaranteeing supply difficulties, or he refused assistance to the Boii, risking the confidence of Rome’s allies that Caesar could protect them.
The Roman commander decided to come to the aid of the Boii despite the expected difficulties. Leaving two legions in Agendicum (modern-day Sens), he besieged one of the main cities of the rebellious Senones, Vellaunodunum (location unknown), and took it in two days. The swift capture of the city was a surprise to the Carnutes, who had not prepared Cenab for the arrival of the Romans. The city was stormed and razed to the ground, and its inhabitants were sold into slavery as punishment for aiding in the killing of Romans.
After taking Cenab, the Romans crossed the Loire and approached Noviodunum of the Bituriges (modern-day Nevers-sur-Bévron or Neuvy-sur-Barangeon). Its inhabitants were ready to open the gates to Caesar when Vercingetorix’s forces appeared, and the Gauls changed their minds. However, after the advancing forces of the rebels (it was a small advance guard) were defeated by the Romans, the settlement’s residents still opened the gates to the Romans.
“Scorched Earth”
As Julius Caesar recounts in his “Commentaries on the Gallic War,” Rome secured its dominance over Celtic tribes beyond the Roman province of Narbonese Gaul by employing the “divide and conquer” policy. In contrast, Vercingetorix united the tribes and employed a tactic of attacking Roman forces followed by a strategic withdrawal to natural fortifications. Moreover, the uprising became one of the first documented instances of using the “scorched earth” strategy, where the rebels burned urban settlements to deprive Roman legions of provisions.
The Gaulish leader ordered all food supplies to be transported to a small number of well-defended cities, while demanding the burning of all other settlements and reserves to prevent them from falling into the enemy’s hands. Delaying tactics worked in favor of the Gauls, allowing them to continue gathering reinforcements and collecting provisions in remote areas.
Vercingetorix announced this decision at a meeting of leaders from the rebellious Gallic tribes.
The final exhaustion of all Roman food supplies was averted only by capturing another Gallic city — the capital of the Bituriges tribe, Avaricum (modern-day Bourges), where the Gauls stockpiled food. The Bituriges tribe pleaded with Vercingetorix not to abandon but to defend the city, which was well-fortified and situated amid impassable swamps, forests, and rivers. Despite this, Caesar decided to capture it upon learning about the substantial food reserves in the city.
For the assault, he chose a location between two swamps and began constructing ramparts, covered galleries, and siege towers. By mid-April, when the Romans were running out of food, the rampart was completed, allowing them to breach the wall. During the assault, Caesar’s forces, along with his deputy Titus Labienus, seized the city with abundant food supplies, and almost the entire population hiding there was slaughtered (out of 40,000, only 800 survived). However, the capture of Avaricum did not diminish Vercingetorix’s authority as a commander; it had the opposite effect:
“…since he [Vercingetorix] had previously, when everything was going well, proposed first to burn Avaricum and then to leave it, their [the Gauls’] estimation of his foresight and ability to foresee the future increased even more.” — Caesar. Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War), Book VII, 30.
Victory at Gergovia
The statue of Vercingetorix in Place de Jaude, France.
Soon, Caesar divided his forces into two parts. He directed Titus Labienus with four legions to the north, into the lands of the Senones and Parisii, while he himself headed south, into the territory of the Arverni. The proconsul ascended along the Elaver River (modern-day Allier), whereas Vercingetorix followed the opposite bank, destroying bridges and preventing Caesar from crossing. Outsmarting the Gallic commander, Gaius crossed the Elaver and approached the Gallic stronghold in the lands of the Arverni – Gergovia (near modern-day Clermont-Ferrand). Gergovia was one of the key cities of the rebels, and Robert Étienne even calls it the “capital of the risen Gaul.”
The city was strategically located on a high hill and well-fortified. Although it was defended by Vercingetorix’s main army, Caesar decided to seize this strategically vital point. However, it soon became known that the leaders of the Aedui tribe were preparing to betray the Romans and join the side of the rebels. A 10,000-strong auxiliary detachment, which the Aedui had sent earlier to assist Caesar, wanted to switch sides to Vercingetorix due to rumors that Romans had killed all Aedui in their camp. Gaius learned about the spreading rumors and sent his cavalry to this detachment, including Aedui who were believed to be dead. Following this, the majority of the auxiliary detachment joined Caesar, but the Aedui tribe itself continued to lean towards an alliance with the rebels.
The subsequent events, known as the Battle of Gergovia (June 52 BCE), are not entirely clear due to the evasiveness of the “Commentaries.” Presumably, the unclear description was deliberately crafted by Caesar to absolve himself of blame for the failure. The general course of events is reconstructed as follows: the commander directed his forces in a risky assault, diverting the besieged’s attention with various tactics, but the attack was eventually thwarted. Caesar probably managed to achieve the element of surprise, but the besieged were able to concentrate their forces at the point of the assault in time.
According to the “Commentaries,” at the crucial moment, the legions did not hear the signal to retreat. However, this description does not explain why the troops needed to retreat if the assault was going well. Moreover, it is unclear why the commander did not support the attackers – he still had at least one legion in reserve. According to Caesar, the Romans lost 746 men killed (46 centurions and 700 soldiers) and soon withdrew, attempting twice to provoke Vercingetorix into battle on the plain. From Gergovia, the Romans headed towards the territory of the Aedui. By this time, the majority of them had already joined the uprising. They slaughtered numerous Roman traders and foragers in Noviodunum of the Aedui (modern-day Nevers), seized plenty of food and money, and then set the city on fire.
Defeat at Alesia
After forcing the Romans to retreat from the besieged Gergovia, Vercingetorix was unanimously recognized as the supreme military leader at the pan-Gallic assembly in Bibracte—the capital of the Aedui tribe, the last to join the rebellion; only two tribes remained loyal to Rome (the Lingones and Remi). In the assembly at Bibracte, Vercingetorix also declared that the Gauls should continue avoiding a pitched battle, disrupting Caesar’s communications and supply routes.
Alesia, near modern-day Dijon, was chosen as the pivotal point. The Celtic leader reiterated his support for expanding the uprising into Narbonensis, dispatching his troops there. However, when the rebels sought the support of the Celts in this province, the largest tribe, the Allobroges, flatly refused to collaborate with them. Furthermore, Lucius Julius Caesar, the proconsul’s distant cousin, raised 22 cohorts of levies in the province and successfully resisted all attempts at invasion.
Despite their initial success, the rebels were eventually surrounded in the fortress of Alesia in central Gaul. Alesia was situated on a steep hill in the middle of a valley and was well-fortified. Vercingetorix, probably hoping to replicate the scenario that worked at Gergovia, found that the Romans instead began a systematic siege rather than attempting an assault. To achieve this, Caesar had to disperse his forces along the constructed siege walls with a total length of 11 miles (17 kilometers; according to other sources, 20, 15, or 16 kilometers).
The siege was particularly challenging due to the numerical superiority of the besieged over the besiegers: in Alesia, according to Caesar’s account, 80 thousand soldiers were sheltered. However, a more likely estimate of the besieged’s numbers is 50-60 thousand, although Napoleon Bonaparte and Hans Delbrück estimated the garrison of Alesia at only 20 thousand Gauls. The Romans, on the other hand, had either 10 war-weakened legions totaling 40 thousand soldiers or 11 legions with 70 thousand soldiers, including auxiliary forces, depending on different accounts.
The Gallic commander attempted to lift the siege by attacking the legionnaires constructing the fortifications, but the assault was repelled. Some rebel cavalry managed to break through the Roman ranks, and on Vercingetorix’s orders, spread the news of the siege throughout Gaul, urging tribes to muster armed resistance and march to Alesia. Although Vercingetorix called for assistance from other Gallic tribes, Julius Caesar organized a double ring of siege around Alesia, allowing him to break down the besieged and their allies who had come to their aid.
After all attempts to breach the Roman fortifications proved futile, the rebels surrendered due to the famine that had gripped Alesia. As food supplies neared exhaustion, and the Gauls calculated that they had enough provisions for at most a month, Vercingetorix ordered the evacuation of a multitude of women, children, and elderly from the city, although the Gaul Critoignat supposedly suggested consuming them. The majority of those forced to leave Alesia belonged to the Mandubii tribe, who had surrendered their city to Vercingetorix. However, Caesar commanded not to open the gates for them.
Although a massive Gallic force led by Commius, Viridomar, Eporredorix, and Vercassivellaunus approached Alesia at the end of September (with its strength, according to Caesar’s inflated estimate, exceeding 258 thousand people; according to Hans Delbrück, 50 thousand soldiers), the first two attempts to break through the fortifications ended in favor of the Romans. On the third day, a 60-thousand (according to Caesar’s testimony) detachment of Gauls attacked the Roman fortifications in the northwest, which were the weakest due to the difficult terrain.
Leading this force was Vercassivellaunus, Vercingetorix’s cousin. Other troops carried out diversionary attacks, hindering the proconsul from concentrating all forces to repel the main blow. The outcome of the battle at the northwest fortifications was decided by Caesar’s directed reserves, brought by Titus Labienus to the flank of 40 cohorts, and the cavalry that outflanked the enemy— the Gauls were defeated and fled.
As a result, the next day, Vercingetorix laid down his arms. Plutarch describes the surrender of the commander as follows:
“Vercingetorix, the leader of the entire war, donned the most beautiful armor, adorned his horse richly, and rode out of the gates. Circumventing the elevation on which Caesar sat, he dismounted, removed all his armor, and, sitting at Caesar’s feet, remained there until he was taken into custody to be preserved for the triumph.” — Plutarch. Caesar, 27.
Vercingetorix, among other trophies, was brought to Rome, where he spent five years in captivity in the Mamertine Prison, awaiting Caesar’s triumph. After participating in the triumphal procession in 46 BCE, he was strangled (according to other sources, died of hunger in prison).
Legacy of Vercingetorix
Napoleon Bonaparte held a low opinion of Vercingetorix and other Gallic leaders who lost in the face of repeated numerical superiority, unlike later French authors who saw the roots of French culture precisely in Roman Gaul. During the Romantic era and the increased interest in national history, the Gallic War began to be interpreted in France as the conquest of freedom-loving Gauls by foreign invaders, whom they saw as the ancestors of modern French.
In 1828, Amedée Thierry released the work “History of the Gauls,” extolling the courage of ancient Gauls in their struggle against Roman conquerors. Thanks in large part to his popular work, Vercingetorix and Brenn, the leader of the Gauls who attacked Rome in the 4th century BCE, came to be considered national heroes of France.
In 1867, despite his sympathy for the civilized Caesar as opposed to the plebeian barbarian leader, Napoleon III ordered the installation of a statue of Vercingetorix on the hill at Alesia, who was already perceived as a hero in the public consciousness. Moreover, the facial features of the Gallic leader on the monument bear a resemblance to the emperor himself.
After the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Caesar, the enemy of all Gauls, began to be compared to Moltke and Bismarck, the siege of Alesia — with the recent siege of Paris, and Vercingetorix — with Léon Gambetta. In 1916, during World War I, historian Jules Toutain published the book “Hero and Bandit: Vercingetorix and Arminius,” in which cruel and treacherous Germans were portrayed as the eternal enemies of the Gauls.
Vercingetorix In Art
The film “Druids” (2001) is dedicated to this episode of Roman history. Christopher Lambert played the role of Vercingetorix.
In the film “Julius Caesar and the Conquest of Gaul” (Italy, 1962), the role was played by Rick Battaglia.
In the film “Julius Caesar” (2002) — Heinrich Faerch.
In the series “Rome” (2005) — Giovanni Calkano.
In the film “Alesia, le reve d’un roi nu” (France, 2011) — Yan Tregë.
Vercingetorix is present in Asterix comics “Asterix the Gaul” and “The Chieftain’s Shield.”
The Brazilian group Tuatha de Danann has a song “Vercingetorix” in the album “Tingaralatingadun.”
The international musical project Folkodia recorded the song “The Capitulation of Vercingetorix.”
The RAC group In Tyrannos recorded the eponymous song “Vercingetorix.”
In Viktor Pelevin’s novel “IPhuck 10,” Vercingetorix surrenders to Gaius Julius Caesar through a complex ritual, involving the violation of the Gallic leader with a carnyx in front of a silent legion.
He is one of the available heroes of the Barbarian faction in the computer game Total War: Arena.
Julius Caesar represents more than just ancient Rome today; he represents the entire world. Scholars agree that he was the impetus behind the rise of modern Europe. Caesar possessed an abundance of charisma, a quality crucial for a politician and a statesman. He won the hearts of many of his contemporaries and successors. His reputation as an exceptional leader and politician, a brilliant orator and writer, and a multitalented genius has stood the test of time. Julius Caesar’s commentaries on the Gallic and civil wars are his main contribution to the literature. Caesar’s writings were studied for their military advice and inspiration. It’s no coincidence that in the Roman catacombs of The Count of Monte Cristo, Alexandre Dumas does not miss the chance to mention Caesar’s Commentaries.
Caesar’s terrible death as a martyr has been glorified and has provided artists with endless fodder for their craft. Along with Judas, a traitor to divine glory, Dante placed Brutus and Cassius, the two main Caesarean killers, in the Ninth Circle of Hell, where Lucifer himself torments them for their transgressions against human grandeur. Numerous anecdotes, semi-legendary tales, and common adages have Caesar as their inspiration or central figure. Examining the ancient traditions allows readers to establish their own impressions of the Roman dictator, who is certainly not easy to assess objectively.
1- Caesar Was Born by Caesarean Section – Hence the Name of the Operation
Medieval depiction of Caesarian birth. Source: British Library
Before the time of Julius Caesar, obstetricians routinely performed procedures similar to the Caesarean section (“sectio caesarea”). Dionysus, the god of wine, and Asclepius, the god of healing, were both taken from the wombs of deceased mothers in Greek mythology and resembled genuine medical instances. Ancient Indian, Chinese, Babylonian, Iranian, and other texts also make reference to this procedure. Laws enacted by King Numa Pompilius (“leges regiae”) of ancient Rome prohibited the burial of a pregnant woman without first removing the fetus. This was the case 700 years before Caesar was born.
According to Pliny the Elder, several well-known Romans were born via Caesarean section. These include Scipio Africanus, who beat Hannibal; Manius Manilius, who led an army into Carthage; and the first of the Caesars (not Julius Caesar himself). Pliny states that Caesar’s ancestor was prematurely delivered through the cutting of the mother’s womb (caeso). Thus comes the family name of the Caesars: a caeso matris utero dictus.
Born around 100 or 101 BC, Julius Caesar is considered one of the most influential figures in history. Due to the aforesaid rule, fetal removal was only performed when the mother was either near death or had already passed away, as it was not possible to perform the procedure in a way that would have kept both mother and child alive at the time. Additionally, we know that Caesar’s mother, Aurelius, lived through delivery and passed away in old age in 54 BC because of the accounts of Suetonius.
This is an example of a fabricated etymology. Explaining this misunderstanding is challenging. Pliny’s participle caesus (“dissected,” “cut up”), produced from the verb caedere, may have been mistaken for the adjective caesareus (“from Caesar”) by subsequent authors, in particular the developers of the 10th-century Byzantine Dictionary of the Court. Legend has it that Caesareus, or “Caesar,” was named after him. The mythology of Caesar’s birth was already widely circulated by the Middle Ages, with many medieval manuscripts featuring scenes of the young Caesar being ripped from his mother’s womb.
Verdict: Hardly.
2- Caesar Fought Asterix and Obelix, but Could Not Defeat Them
Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar, painted by Lionel Royer in 1899.
Claude Zidi’s film “Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar“, based on the comic books by René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo, is based on characters that do not exist in real life. Long hair and breeches, a barbarous garment severely loathed by the Romans, are the only features they share in common with the actual Gauls of history.
It is true that Caesar was at war with the Gauls, and he was victorious. He held the office of consul in 59 BC. Following his year as consul, Caesar often served as viceroy with proconsular powers in a Roman province for the following year. Caesar foresaw this and had a law passed through a people’s tribune that gave him control of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyric (present-day Albania and Croatia) for five years.
The Senate later added Gallia Narbonensis (“Gaul of Narbonne,” modern-day Provence), which the Romans had conquered in the last third of the second century BC. Transalpine Gaul, or “Gaul on the far side of the Alps,” was the target of Caesar’s conquest plans. This region was roughly the size of modern-day France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Switzerland combined. Due to the Gallic fashion of having long hair, the Romans also referred to this untamed land as Gallia Comata.
Caesar won early victories in the war by subjugating many of the Gallic tribes and defeating the Germanic tribes that had invaded Gaul. Caesar’s mandate was extended for another five years in 56 BC.
All of the native tribes of Gaul, including the Eburones, Belgae, Nervians, and others, were ready to erupt at any moment. The all-Gaulish great uprising, which started in the winter of 53 BC, was the biggest difficulty the Romans ever faced. Vercingetorix, a youthful leader of the Arverni people, commanded the army in the year 52. It was true that Caesar had to retake Gaul. By the end of 51 BC, the Romans had finally managed to bring peace to Gaul.
Caesar “took by storm more than eight hundred cities, subdued three hundred nations, and fought pitched battles at different times with three million men, of whom he slew one million in hand-to-hand fighting and took as many more prisoners,” as Plutarch puts it, during the years Caesar spent in Gaul. Despite the questions that these unbelievable numbers pose, the outcomes of the Gallic Wars were outstanding. Rome captured a sizable territory and made massive plunder. Caesar benefited monetarily, but more crucially, by acquiring an army that was disciplined, experienced, and loyal.
The relatives and offspring of Asterix and Obelix were quickly Romanized. Caesar had already appointed a number of Gauls to the Roman Senate, and they celebrated their newfound status with songs like “Galli bracas deposuerunt, latum clavum sumpserunt,” which translates to “The Gauls set aside their bracae [the trousers of Gauls] and took up the laticlave.” The Roman upper magistrates and senators wore the pretense toga, distinguished by its wide purple border. After another few centuries, the Gauls would abandon their Druid priests and their own language in favor of a distorted form of Latin. Gaul eventually became one of the Roman Empire’s most Romanized regions.
Verdict: Wrong.
3- Did Caesar Crossed the Rubicon and Said: “The die is cast (Alea Iacta est)”
Caesar Crossing the Rubicon, Adolphe Yvon, 1875.
This took place at the outset of the dramatic civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Even though they were related (Julia, Caesar’s only daughter, married Pompey), the erstwhile allies of the first triumvirate turned out to be bitter enemies.
Julia passed away during delivery in 54 BC, and Crassus was killed in a failed Parthian war the following year, in 53 BC. For all intents and purposes, this spelled the end of the triumvirate. In Gaul, Caesar was racking up victory after victory. Pompey, on the other hand, was envious of Caesar because he believed the Gallic viceroy would eventually surpass him as Rome’s most capable military leader due to the viceroy’s growing popularity.
Caesar’s opponents in the Senate brought up the idea of removing his authority over Gaul sooner rather than later. At first, Pompey approved of these plots, but eventually he publicly aligned himself with Cato the Younger’s radical Optimates, who were adversaries of Pompey’s ex-father-in-law. Since the Optimates saw both Caesar and Pompey as prospective tyrants out to destroy the Senate, they opted for the lesser of two evils and formed an alliance with Pompey.
As of March 1, 49 BC, Caesar’s mandate was officially due to end. Caesar planned to run for consul (while he was absent), so he could switch from pro-consul to consul simply by resigning his current position. But his detractors called for his urgent presence and planned to put him on trial. The Gallic Command’s years of operating autonomously and without consideration for the Senate had amassed enough evidence against it. Pompey and the radical Optimates demanded a resolution for Caesar to relinquish his authority and dissolve the army during a Senate sitting on January 1, 49 BC.
In the event that the Gallic commander would not comply, Caesar was labeled an “enemy of the fatherland.” At 49 years old, Caesar heard about the turmoil in Rome and led his XIII legion (the only one he had west of the Alps) to the Rubicon River, which divided Cisalpine Gaul from Italy proper. Sulla’s dictatorship forbade the governor of the province from entering Italian territory with an army, and the governor’s crossing of the Rubicon with the legion heralded the start of a civil war.
All historians of his time cite Caesar’s apprehension and reflection at the Rubicon. According to Suetonius, Caesar said the following to his friends: “Even yet we may draw back; but once cross yon little bridge, and the whole issue is with the sword.” Then, miraculously, a tall, handsome man started playing the flute, grabbed a trumpet from one of the troops, splashed into the water, and swam to the other side while trumpeting the war signal.
Moving on, Caesar said, “Take we the course which the signs of the gods and the false dealing of our foes point out. The die is cast (Alea iacta est)“. The Greek historian Appian reports that a resolute Caesar told those in attendance, “My friends, stopping here will be the beginning of sorrows for me; crossing over will be such for all mankind.” Then, saying, “Let the die be cast,” Caesar “crossed with a rush like one inspired”. According to Plutarch, who also cites the same remark, Caesar originally spoke it in Greek.
Caesar made his way rapidly across Etruria and into Rome after crossing the Rubicon on January 10, 49 BC. This sparked yet another uprising during the latter years of the Roman Republic.
Verdict: He did.
4- Caesar Seized Power in Rome by Force
‘La clémence de César’ 1808 painting by Abel de Pujol depicting Julius Caesar.
Caesar crossed the Rubicon and marched toward Rome. As he marched into Italy, he encountered little in the way of real opposition; the Pompeians either surrendered or fled, while the smaller communities eagerly welcomed Caesar upon his arrival. Due to the quick advancement of the enemy, Pompey and his friends evacuated Rome, leaving behind the state treasury as well. With part of his army, Pompey marched to Greece. Seven more of his faithful troops were stationed in Spain.
Caesar’s policy of clementia (mercy) during the civil war, in which captives were routinely freed and no one was punished, was in direct response to the enemy’s strategy of clemency (pity). Caesar’s legions were open to recruits at will, and officers were frequently sent back to Pompey. This was in sharp contrast to the horrors done by both the Marians and the Sullans during the first Roman civil war and was unprecedented in the civil conflict that had plagued the Romans since the time of the Gracchus brothers (the final third of the second century BC). Caesar won every major battle, yet the civil war still lasted five years. The same dogged Pompeians who Caesar repeatedly crushed, only to free and forgive, turned against him.
The Civil War’s last fight took place at Munda, Spain, in March 45 BC. For a long time, nobody knew how everything would turn out. At some point, the lines of the Caesarians shook; suddenly, Caesar snatched his shield and raced forward to the enemy’s line. He took a barrage of spears before the ashamed centurions came to his aid. Caesar confessed that the fight at Munda was his toughest. He had often battled for success, but now, for the first time, he had to fight for his life.
Verdict: Correct.
5- Caesar Had An Affair With Cleopatra
Cleopatra and Caesar by Jean-Leon-Gerome (Alternate version), before 1866.
The meeting of Caesar and Cleopatra was tense. Dejected after Caesar’s historic victory against Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC), Pompey fled to Egypt in search of asylum, having previously shown excellent service to the late King Ptolemy Auletes of that country. Ptolemy XIII, King of Egypt at the tender age of 13, and his elder sister, Cleopatra VII, Queen of Egypt at the ripe old age of 20, were engaged in a bloody dynastic struggle for control of the Hellenistic state their father, Auletes, had founded. Ptolemy’s local royal guards made the decision to have Pompey killed to avoid a conflict with Caesar. They dispatched a boat for Pompey, and as soon as he got off the ship and onto the boat, he was murdered in front of his wife and son. Caesar, having accompanied Pompey to Alexandria, was appalled by the brutality and could not contain his emotions when he was presented with the severed head of his former opponent as a gift.
Caesar invaded Egypt with just two undermanned armies, yet the Romans nevertheless managed to seize key buildings like the royal palace in Alexandria. Egypt was understandably worried; Caesar intended to get revenge for the assassination of Pompey. There were signs of an impending war. The Roman said he wanted to resolve the succession dispute in Egypt and used this as an excuse to call for Cleopatra, who had either been kicked out of Alexandria or had fled the city herself. According to Plutarch, the girl was smuggled into the Roman camp away from her brother by having one of her friends carry her in a “bed bag.” This audacity on Cleopatra’s part impressed and fascinated Caesar. Herein lies the prologue to what would become one of the most widely read books in history.
The Egyptian queen was praised for her great beauty, loverliness, and sexuality by a wide range of authors from antiquity to the present era. Not surprisingly, the myth of “Cleopatra’s Egyptian nights” arose as a result of the widespread belief that she was a seductress, a demonic woman, and a charmer. According to Roman author Aurelius Victor from the fourth century, “many men paid with their lives for the possession of her for one night.” Cleopatra was the queen of Egypt, yet her flawless beauty is not reflected in antique busts or on coins commemorating her. Cleopatra was really appealing due to her brilliance and charisma. “The beauty of this woman was not what is called incomparable and strikes at first sight, but her treatment was distinguished by irresistible charm, and thus her appearance, combined with rare conviction of speech, had a huge charm, oozing in every word and oozing in every movement, firmly impressed in the soul,” wrote Plutarch. Her voice was like music to my ears; it was soothing and entrancing.
Cleopatra had an impressive education and mastered a number of tongues. Although she was the personification of the Egyptian goddess Isis and governed Egypt as its queen, the Greek-born Ptolemaic dynasty had dominated Egypt since the fall of Alexander the Great’s kingdom.
Caesar, unsurprisingly, sided with Cleopatra in her bid for Egypt’s crown and remained there for a significant amount of time. With the help of his newly arriving troops, Caesar quickly put down the anti-Roman uprising in Alexandria and ultimately beat Ptolemy’s forces. The young king was drowned in the Nile while trying to escape, and Cleopatra became ruler of Egypt. After that, the Roman commander was in no hurry to depart Egypt; instead, he and Cleopatra sailed down the Nile in a massive flotilla of 400 ships, taking in the sights and enjoying the finer things in life.
Even after Pompey’s death, the civil war continued. Caesar had to depart Egypt in the early summer of 47 BC because the Pompeians had grown stronger in the intervening months, and he didn’t want to risk losing the benefits of the Pharsalus triumph. Cleopatra gave birth to a son named Caesar (the Alexandrians dubbed him Caesarion, that is, “little Caesar”) not long after Caesar left, and the child, according to Suetonius, resembled his father in appearance and bearing.
Caesar invited Cleopatra to Rome in 46 BC, when he presented her with a sumptuous Tiber Riverside home and hosted a grand celebration in her honor. The purpose of the trip was to seal an alliance between Rome and Egypt, but the Egyptian queen ended up staying in Rome for quite some time. On the other hand, Caesar did not end his marriage to Calpurnia in order to wed Cleopatra. On the night before the Ides of March, he went to sleep for the last time.
Before leaving for the Senate on March 15, 1944, he spent some time with his wife, with whom he later bid farewell. Caesarion was never legally acknowledged as Caesar’s son, and Caesar did not name him as an heir in his testament. Suetonius adds that Caesar adored Cleopatra more than any other woman in his life.
Verdict: It’s true.
6- Caesar Is the Author of “I came; I saw; I conquered (Veni, vidi, vici)”
The Triumphs of Caesar IX: Julius Caesar, Andrea Mantegna, circa 1488.
The Latin words sound even more powerful because they all start with the same letter: Veni, vidi, vici. This phrase was first used by the Caesarians and Pompeians in the civil war during the Pontic campaign (49–45 BC). During a time of internal instability in Rome, the Bosporan monarch Pharnaces began reclaiming the territories that had belonged to his vanquished father Mithridates at the hands of Pompey.
The majority of the Kingdom of Pontus was annexed by Rome and made into the province of Pontus in 63 BC. Pharnaces betrayed his father during those events, for which he received a part of his kingdom (the Bosporus Kingdom) from the Romans. But that wasn’t enough for Mithridates’s son, who had visions of reestablishing a mighty Pontic empire. As soon as Caesar found out that Pharnaces was against him, he left Egypt. On August 2, 47 BC, they fought near the city of Zela, but Caesar won. The iconic “lightning” phrase was created because the Pontic battle was over in a flash, in just five days.
Various ancient authors testify that it was Caesar who uttered it, though with some discrepancies. According to Plutarch, Caesar wrote these remarks in a letter to his friend Amantius (however, it appears that Plutarch misrepresented the true identity of Caesar’s friend, Gaius Matius). According to Appian, the phrase may be found in a Senate report. According to Suetonius, a plaque bearing the inscription “Veni, vidi, vici” was carried among the trophies as part of Caesar’s pontic portion of the triumph in 46 BC, while he was celebrating his quadruple triumph (over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa). Suetonius claims that “by this, Caesar was not noting the events of the war but the swiftness of its completion.”
Verdict: Yes, these are the words of the great Roman.
It was officially Caesar’s reign over Rome from 45 BC forward. His dictatorial powers provided him with a legitimate foundation for ruling. In the autumn of 49 BC, Caesar assumed dictatorship for the first time; however, he lasted just 11 days. During that period, he oversaw elections, celebrations, and the introduction of many bills, including legislation to provide free food to the poor and partially forgive debts. Caesar was granted dictatorial powers permanently following the Battle of Pharsalus at the end of 48 BC, similar to those granted to dictator Sulla.
The Senate also bestowed upon Caesar, the victor, a variety of unprecedented honors, including the authority to unilaterally declare war and negotiate peace, to run for consular office for five years, and to preside over the Senate for the rest of his life. In ancient Rome, the tribunes of the people had the power of veto, meaning they could block any law or decree from taking effect. Only commoners could hold such a job. Moreover, Caesar was born into a wealthy family.
Then, the Roman dictator benefited from a new trick: the division of powers. The dictator was granted censorship powers after the battle of Thapsus in 46 BC, which meant that he was responsible for selecting senators. As Senate princeps, he had the honor of speaking and voting first in all Senate proceedings; his curule chair was positioned between the consuls, the two highest Roman judges. The Senate, a bottomless pit of adulation, bestowed the titles of Liberator, Father of the Fatherland, and Emperor upon the winner after the Battle of Munda.
Around the turn of the year 44 BC, Caesar’s cult of personality reached its pinnacle. His person was made sacred (sacro sanctus), games were held in his honor, and his statue was worshiped alongside that of the gods. In February 44 BC, Caesar’s rule became absolute. The dictator’s authority began to seem more and more like that of a monarch, but it was mixed with the Senate, the magistracy, and the people’s assembly, all of which had republican roots. Caesar didn’t want to wipe them out entirely; he just put them under his thumb.
The tyrant did more than just shore up his own power; he also instituted reforms that brought stability to Roman society. He reinstated the sculptures of Sulla and Pompey in the Senate as part of his stated philosophy of generosity. There were new restrictions on living lavishly. There was a lot of building done. Using his expertise in astronomy, Egyptian astronomer Sosigenes oversaw a reform of the calendar. Approximately 80,000 Caesarite soldiers, including many Pompeian exiles, were granted land. Citizenship was awarded to residents of several towns and provinces, and the Romanization of the conquered peoples proceeded quickly as a result.
Verdict: It’s true.
8- Caesar Was Treacherously Murdered by His Best Friend, and Before He Died He Said: “And you, Brutus? (Et tu, Brute?)”
The assassination of Julius Caesar. Artist: William Holmes Sullivan, c. 1888.
At the start of the year 44 BC, Caesar was getting ready to launch a major offensive against the Parthian kingdom in the East. It was during this time that a plot was hatched against the dictator by a group that comprised several pardoned Pompeians, such as the commanders Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Although many Caesarians, like Decimus Brutus and Trebonius, opposed the dictator, there were also numerous Caesarians who owed their careers and fortunes to the dictator. Some people joined the conspirators for their own selfish purposes, but the vast majority did so out of a genuine concern that Caesar’s rule might devolve into a dictatorship.
During the Lupercalia celebration on February 15, 44, an occurrence took place that was very upsetting to certain segments of Roman society. Marc Antony, a Caesar ally and general, made an embarrassing effort to publicly present the dictator with a laurel wreath. Plutarch says, “Liquid acclaim surged throughout the populace, as had been arranged in preparation.” As one man put it, “When Caesar rejected the crown, all the people applauded.” This occurred again when Antony attempted the tactic a second time. As Caesar saw the crowd’s response, he gave the order for the crown to be transported to the Capitol’s Jupiter Temple. They inscribed “If only you were alive!” and “Oh, if only you were with us today” on a statue of Marcus Junius Brutus’ semi-legendary ancestor, Lucius Junius Brutus, one of the founders of the Roman Republic and a subverter of the last king, Tarquinius the Proud.
When Mark Junius Brutus was praetor (in 44), he got messages asking him something to the effect of, “Are you sleeping, Brutus?” “You’re not the genuine Brutus,” he said. Now, a word or two about Brutus, the man who came to symbolize the plot. Perhaps it was because his mother, Servilia, had been the dictator’s lover in the past, but Caesar had a warm place for him from the beginning. An even more improbable theory is that Brutus was really Caesar’s son, as suggested by certain ancient writers. In 85 BC, Brutus entered the world. Caesar was about 16 at the time, so he and Servilia didn’t really start dating until much later. Brutus initially sided with Pompey, but when the Pompeians were defeated at Pharsalus, he surrendered to Caesar and was recognized as one of his “closest allies.”
Brutus had a fruitful political career in the new era, rising to the positions of governor of Cisalpine Gaul (46 BC), praetor of Rome (44 BC), and consul (41 BC). However, this did not prevent Brutus from writing a eulogy for Caesar’s opponent, Cato, in 45 or from liking Cato himself. After divorcing Claudia Pulchera, Brutus married Cato’s daughter, Portia.
According to Plutarch, the other conspirators asked Cassius to recruit Brutus because they wanted a symbolic (because of his name) figure on their side.
On March 15, 44, the Ides of March, the conspirators met in the Senate one more time to plot Caesar’s assassination before launching an invasion of the Parthian Empire. Calpurnia, the dictator’s wife, had a nightmare in which she saw her dead husband, but Caesar nevertheless went to the Senate the day thereafter, despite the dire warnings and predictions being circulated about him. When the dictator ran across the fortune teller Spurinna, who had previously warned him of the peril that awaited him on the Ides of March, he joked that the Ides had already arrived. His reply was, “Yes, they have arrived, but they have not yet gone.”
Caesar was given a scroll by a bystander that revealed the murder plot and strategy, but the dictator didn’t have time to read it before he entered the Curia of Pompey, where the Senate was holding a conference. A number of senators encircled the dictator’s chair, their daggers glinting in the air. Senators who were unaware of the plot were so terrified that they were unable to take any defensive action or even raise their voices. It was decided that all the conspirators would take part in the murder and taste the sacrifice blood, so they all encircled him while brandishing bare daggers. Whenever he opened his eyes, he was struck with the strokes of swords aimed at his face and eyes. Caesar, who was badly injured, propped himself up against the base of Pompey’s statue, leaving a bloody mark.
The ancient authors who described this sad event all underlined Caesar’s emotional reaction to seeing Brutus among the killers. Seeing Brutus with a bare sword, Caesar flung his toga over his head and exposed himself to the blows, as Plutarch recounts, citing “some authors” who have not lived. Immediately before he struck, Dion Cassius claims the tyrant said in Greek, “And you, child!” Suetonius, citing some sources, states that Julius Caesar, upon being stabbed by Brutus, said in Greek, “And you, my child!” (καὶ σὺ τέκvον). However, “And you, Brute” (Et tu, Brute) is not cited anywhere. This line was first used by Shakespeare in his play Julius Caesar, where it was spoken by the dying tyrant.
According to doctor Antistius, the dictator had twenty-three stab wounds, but only one in the chest proved fatal. Whoever did it remains a mystery.
Brutus and Cassius, who were in charge of the plot, killed themselves two years after Antony and Octavian beat them at the Battle of Philippi.
Verdict: This is only partly true; Caesar considered Brutus his friend, but he did not utter these words.
Caesar was more than just a great leader; he was also a gifted writer and orator. In his youth, Caesar produced The Praise of Hercules, the play Oedipus, and the Collected Sayings, but Emperor Augustus forbade their publication, despite Suetonius’ claims that he had a passion for literature from a young age. As an adult, Caesar wrote his treatise on grammar, On Analogy, which was highly praised by Aulus Gellius, the author of the Attic Nights (2nd century). This academic work has not been passed on to us.
It is well known that Caesar took part in the debate between the analogists, who were close to him in spirit and emphasized that rules are more important than exceptions, and the anomalists, who paid a lot of attention to irregularities and deviations from the norm based on Latin linguistic norms. Sadly, none of his other writings, notably the poem The Way, have been preserved. The Way is an astronomical book written with Sosigenes and a political tract. “The Way,” a poetry collection, and “Anticato,” a political book, are both polemical responses to Cicero’s panegyric Cato.
Thankfully, both Caesar’s Notes on the Gallic War and his Notes on the Civil War have made it through the ages intact. The events of 52 BC, with Vercingetorix’s capitulation, mark the conclusion of the first seven volumes of Notes on the Gallic War, which detail the conquest of Gaul and the two forays into Britain. Caesar’s companion and comrade in arms, Aulus Hirtius, resumed his description of the wars in 51 and 50. Caesar was unable to complete “Notes on the Civil War,” since the third volume is broken up by the narrative of his arrival in Egypt and the Roman conquest of the city’s most significant landmarks. No one knows for sure who penned the sequel that concluded the Civil War narrative. Since ancient times, people have argued about who wrote these works. Some say it was Gaius Oppius, while others say it was Aulus Hirtius.
Intriguingly, Caesar never refers to himself in the first person, preferring instead to talk about himself in the third person to seem more objective and convincing. Nevertheless, despite his Notes’ bias, they are a valuable historical resource, and in certain areas (the history, religion, and culture of pre-Roman Gaul), they are the only available information at all. Plus, it’s really good Latin; Caesar uses straightforward language that manages to be both eloquent and moving. Every graduate of a classical gymnasium remembers the first phrase of Caesar’s Notes on the Gallic War with its charming rhythm and euphony, which unfortunately disappear in translation: Gallia est omnis divisa in partses tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur…
Verdict: Undeniable.
10- Caesar Wore a Laurel Wreath to Hide His Bald Head
Julius Caesar. Artist: Peter Paul Rubens, ca. 1625/26.
Suetonius describes Caesar as follows: “He was tall, fair-skinned, and well built; his face was a little full, and his eyes were black and lively.” Until the end of his life, when he began to have unexpected fainting episodes and night terrors and twice had fits of hysteria in the middle of courses, his health was outstanding. Caesar was meticulous about his personal grooming and took good care of his physique, even going so far as to remove his hair despite criticism from moralists of the day. The historian Suetonius reports that Caesar hated his bald head because of its ugliness. This is why he would always proudly wear the laurel wreath despite his thinning hair by combing it from the crown to the forehead.
Verdict: It’s true.
11- Caesar Could Do Three Things at the Same Time
Julius Caesar on horseback, writing and dictating simultaneously to his Scribes. Artist: Jacob de Gheyn I, between circa 1618 and circa 1622.
A number of ancient sources attest to Caesar’s problem-solving prowess and claim that he could handle any crisis with a single swift stroke of his sword. During the Gallic Wars, Caesar’s companions and soldiers saw him seated on a horse while he dictated letters to many scribes at once, as described by Plutarch. According to Suetonius, Caesar would read letters, messages, and other papers or write replies to them while watching gladiatorial duels. Pliny the Elder said that Caesar had “most excellent in strength of mind”(animi vigore praestantissimum). This meant that when he wasn’t busy with other things, he could dictate up to seven letters at once.
The great Roman may have simply switched from one task to another, but the impression is that he could multitask with ease.
Verdict: It’s true.
12- The Word “King” Also Comes from Caesar
In addition to the “Tsar” of Russia, there was also the “Kaiser” of Germany. Imperial Rome added “Caesar” to the emperor’s titulature alongside “Augustus.” Emperor Diocletian’s tetrarchy, which split the Roman Empire into four pieces at the close of the fourth century, included two senior rulers named “Augustus” and their subordinates named “Caesar.”
Both the Latin name Caesar and the Greek name Kαῖσαρ were widely adopted by the many nations and cultures in the area, including those who would eventually destroy the Roman Empire. Many Slavic peoples, according to Max Pasmer’s “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” got the title “Káisar” from the leaders of the Germanic tribe of Goths. Hence Old Russian and Old Slavonic cesar, Serbo-Croatian cesar, Slovenian césar, Czech císař, Slovak cisár, and Polish cesarz. Then Old Russian tsesar was abbreviated to tsesar, and then became tsar.
Tsars were commonly used to refer to the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire and Byzantium (hence Tsargrad, as Rus called Constantinople), biblical rulers, and Mongol khans in Old Russian and later in medieval tradition; unofficially, this title was tried on and Old Russian princes, and then the rulers of Moscow. Ivan IV was formally anointed Tsar of “all Russia” in 1547, at which time the term became widely used.
Verdict: It is true.
13- Caesar Came up With the Salad of the Same Name
There is very little direct connection between the salad and the Roman tyrant. The Italian-American chef Caesar Cardini, who in the 1920s and 1940s maintained a string of successful restaurants in Tijuana and San Diego (Baja California), is credited with creating the salad. Cesare Cardini, who immigrated to the United States from Italy in 1913 and bore the name of the Roman emperor, was the creator of one of America’s most beloved meals.
Rosa Cardini recalls that her father created this salad on July 4, 1924, when the kitchen ran out of food during the Independence Day celebration at the Caesar’s Place restaurant in the hotel of the same name in Tijuana.
Wallis Simpson, the Duchess of Windsor, made Caesar salad popular in Europe thanks to her frequent orders of the dish at the continent’s finest establishments during her many trips with the Duke of Windsor, the former king of Great Britain, Edward VIII, from whom she was divorced after their mesalliance led to his abdication. There is, however, another theory that Italian chef Giacomo Junia created the salad in Chicago in 1903 and named it after the great Roman since he was a fan of the guy.
Plutarch. Comparative Biographies. Caesar, Pompey, Cicero, Mark Antony, Brutus. Ed. С. S. Averintsev, M. L. Gasparov, S. P. Markish.
Gaius Julius Caesar. Notes of Julius Caesar and his successors. The Gallic War. Civil War. The war of Alexandria. The African War. Translated from Latin by M. M. Pokrovsky.
Egorov A. B. Antony and Cleopatra. Rome and Egypt: the Encounter of Civilizations. SPb., 2012.
Egorov A.B. Julius Caesar. Political Biography. SPb., 2014.
Mommsen T. History of Rome. Т. 2-3. SPb., 1994.
Utchenko S. L. Julius Caesar. М., 1976.
Fasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language.
Lurie S. The Changing Motives of Cesarean Section: From the Ancient World to the Twenty-First Century. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. Vol. 271. 2005.
Julius Caesar’s sword Crocea Mors, or “Yellow Death” (the origin of the name is explained below), appears to be closely connected with the legend of King Arthur’s sword Excalibur. The Romans first invaded Britain in 55–54 BC, led by Julius Caesar, and their legacy continued to be remembered by the Celtic people who lived in Britain even after the invasion. The story of the Britannic kings includes the Caliburn sword and the Crocea Mors, a sword associated with Caesar that was believed to have special powers.
The name of the sword was Crocea Mors (Yellow Death), as being mortal to every body that was wounded with it.
Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain, Book IV, Chapter IV, [PDF]
According to a medieval chronicler Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain, Julius Caesar was known for wielding a sword, perhaps a golden one (more on that later), that could kill anyone it struck. The British saw the power of this weapon firsthand when their warrior leader, Nennius of Britain, challenged Caesar to a duel and lost. When Caesar and his army invaded Britain, the British leaders gathered to discuss their options, and some suggested launching a counteroffensive right away. They believed that if they didn’t act quickly, the Romans would take control of their coastal fortresses.
The armies of the British leaders approached the shore where Julius Caesar had set up camp, and they lined up to begin the battle. Bows and swords were used during the fight. Nennius and Androgeus, leading the citizens of Canterbury and Trinovantum, encountered the group in which Julius Caesar was present and nearly defeated them in close combat.
The Celtic army of Britain fought against the Roman army on the banks of the Thames in a battle that was so violent that the ground was covered in blood. The British warrior leaders fought bravely and managed to reach the center of the Roman formation, where Caesar was fighting with his cohort. Nennius had the chance to face off against Caesar, but he did not know that he was about to be killed by one of the most famous “legendary” swords in history, Crocea Mors.
During a battle, Nennius had the chance to face Caesar in combat. Excited at the opportunity to strike a blow against such a famous person, Nennius approached Caesar, who was ready and raised his shield to block Caesar’s attack. Caesar then tried to strike Nennius’ head with his drawn sword, but the blow was so powerful that the sword became stuck in the shield.
While the two were separated by their troops, Caesar was unable to remove the sword from Nennius’ shield. Nennius then threw away his own sword and used Caesar’s, the Crocea Mors, to attack the enemy. Any person he struck with Crocea Mors either had their head cut off or was left with a serious wound. But he couldn’t utilize Crocea Mors for very long.
Crocea Mors Was Buried Alongside Nennius
With his alleged sword Crocea Mors, Julius Caesar is fighting on the front line.
The Celts emerged victorious from the conflict. By day’s end, the Romans had been whittled down to a mere few, and so they retreated to their ships and set off for Gaul. Many of Caesar’s advisors pleaded with him to end the invasion, and he finally agreed, declaring that he would never step foot on the island again. Struck by Caesar’s sword Crocea Mors, Nennius was on his deathbed a week later.
Caesar had inflicted a wound on Nennius during the battle that turned out to be incurable, and only 15 days after the battle, Nennius died and was buried at Trinovantum (today’s London), near the North Gate.
His funeral was held with great ceremony, and Caesar’s sword Crocea Mors was placed in his tomb, which Nennius had been holding during the fight after it was struck into his shield. The Crocea Mors, a legendary and mysterious sword, has not been mentioned since.
Why Was Crocea Mors Called “Yellow Death”?
Crocea Mors that Caesar carried was most likely a bronze gladius at that time. But there are many explanations for why Caesar’s sword, Crocea Mors, was called “Yellow Death.” Angau Coch (“Red Death”) or Agheu Glas (“Grey Death”) are the names given to it in Middle Welsh translations.
One of the challenges with steel has always been how to harden it and create high-carbon steel. Without the right furnaces, people had to use other methods based on the inclusions in the metal. If there is silicon present, which makes the steel hard but flexible, the color will turn yellow when it is heated during the forging process. A sword that is very hard can also have a sharp and durable cutting edge, and those obtained from Civitavecchia (also known as “Port of Rome”) had a hardness of 80 HRC. Even today, a wire with a hardness of 67 is considered very hard.
A yellow-colored sword is exceptional and can easily cut and pierce through armor without being damaged. So, the yellow color of Crocea Mors indicated its exceptional strength and durability, and its ability to easily cut through everything on the battlefield.
Is Excalibur Related to Crocea Mors?
The battle between King Arthur and Sir Mordred by William Hatherell, 19th century.
There is a theory, as described in Valerio Massimo Manfredi’s novel “The Last Legion,” that a group of loyal Roman soldiers helped the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus, who was deposed in 476 AD, flee to safety in Britain. Romulus Augustus, who became king under the name Pendragon and had a son named Arthur, had a tutor named Merlinus Ambrosinus, who later became known as Merlin.
The theory suggests that Romulus Augustus brought a sword called Escalibur, which translates to “CAI.
IUL.CAES.ENSIS CALIBURNUS” or the Calibian sword of Julius Caesar, with him to Britain. As a sign of peace, Romulus Augustus supposedly threw the sword far away and it ended up stuck in a rock, where it was exposed to the elements and only a few letters of the inscription were still readable: E S CALIBUR. The sword Excalibur is called Caliburnus in Latin. The two swords, Excalibur and Crocea Mors could very well have been forged by the same author, Geoffrey of Monmouth.
According to legend, Caesar’s sword Crocea Mors was lost in Britain and this is the only place it has been reported that Caesar had one. However, there is no record in Roman history that Caesar had a specific sword. The story that his sword was stolen from him comes from The History of the Kings of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth. This book also includes the legend of King Arthur, and according to this fact alone, there is a supposed connection between Arthur’s Excalibur and Caesar’s Crocea Mors.
Crocea Mors in Popular Media
Aside from books, Crocea Mors is also a popular sword in various video games. We see Crocea Mors in a popular Japanese video game called Final Fantasy XI. Another Japanese title, Type-Moon, includes the sword with a reference saying “Caesar doesn’t really like drawing this sword. He will never forget how he carelessly got it stuck in an enemy’s shield and lost it.” Texas-based Rooster Teeth Games’ RWBY: Grimm Eclipse includes a sword named Crocea Mors with the reference that “Both the sword and the shield are shown to be incredibly durable.“
What language did Julius Caesar speak? Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) was Roman, and the term “Italian” has only been used in the last few centuries. This is because the term is derived from “Italy.” And Italy did not exist at the time of Julius Caesar. According to the research done by archaeologists and philologists on the etymology of the word “Italia,” the term “Itala” was first used in the 5th century BC. So, did Caesar speak Greek or Latin?
The Language of Rome
The Etruscan, Greek, and Phoenician scripts all had a role in the development of the Latin language. Over the course of many centuries, the little communities that spoke Latin along the lower Tiber River borrowed heavily from the Greek language. And over time, Latin became one of the most common languages spoken in the whole Roman Empire.
During the Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD), which was constantly expanding through conquests, Latin was practically used as an official language and was the language of the world, much like English today. However, in the time of Julius Caesar, which was the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the better educated Roman citizens and the Roman nobility mostly preferred to speak Greek. Did Julius Caesar speak Greek too?
The Language Caesar Spoke
According to the Roman historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, Julius Caesar spoke Greek rather than Latin.
In his The Lives Of The Twelve Caesars, Roman historian Suetonius of the 1st century AD claimed that, just like the other Roman patricians of his day, Julius Caesar mostly spoke Greek rather than Latin. Caesar still spoke Greek even in his final moments: According to Suetonius, Caesar’s last words before his death were the Greek phrase “Kai su, teknon?” or “You too, child?” When your life is in danger, the last thing you want to do is try to communicate in a foreign language. Instead, you use the words you’re most comfortable with. Evidence suggests that Caesar studied Greek before Latin.
When Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, he reportedly shouted in Greek, “Anerríphthō kýbos,” which meant “Let the die be cast!” This was recounted by the Greek historian Plutarch (c. 46–119 AD) in “The Life of Caesar.” Menander, a Greek comedic dramatist, originally wrote that statement. According to Plutarch, Caesar used the Greek version of the statement instead of the Latin “Alea iacta est.”
While crossing the Rubicon River, Caesar shouted in Greek “Ἀνερρίφθω κύβος” (Anerríphthō kýbos; “Let the die be cast!” (“Let the game be played”).
The late Roman Republic saw a proliferation of historical texts written in Greek. The sons of aristocratic Roman families, like Caesar’s main assassin Brutus, were regularly trained by Greek slaves and transferred to Athens for additional Greek schooling. Caesar’s surname is spelled as Kαίσαρ (Kaísar) in Greek, indicating its similarity to the Greek pronunciation.
At first, Rome was an Etruscan city. The Romans migrated to central Italy after the fall of Troy. The Latin language was created as a mishmash and borrowed heavily from a variety of other languages around the area, most notably Eastern Greek from antiquity. But other than that, they are two distinct languages, and the Romans, like Caesar, did not have to speak Greek instead of Latin in their daily lives. But they still spoke Greek.
Why Did the Romans, Like Caesar, Speak Greek Rather Than Latin?
This was because Greek was the “stylish” language in the world at the time of Caesar, and “made in Greece” was a trademark of the Roman era as well. This is similar to the Tsar’s court in Russia, when Russian nobility spoke French like French natives rather than Russian.
At the time of Caesar, there were already two different versions of Latin. The Classical Latin, which we still use today as the language of science, and the Vulgar Latin, the language of the people. Both had already differed regionally.
In time, Vulgar Latin evolved into numerous Romance languages. Poets and thinkers, and later the church, carried on the Classical Latin tradition. Marcus Cicero and Julius Caesar also played an important part in this with their Latin publications.
What Language Did Julius Caesar Write in?
All of Caesar’s main writings, such as the Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War) and the Commentarii de Bello Civili (Commentaries on the Civil War) were written in Latin. Caesar understood Greek and presumably sometimes wrote in it, much like many educated Roman men of his period.
Besides Latin and Greek, Caesar probably also knew Oscan, Gallaecian, Celtiberian, and maybe even Coptic. He had a reputation for being a cunning and savvy politician who used his command of the local tongue to his advantage.
Caesar’s experience in Egypt and his subsequent position as governor of Gallaecia and Celtiberia likely allowed him to acquire a working knowledge of those languages. During his many wars and travels around the globe, he may have picked up more languages as well. All things considered, Julius Caesar was a statesman who spoke many languages well. When it comes to understanding what language Julius Caesar spoke, this is pretty much all there is to it.
What Language did Julius Caesar and Cleopatra Speak?
Though she ruled Egypt as a Greek pharaoh, Cleopatra also spoke Egyptian because she was the first Ptolemaic monarch to learn the language. She was fluent in a number of languages, Latin being one among them.
During this time, it was considered a social advantage for Roman patricians to be able to converse in Greek. What language Julius Caesar and Cleopatra spoke would ultimately have come down to either Greek or Latin, with Greek being the more probable option.
The Latin that can be read in the Roman scriptures is different from the Latin that was spoken in everyday life. This is still the case today. Today, people still don’t talk to each other in the same language as it is written in a book. People mostly talk in shorter sentences, and the dialect is different.
This was the case with the spoken Latin language during Julius Caesar’s period. At the time, the Romans in Etruria (today’s Tuscany) already spoke a different Latin dialect than those living in Gallia or Africa.
Italian, French, Spanish, and other Romance languages all came from Latin, which was spoken in different ways in different parts of the world and kept splitting into new languages over time.
Julius Caesar was rumored to have had a gay affair with King Nicomedes.
Caesar had multiple marriages and love affairs with women.
The accusation of Caesar’s homosexuality was likely politically motivated.
Was Julius Caesar gay? Julius Caesar was once said to have had a gay affair with King Nicomedes of Bithynia, which earned him the title “Queen of Bithynia.” On his triumphal processions, his own soldiers appeared to make the same claim. According to Roman historian Suetonius, Caesar was called “every woman’s man and every man’s woman,” which could simply be a common insult at the time.
The Sexual Background of Julius Caesar
Caesar was betrothed to Cossutia in childhood. The betrothal was broken when the possibility of an even better union arose. Caesar then married Cornelia (85 or 84 BC) and had his first daughter, Julia. Cornelia died in 69 or 68 BC. Caesar married Pompeia in 76 BC, from whom he divorced in 62 BC after the Bona Dea scandal. In 59 BC, Caesar married Calpurnia, who remained his wife until his death in 44 BC.
Caesar had numerous love affairs and relationships with women, and tradition suggests a strong sexual interest on his part in women. An example of a distinguished Roman woman who was his mistress was Servilia. Among non-Roman women, Cleopatra was a particularly well-known case, whose first son was almost certainly Caesar’s.
At Caesar’s triumphal procession over Gaul in Rome in 45 BC, his soldiers recited mock verses, as was the custom of the time (Suetonius Tranquillus, ““Divus Julius”, 49, 4; cf. Cassius Dio, “Book 43”, 20, 2). Among the verses were:
“Gallias Caesar subegit, Nicomedes Caesarem: Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat qui subegit Gallias, Nicomedes non triumphat qui subegit Caesarem.”
“Gauls had been enslaved by Caesar, but Caesar by Nicomedes. Look! now Caesar rides in triumph, the one who mastered Gallic lands. Nicomedes does not triumph, the one who mastered Caesar.”
Another of the mocking verses refers to the lustfulness of Caesar toward women:
“Urbani, servate uxores: moechum calvom adducimus. Aurum in Gallia effutuisti, hic sumpsisti mutuum.”
“Citizens, hide your wives! We’ve brought home that bald adulterer! Caesar, you fucked away in Gaul the money which you borrowed here!”
So, Julius Caesar was clearly not exclusively homosexual. What can be discussed is whether Caesar was bisexual.
Was Julius Caesar Bisexual?
Bisexuality was not considered abnormal in Ancient Roman times. However, homosexuality could receive a pejorative evaluation in the Roman society of the time under certain circumstances, especially in the following cases:
The role of the “passive” homosexual (role distribution in which someone is the penetrated): This was widely regarded as feminine, a sign of a lack of masculinity, and could lead to a derogatory designation as “woman.”
Allowing homosexual practices as venality (for monetary payment or other consideration).
Alleged homosexuality has been an accusation in disputes, with a rating of impudicitia (fornication, unchastity). With a political antagonism that had become enmity, there were few inhibitions about the accusations. Whether they were actually true or not did not concern the authors of the invective. It was enough if something could be read into the behavior.
Caesar’s Alleged Gay Affair with Nicomedes
Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema’s Catullus at Lesbia‘s. Image: Wikimedia.
Caesar has been said to have had a gay affair with Nicomedes IV Philopator, king of Bithynia.
Caesar began his military service as an officer with Marcus Minucius Thermus, propraetor and governor of the Roman province of Asia. The latter sent Caesar to King Nicomedes of Bithynia to support a military enterprise against the city of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos by sending a fleet detachment. Caesar, about 20 years old (80 or 79 BC), stayed for a while at the king’s court. He also returned once more to Bityhia to collect money owed to a freed client.
Apparently, rumors arose that Caesar had a gay affair with Nicomedes. Nicomedes was widely rumored to be gay since he had no children. However, the stay can also be explained in other ways, such as a liking for a pleasant court life or the use of the stay to establish a network of relationships (“foreign clientelae”).
In his “Catullus 29” and “Catullus 57,” poet Catullus reviles Mamurra (who served under Caesar as a military officer [praefectus fabrum]) and Caesar, portraying them as homosexuals on the one hand and lovers of girls on the other.
These are the ancient sources on Caesar’s stay in Bityhia and the accusations of a gay affair with Nicomedes:
Suetonius, Divus Julius; 20: 2 (allusion in which someone in a Senate debate refers to Caesar as a woman [femina]);
Cassius Dio, Book 43: 20–4;
Sextus Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illustribus; 78, 1;
“Gaius Julius Caesar, veneratione rerum gestarum Divus dictus, contubernalis Thermo in Asiam profectus, cum saepe ad Nicomedem, regem Bithyniae, commearet, impudicitiae infamatus est.“
“Gaius Julius Caesar, called divine out of adoration/admiration of his deeds, who had set out for Asia as a tent companion for [Marcus Minucius] Thermus, because he often visited Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, acquired the bad reputation of fornication/unchastity.”
Whether a homosexual affair between Caesar and Nicomedes actually existed is very doubtful. Even if complete certainty is not attainable, Caesar’s denial under oath that he never had a gay relationship with Nicomedes (Cassius Dio, Book 43: 20, 2) carries weight.
Who First Accused Caesar of Being Gay?
Suetonius from the Nuremberg Chronicle. (Public Domain)
How the rumors regarding Julius Caesar’s homosexuality originated cannot be determined exactly, but there are some obvious factors. Such a sexual allegation was most likely made by Caesar’s political opponents in order to interpret a publicly known stay for diplomatic purposes in order to harm Caesar’s reputation.
Gaius Licinius Macer Calvus, Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, Gaius Scribonius Curio (the father of the son of the same name who fought on Caesar’s side in the civil war), Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, a certain Octavius (perhaps Marcus Octavius), Gaius Memmius, and Marcus Tullius Cicero are among the people who called Caesar gay (Suetonius, Divus Julius 49).
Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, a consul in 81 BC, was accused by Caesar in 77 or 76 of extorting money as governor of the Roman province of Macedonia and acquitted in a trial by a senatorial court. His accusation regarding Caesar’s homosexuality with Nicomedes is the earliest known example. Gaius Scribonius Curio belonged to the Optimates and was a political opponent of Caesar. His son of the same name represented the same line and later changed sides. Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus was consul with Caesar in 59 BC, and Gaius Memmius was Praetor in 58 BC. He had tried to have Caesar’s decrees declared invalid in his year of the consulship. Gaius Licinius Macer Calvus, like Catullus, was a poet with a temperament for vituperative poems.
The rumor, once created, could be used to make mocking remarks about Caesar. For instance, Marcus Tullius Cicero used this homosexuality rumor for quips.
According to Cassius Dio’s Book 42: 20, 4, the crude mocking verses about an affair between Nicomedes and Gaius Julius Caesar angered and embarrassed Julius Caesar, and he defended himself by denying the homosexual affair with Nicomedes under oath, but this only encouraged the mockery. This is in contrast to other mocking verses, which Caesar accepted calmly as proof of confidence since he would respect freedom of speech (Suetonius, Caesar, 49–52).
Pompey, a prominent Roman commander and politician, was born in the Italian city of Picenum on September 27, 106 BC. He was murdered at Pelusium in Egypt on September 28th, 48 BC. With Caesar and Crassus, Pompey created the First Triumvirate, although he was ultimately destroyed by Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Pompey or Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus born into a wealthy plebeian family, earned the moniker “the Great” due to his outstanding military achievements. However, his competition with Caesar, previously allied, would ultimately be his undoing. Pompey was a well-respected Roman commander and politician. The Civil War that broke out in 49 BC would turn him into Julius Caesar‘s biggest antagonist, despite the fact that he was married to Caesar’s daughter Julia.
Pompey was a ruthless and brazen man, typical of the world’s elite. His innate or cultivated amiability, however, won the hearts of many.
The reconstruction of Pompey the Great by Alessandro Tomasi.
Pompey’s early life
Pompey was born to a noble family and a demanding and harsh father. Pompey’s father was Cnaeus Pompeius Strabo, a substantial general in the Roman army. Pompeius Strabo stood out throughout the Social War (91-87 BC) because of his stubborn character. Thus, his funeral pyre was met with ridicule as the townsfolk despised him and burned his body.
Pompey followed his father and developed an interest in the military and strategic planning. His father’s wealth and extensive clients led Pompey to meet with Sulla. By that time, Sulla was in charge of the Optimates, the traditional political group that staunchly defended the privileges of the old nobility. While Gaius Marius, the head of the progressive Populares faction, had high hopes for the young Julius Caesar, nephew of his wife Julia, Pompey still remained a bright young guy in his eyes.
Since Pompey was trained for battle since he was young, it is only logical that he would first commit to a successful military career. Almost immediately, the politician Syula took notice of him, and he went on to battle in Africa and Sicily with successful campaigns in the Far East, Hispania, and against Mediterranean pirates.
Aeschylus’s blunt quote, “I hate the sire, but dearly love this child of his,” serves as the first line in Plutarch’s biography of Pompey the Great.
Pompey rose through the ranks of the Roman military and eventually became Emperor. With Caesar and Crassus, Pompey formed the triumvirate that ruled Rome beginning in 60 BC. Pompey married Caesar’s daughter, and the three of them ruled the whole Roman lands.
It was because of his efforts to bring back order in Rome that Pompey was named sole consul in 52 BC. But three years later, a civil war erupted, putting Pompey against Caesar. The latter was even designated an enemy of Rome by that time. After being soundly beaten by Caesar in Greece in the legendary Battle of Pharsalus, Pompey was assassinated on an Egyptian beach.
After the Pharsalus, Pompey had sought refuge with Ptolemy, King of Egypt, but Ptolemy ultimately betrayed him, killed him and gave his head to Caesar. Pompey was a military hero who also founded towns like Nicopolis and Pompeiopolis. He also created the Theatre of Pompey in Rome.
Rome during Pompey
The political systems of the city-state of Rome were in need of a revival because of the decline of the Republic in comparison to the vast geography of the Empire. The collapse of this political system paved the way for constant civil wars and provided the ideal environment for the power grabs of the ambitious. Pompey was a ruthless and brazen man, typical of the world’s elite. His innate or cultivated amiability, however, won him many friends and admirers. And he was looking good, too. His demeanor was courteous, and his eyes were a mix of softness and fervor. Pompey was quite popular with the ladies, and the stunningly beautiful famous courtesan Flora was completely smitten with him.
These deadly good looks were complemented by a rebellious strand of hair that was lifted by a spike on the forehead, giving him phony Alexander airs. After the successful campaigns he commanded in Africa in 81 BC against Marius’s supporters, his warriors took to calling him “Magnus” (Great) in honor of this trait and his military prowess in reference to Alexander the Great. This distinction was one that Pompey gladly accepted, revealing much about his aspirations.
Insolence that portends disaster
Despite the norms, Pompey still planned to ride a tank hauled by African elephants around Rome during the celebration of his victory. He was more of a strategist than a scenographer, and thus he failed to foresee that his excessively imposing chariot would prevent him from entering the city. Being ridiculed might be fatal in ancient Rome, but not to a man of his type.
In 79 BC, Pompey was just 26 years old. Despite being a member of the equestrian order (the lower Roman nobility), Pompey was so confident in his triumphs that he petitioned the Senate for the magistracy of consul, an honor normally reserved for the senatorial class. His teacher Sulla (who served as dictator in 82–79 BC) thought this request was a sign of arrogance and bad luck, so he decided to distance himself from Pompey.
When it became clear that Pompey would no longer have the backing of the optimates’ leader, he moved to support the election of Sulla’s opponent, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. For Sulla, Aemilius Lepidus was a filthy provoker. However, this coincidental union did not survive for very long. Aemilius Lepidus revolted against the Senate and in return, Pompey suppressed this rebellion with an army raised from Picenum. After defeating Aemilius Lepidus on the battlefield, Pompey removed him from power the next year.
A path to victory
When the Spartacus revolt broke out in the city of Capua, Pompey arrested 6,000 rebels and had them crucified one every 108 feet (33 meters) along the route leading from Rome to Capua. The commander hoped to send a message to the slaves to discourage them from trying to escape.
Pompey resumed his Hispanic campaign in 77 BC. His new mission was to put down the rebellion led by another Marius admirer. Following a string of close engagements, General Pompey finally delivered a decisive defeat to Sertorius. He put up a monument to himself atop Col du Perthus (Perthus Pass) as a last act of egotism before departing the Iberian Peninsula. According to his inscription, Pompey had conquered 87 cities. Surely he totaled even the tiniest villages along his route.
Even though the Romans had been humbled by revolts for months, but the victor of Sertorius had not yet departed Spain. While trying to flee, Spartacus and his band of 100,000 slaves completely routed the army. Even a seasoned general like Crassus had run into trouble. In 73 BC, he received assistance from Pompey and Lucullus. Most of the rebels were eliminated by their forces. Capturing 6,000, Pompey then had one crucified every 108 feet (33 meters) along the route from Rome to Capua, where the uprising had begun.
The commander hoped to send a message to the slaves that would discourage them from trying to escape. In Rome, people did not question the authority of rulers. So, it was another one of Pompey’s clever “stunts” when he publicly earned credit for putting down the Spartacus rebellion.
Pompey’s hopes for absolute power were now bolstered by this fresh triumph, and he quickly took advantage of the admiration to which he was subject in Rome to make another consulate submission while failing to fulfill the requisite conditions once again. But the senate had to make an exception for Pompey because of how popular he was, and therefore, Pompey and Crassus were both chosen Roman consuls (prime ministers) in 70 BC.
Despite their election, the two men first hesitated to dismiss their troops which created fear of a new civil war. But, too much blood had already been spilled, and so the two consuls decided to simultaneously demobilize their legionaries. But this did not signify a permanent abandonment of their goals, rather, it was only a temporary pause.
Pompey’s wars against the pirates and Mithridates
At the Battle of Korakesion, 67 BC, Pompey with 200 ships faced the pirates of the Mediterranean with 1,000 ships in modern-day Alanya, Turkey.
Pompey used his naval prowess to once again make a name for himself in 67 BC. The Gabinian Law granted Pompey extraordinary authority, the imperium. He was therefore endowed with the authority to completely wipe out the Mediterranean’s piracy problem. Their attacks hampered commerce and threatened Italy’s food supply, as much of their wheat originated in Egypt. With his fleet of 200 vessels, Pompey was able to effectively eliminate the pirate threat and square up the maritime space in just three months. Now a hero in the eyes of the Athenians, Pompey then established some of the reformed pirates in Soli, in modern-day Turkey. He planned to turn those pirates into farmers by placing them far from the sea. But the city of Soli was destroyed by Mithridates, and yet there was a request for revival by its inhabitants. So, Pompey rebuilt the city and named it “Pompeiopolis.”
The lawmaker Gaius Manilius then gave Pompey the chance to steer the war against the king of Pontus, Mithridates VI Eupator, a few months after this victory. Mithridates’ reign of terror in the East was a direct result of his refusal to abide by the terms of his treaty with Rome. Pompey was given free rein to eradicate this threat from the East and restore peace to the area.
He defeated King Mithridates’ soldiers with a daring nighttime assault in the Battle of the Lycus in 66 BC. In the East, Pompey kept pushing forward. Some, like Armenia’s King Tigran, chose to work with Pompey rather than oppose him. However, many other kinglets met their end because they were too egotistical to take the diplomatic route. The ever-victorious General Pompey brought the East to its knees and annexed the territories of Pontus and Bithynia on the southwestern bank of the Black Sea. Pompey even managed to put the King of Parthia, Phraates III, in a bind.
General who strikes fear in his subjects
However, Pompey’s progression did not end there. The Judean rulers came to him to put an end to a power conflict in 63 BC. Pompey saw his chance to crush Judea and took it for his own. On a Saturday, he led his legion into Jerusalem. Since that was a holy day, the Jewish army chose to refrain from battle. Approximately 13,000 of them were slaughtered in the temple where they took refuge. Judea was now dependent on Rome, and its new king, Hyrcanus II, was revered by Pompey and treated like a subject by the Romans.
Pompey thought about going home to Italy to revel in his victory. While returning, he followed in Alexander’s footsteps by establishing new towns as monuments to his greatness. After arriving at the city of Brindisi, he dispersed his forces to show the worried and admiring senate that he would not seize power via force. Pompey gambled on marriage ties as a means of gaining sway at the highest levels of politics. By allying himself closely with the more traditionalist Optimates, Pompey hoped to emerge as their new champion. As a result, he set his sights on tying the knot with a member of the Cato family. But the seasoned Stoic refused to give Pompey his niece in marriage.
Pompey finally realized what was going on here. His frequent victories and his will to succeed were worrying his would-be friends. He had already towered above many others and appeared menacing. Thus, he decided to look for a man who would understand him better. Similarly, Caesar also made his subjects fear him with reverence and respect. The two men agreed that it was time to join forces against the rest of Rome. In 59 BC, Pompey married his new friend Caesar’s daughter, Julia, to solidify his alliance.
In their agreement to aid each other’s rise to power, Caesar and Pompey invited Crassus to this secret pact. The First Triumvirate planned to get Pompey and Crassus elected consuls and then vote to give Caesar more time in Gaul. Everything went according to plan. However, the pact was altered following Julia’s death in 54 BC and Crassus’ death in 53 BC in the East, two years after his consulship.
Caesar vs. Pompey: a showdown between giants
As early as 51 BC, Caesar ruled all of Gaul. Getting back to Rome and taking up a new consular position was high on Caesar’s list of priorities. The two men were destined to clash, at least in Pompey’s opinion. As a strategic move, Caesar suggested that his army be disbanded if Pompey would do the same. That was the equivalent of signing a symbolic nonaggression pact. But Pompey refused and instead called Caesar, who had recently defeated the chieftain of Gaul, Vercingetorix, to return to Rome after dismissing his men.
But Caesar led his soldiers to cross the Rubicon River on January 12, 49 BC. The warning was crystal clear: The time for a titanic clash was drawing near. If there was to be a conflict, Pompey knew it would be in the city of Rome, which would not end well for him. Caesar’s army, bolstered by their Gallic successes, marched toward Pompey, while Pompey’s forces were outnumbered. It was on March 19 that Pompey departed Rome for the East, where he intended to reorganize his forces and force Caesar to meet him on neutral ground.
The two generals fought a sort of positional battle in the spring of 48 BC, near Dyrrachium in Albania. Because of supply shortages, their soldiers had to endure. But both knew that it would be risky to go on the offensive under the circumstances. Nonetheless, on July 10, both armies clashed in the Battle of Dyrrhachium which took place from April to late July and ended in a non-trivial defeat for Caesar’s army.
The Battle of Pharsalus, 48 BC.
But on August 9, 48 BC, near Pharsalus in central Greece, the two armies met again at the Battle of Pharsalus. Pompey lost 6,000 troops and another 24,000 captured, while Caesar only lost 1,200 men. Pompey admitted that this overwhelming defeat was the worst of his life. He escaped the camp and his soldiers while disguised as a regular civilian.
On August 9th, at Pharsalia, Pompey stated he had just faced the worst defeat of his career. 6,000 of his soldiers lay dead, while another 24,000 were captive. As for Caesar, he had only lost 1,200.
Pompey approached Ptolemy XIII, Cleopatra’s brother-husband, in a mad attempt to get revenge. He believed that hiding out in Egypt would buy him enough time to face his father-in-law, Caesar, again. On September 28th, his ship anchored off the coast of Pelusium, in the northern Nile Delta. A small group including the young pharaoh’s advisors greeted Pompey when he arrived aboard a boat. One of Pompey’s former centurions, the Roman Lucius Septimius, had been stationed in the Nile Valley for some time. While Pompey was caught off guard and trapped in the boat with no way to escape, the former legionary dealt the killing blow. Ptolemy XIII’s advisors, Pothinus and Achillas, had joined him in the assassination of Pompey as they watched Pompey die helplessly on the ship.
Pompey was assassinated and his body was dismembered to be delivered to Julius Caesar. (18th century, Gaetano Gandolfi oil painting, Musee Magnin)
Pompey had a fantastic career and deserved more than such a death. His body was cast onto the shore, pouring boiling blood, and his head was severed by Achillas. Ptolemy XIII believed he held a priceless treasure in his hands: the head of one of Rome’s best tacticians. The killers fancied themselves more cunning than Pompey and hoped that by pleasing Caesar, they might secure his support. But rather than causing an ensuing peace, the death of Pompey sparked a civil war. Caesar still had the utmost respect for Pompey. He admired Pompey’s drive and professionalism in the military. He had, no doubt, enjoyed the confrontation and was honored to see such a skilled tactician struggling. Caesar and Pompey were mirror images of one another, and thus, Pompey went down in history as Caesar’s only truly legitimate competitor.
Key dates in the history of Pompey
60 BC: The First Triumvirate
In order to become Consul of Rome, Julius Caesar created a covert alliance with Pompey and Crassus, which they called the First Triumvirate.
59 BC: Caesar, Consul of Rome
A triumvirate consisting of Pompey and Crassus and Julius Caesar allowed the latter to assume the position of Consul.
149 BC: Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon
In order to unite Cisalpine Gaul and Italy, Julius Caesar led the 13th Legion over the Rubicon River. However, without permission from the Roman Senate, no military commander could cross this frontier.
Julius Caesar broke Roman law and declared war on the Senate by disregarding this edict. While crossing the Rubicon, he yelled “Alea iacta est,” which means “The die is cast,” in popular Latin. Nothing could stop Julius Caesar from entering Rome, removing Pompey, and eventually becoming dictator for life over the whole Roman Empire.
August 9, 48 BC: Pompey defeated by Caesar
At Pharsalia in Thessaly, Caesar pursued and decimated Pompey’s forces. Following Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon (the river dividing Gaul from Italy), Pompey and the Senators fled Rome and headed for Greece a year earlier. After Caesar’s defeat of Pompey, the latter sought asylum in Egypt with Ptolemy XIII, but Ptolemy XIII had him murdered because he was afraid of retaliation from Caesar.
September 30, 48 BC: Assassination of Pompey
Ptolemy XIII, Cleopatra’s husband, had the Roman commander Pompey, Caesar’s adversary, killed. The Egyptian pharaoh planned this assassination in an attempt to win Caesar’s favor. But it was unlikely that the Roman Emperor would appreciate this favor. In the end, Caesar had the pharaoh deposed so that Cleopatra could rise to the throne, and then he became her lover.
47 BC: Julius Caesar meets Cleopatra
As Caesar tracked down Pompey in Egypt, Julius Caesar found out that he had been murdered. He became resentful of Ptolemy XIII, the pharaoh, who was at odds with his sister-wife Cleopatra. The Egyptian Queen had an instant and profound effect on the Roman commander. Following his successful military campaign against the monarch, Caesar handed over Egypt’s throne to Cleopatra. They were now expecting a boy.
March 15, 44 BC: Assassination of Julius Caesar
Despite being named dictator for life, Julius Caesar was killed. 50 Senators, all of whom supported the reinstatement of the oligarchic republic, piled on top of Caesar during a session of the Senate and delivered 23 sword blows. Caesar died next to a monument honoring his opponent, Pompey. Caesar had a lot of respect for Brutus, the son of his mistress, and he had a lot of respect for Cassius, a Roman commander, who were both involved in the assassination.
