Among the four First Valet of the King’s Bedchambe (or First Valet of the Sun King , Alexandre Bontemps remained in the history of France for having been the most renowned, the most courteous, the most beloved by the king, but the most feared by the ministers. Saint Simon, who was not tender, had these words: “A rare man of his kind, a man of domestic secrecy, who knows everything about the King, his habits, his private life, and rare things, does not gossip or spread any rumors.”
Alexandre Bontemps: A Life in the Service of Louis XIV
Alexandre Bontemps was born in June 1626 in Paris. Baptized in July 1628 in the Hôtel de Vendôme, which depended on the parish of Saint Roch, his godfather, and godmother were César de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme (1594-1665), father of François de Vendôme, Duke of Beaufort, and Elisabeth de Bourbon (1614-1664). His father, Jean Baptiste Bontemps, originally from Aix en Provence, was a surgeon who entered the service of Louis XIII. Cardinal Richelieu appointed Jean Baptiste the King’s First Surgeon because he cut Louis XIII so well as a barber-surgeon. The king therefore kept him close by his side.
At sixteen, Alexandre had been appointed commendatory abbot of Hyverneaux, having received a very good education in letters. He remained at the head of this abbey only until 1655, but his descendants succeeded him until 1702. Thanks to his father, he inherited the position of First Valet de Chambre in 1652 and held it until 1659. On March 6, 1667, Alexandre married Claude Marguerite Bosc. They had four children, including Louis Alexandre, in March 1669. He remarried in March 1674 (following the death of his wife) with the half-sister of his first wife, but secretly. Saint Simon would say, “He is Bontemps’s Maintenon… Like master, like a servant!
After fifty years of service to the monarchy, the King’s confidant passed away on January 17, 1701, at Versailles, at the age of 74. Buried on January 19, 1701, in Paris at the church of Saint Louis en l’île, his heart is at the convent of the Feuillants on rue Saint Honoré. His entrails were transported to the church of Marly. At his death, the inventory of his property in 1701 amounted to 368,152 livres, which were divided between his two sons.
He earned 28,245 livres per year, plus various gratuities, totaling 61,245 livres per year.
Bontemps’ Diverse Functions
Being present at the wedding of the King and Françoise d’Aubigné suffices to etch him into posterity as the sole representative of the King’s Valets de Chambre. Becoming somewhat of a model, only his name is remembered among Louis XIV‘s servants, although there were four who shared the work, each serving three months per year.
A good man who devoted his heart and soul to his king, he was sometimes feared by ministers and public figures. As the king’s confidant, he witnessed his marriage to Madame de Maintenon. Referred to as the “foremost hand” of the King, Bontemps was the king’s confidant, executor of his most intimate orders, holder of his secrets, and organizer of his private life.
He held the following positions:
First valet de chambre to the King from 1659 to 1701 (in succession to his father)
Counselor to the King
Counselor to the King
Governor of Rennes, which he sold in 1698 while retaining the hereditary title.
Intendant (Governor) of the lands, parks, and palace of Versailles from 1665 to 1701
Intendant (Governor) of the lands, parks, and palace of Marly from 1665 to 1701
Superintendent of the Dauphine’s Household in 1679
Secretary General of the Swiss and Grisons (he actually commanded the Swiss and Grisons, this position being normal given his role as Governor of Versailles, where he was responsible for the security of the palace and the king).
Knight of the Order of Saint Lazarus and of Our Lady of Mount Carmel
Vicar of the Order of Saint Lazarus and of Our Lady of Mount Carmel
Among Bontemps’s prerogatives, this First Valet de Chambre ensured the King’s movements and arranged his entire stay. He compiled the list of guests authorized to visit Marly and was responsible for the organization and smooth running of the apartment evenings, which he attended as he wished. He was also in charge of allocating apartments at Versailles (no small task).
Colbert handed sums of money directly to Bontemps, to be distributed according to the king’s wishes. The First Valet de Chambre had so much power that Colbert sometimes came after him and then wrote in His Memoirs: “to do the work requested by Mr. Bontemps, in the chapel and the sacristy.”
Bontemps often begged the king to satisfy others, never for himself or his family. So loved by the king, Louis XIV once offered him for his son what he asked for others! In return for his position and the trust the king placed in him, he received certain benefits. Bontemps had two apartments in the Palace of Versailles, one located in the wing of the princes, a five-room apartment contiguous to that of Madame de Montespan.
Later, this apartment would house Louis XIV’s Cabinet of Curiosities, then Louis XVI’s Games Room. He also had an apartment at the Château de Saint Germain, one at the Tuileries, which he was able to acquire in 1687, the fiefs of Saulloy and Champmorin (county of Sancerre), a mansion on rue Saint Louis en l’Ile, a house in Fontainebleau, and another in Saint Germain.
Among other privileges, there are those concerning the baptism of Louis Alexandre (his first son), which was done in great pomp: the godfather being Louis XIV himself and the godmother being La Grande Mademoiselle. At the wedding of Louis Alexandre, the king was a witness and financially participated in the reception. Louis Alexandre received a cross from the king and his wife and a diamond necklace
Louis XIV having ennobled his favorite Valet de Chambre, the general armorial of the Bontemps registered in the Versailles registry was composed “of gold with a green tree and a red chief charged with a golden lion passing, coupled with blue with a golden face accompanied by three eagle heads attached in silver, placed two at the top and one at the bottom” in 1696.
Tributes to Bontemps
His death left a great void at the Court, with no valet being his equal. Tributes poured in, like that of Dangeau, who said, “He is a man blessed at court, who has never harmed anyone and has done much good.” Sourches mentioned, “In the evening, Bontemps died universally regretted by both the great and the small, and the King gave him this praise so beautiful and rare that he had never spoken ill of anyone and had never spent a day without speaking well of someone to him.” Even De Bellocq, the poet, composed a poem in his honor.
The Mercure journal published a seven-page article praising his character: “The Court has just lost a man of such rare goodness that scarcely a century produces one like him, and I do not even know if ever one like him has been seen. He spent his life doing good deeds. He did good for some and prevented harm from being done to others. He never spoke ill of anyone and only opened his mouth to speak well of those he heard mentioned. It is impossible to serve the king with more exactitude than he did. He was solely dedicated to it and had the same zeal for the smallest things concerning his service as for the most important. In the end, he was born less for himself than for his master and for all those who sought his help, even those who needed it without seeking it.
Mr. Bontemps died at the age of seventy-seven, regretted, esteemed, and cherished by the entire court and even by those who had heard of him without knowing him.”
A contemporary author, Olivier Seigneur, also paid tribute to him in his four detective novels.
The nickname “Roi-Soleil” (Sun King) for Louis XIV is the outcome of a meticulous construction of his image by the king himself, his court, and his advisors. It is closely tied to the image that Louis XIV sought to project of himself and the French monarchy.
Deliberately choosing the sun as the symbol of his reign, he positioned himself at the center of the French court and politics, akin to the sun at the center of our solar system. The sun, being the source of light and warmth, was perceived as a symbol of power, regeneration, and vitality.
The Sun King Nickname Inspired by the God Apollo
Louis XIV chose the sun, drawing inspiration from the symbol of the Greek god Apollo. Apollo was regarded as the god of poetry, music, light, and knowledge, and the monarch aimed to embody these qualities in his reign. In fact, Louis XIV’s iconography often depicts him with the attributes of Apollo, including a laurel crown, a lyre, and sun rays. This association reinforced the idea of the king as a divine and enlightened figure.
Louis XIV heightened this solar image through symbolic acts, such as his daily morning rise, where he presented himself to the court to be admired, and the construction of the Palace of Versailles, featuring the Hall of Mirrors that reflected light like the sun. The king sought to establish and consolidate his absolute authority by weaving an almost divine connection between himself and the sun.
The Sun King’s Royal Propaganda
Louis XIV.
Royal propaganda played a crucial role in disseminating the moniker of the Sun King during his reign. Louis XIV had a dedicated team to promote his image and legend. Artists, writers, and playwrights contributed to crafting this solar image of the king through artistic works, plays, poems, and grand ceremonies.
As a central element of royal propaganda, the Sun King moniker aided in constructing a powerful and majestic image of the monarch, not only within France but also abroad. Moreover, this nickname continues to symbolize the grandeur and magnificence of his reign, with Louis XIV remaining one of the most iconic monarchs in the history of France.
What Was the Sun King’s Motto?
The Sun King, Louis XIV’s motto, “Nec pluribus impar,” translates from Latin to “Not unequal to many.” Personally chosen by the king, this motto underscores his superiority and unparalleled reign. It can also be interpreted as “He is superior to all.”
Reflecting the ideology of Louis XIV’s reign, this Latin expression encapsulates his desire to be regarded as the greatest of kings, the foremost among men, perhaps even transcending mere humanity.
It serves as a declaration of absolutism and grandeur, aligning seamlessly with the carefully crafted image of the Sun King. It is worth noting that the precise meaning of this motto remains a subject of interpretation among scholars. Nevertheless, it undeniably captures Louis XIV’s ambition and self-assurance.
What Were the Other Nicknames Attributed to Louis XIV?
Apart from the famous nickname “Roi-Soleil” (Sun King), Louis XIV was also called Louis le Grand (Louis the Great) or Louis Dieudonné.
Louis le Grand: This nickname highlights the greatness of his reign, the extent of the reforms undertaken, and the magnificence of his court.
Louis Dieudonné: This nickname was given to Louis XIV at his birth, signifying that the king was a gift from God.
The various nicknames, including the title of Sun King, explain how Louis XIV skillfully created a powerful and symbolic image of his monarchy and thus played an important role in shaping the history of France.
At the end of the 17th century, during the reign of the Sun King, France was flourishing. Its economy was booming, and the Triangular Trade was in full swing. More and more slaves from Africa were being sent to the American colonies. They worked in sugar cane plantations, which were of great importance to France. In March 1685, Louis XIV promulgated a historic royal ordinance that defined the legal status of slaves in the Caribbean colonies.
The “Code Noir” was drafted by Colbert, who was the Secretary of State for the Navy and the chief minister of the king for 20 years. This text provided a clear legal framework for practices already in place in French overseas possessions and laid the foundation for French colonial law. The Code Noir continued to be in effect until the second abolition of slavery during the French Second Republic in 1848.
There were several notable slave revolts and acts of resistance against the conditions imposed by the Code Noir, particularly in the French Caribbean colonies. The most famous of these revolts was the Haitian Revolution, which ultimately led to the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.
What Is the Code Noir?
A copy of the 1743 edition of Code noir, now in New Orleans. Image: Historic New Orleans Collection 80-654-RL.
The Code Noir is the name given to the royal decree of March 1685 concerning slaves in the French West Indies. Its aim was to specify and regulate, for the first time, the “master-slave” relationships in the Caribbean. It granted slaves an intermediate status, between a free person and movable property, with rights and, most importantly, duties. It recognized slaves as “beings of God” without granting them separate legal personalities.
The text was initially applied in Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Saint-Christophe. It was later extended to Saint-Domingue in 1687 and Guyana in 1704. From the 18th century onwards, additional texts modified, supplemented, and tightened the original edict. The term “Code Noir” started to be used to refer to various regulations related to slavery and even French colonial law as a whole.
Who Wrote the Code Noir?
Code Noir was written by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who actively promoted the development of trade and industry as Minister of State for the Navy under Louis XIV and one of the king’s prime ministers for 20 years. Colbert was responsible for drafting the text, which aimed to establish the legal framework for the status of slaves in the colonies. In writing this text, Colbert was inspired by reports on French estates written a few years earlier.
As Colbert died in 1683, the final touches to the text were made by Colbert’s son Jean-Baptiste Antoine Colbert de Seignelay. In March 1685, the king issued the royal decree. Additional edicts concerning Mauritius, La Réunion and Louisiana, among others, were issued in the early 18th century, so in reality it is more accurate to speak of “Codes Noirs”.
Why Was the Code Noir Written?
In 1685, France was a major European power in a fierce competition for supremacy in maritime trade. To achieve this, it aimed to make sugar cane cultivation the center of its economic development. But it needed a workforce to exploit the resources of the Caribbean. Like Portugal, England, or Spain, France resorted to the triangular trade. It chartered ships from slave ports to Africa, exchanged goods for slaves and then transported them to the Americas to work on plantations.
Slavery was illegal in the metropolis at the time but widely practiced in the colonies without any legal regulation. The Code Noir therefore aimed to bring order to the relations between owners and slaves in overseas territories. It also reaffirmed the sovereignty of the state and strengthened its control over sugar cane cultivation.
What Does the Code Noir Contain?
In a preamble and sixty articles, the Code Noir regulated the condition of slaves in the French colonies. For the first time, slaves had some rights but were subject to numerous prohibitions. Article 44 of the Code Noir declared slaves as “movable property” that could be bought or sold, stating, “We declare slaves to be movable and as such to enter the community.” In the 17th century, an individual’s legal personality was not inherently linked to their humanity.
Therefore, it was not contradictory for a slave to be considered both a being with a soul and an object. The text governed various aspects of the lives of slaves, including work, religion, housing, property, offenses, and manumission. While it granted some rights, slaves were still unable to own anything (Article 28: “We declare that slaves cannot have anything of their own that is not their masters’) and could not testify in court; they remained subject to their owners.
The Code Noir also served as a means to reaffirm the Christian faith in the colonies. The practice of the Protestant faith was prohibited (Article 5), and Jews were expelled from the islands (Article 1).
We forbid our subjects of the so-called reformed religion to disturb or prevent our other subjects, even their slaves, from the free exercise of the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, on pain of exemplary punishment.
Article 5.
Code Noir contained provisions related to religion. It required enslaved individuals to be baptized as Catholics and to receive religious instruction. It also regulated religious practices within the enslaved population.
Did the Code Noir Improve the Living Conditions of Slaves?
Starting in 1685, slaves were required to be educated and baptized. They were thus considered Christians. They were entitled to rest on Sundays and during holidays. They could marry in the church with the consent of their masters and be buried in a cemetery (Article 10). Owners were obligated to provide them with food (Article 22: “Masters shall be required to provide their slaves aged ten years and above with two and a half Paris measures of cassava flour every week”), clothing (Article 25), and care for elderly or sick slaves (Article 27).
Additionally, slaves and their families could not be sold separately. However, the Code Noir legalized corporal punishment on slaves. They could be beaten, branded with a hot iron, or have their ears cut. Masters were not, however, allowed to arbitrarily kill a slave (Article 43).
Each week masters will have to furnish to their slaves ten years old and older for their nourishment two and a half jars in the measure of the land, of cassava flour or three cassavas weighing at least two-and-a-half pounds each or equivalent things, with two pounds of salted beef or three pounds of fish or other things in proportion, and to children after they are weaned to the age of 10 years half of the above supplies.
Article 22.
The death penalty applied to a slave who struck his master or was sentenced to escape for the third time. Despite the introduction of the Code, the living conditions of slaves remained very harsh. Improvements and increased control over the actions of owners would have to wait until the reign of Louis XVI.
When Was the Code Noir Abolished?
The Code Noir remained in effect throughout the slave trade until the abolition of slavery. It was initially abolished on February 4, 1794, during the French Revolution. However, it was reinstated in 1802, along with slavery, by Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then the First Consul. Both were definitively abolished on April 27, 1848, by the provisional government of the Second Republic. The decree, drafted by Victor Schœlcher, Undersecretary of State for the Navy, confirmed the abolition of slavery in France.
In the preamble of the text, political representatives established that “considering that slavery is an attack against human dignity […]; that it is a flagrant violation of the republican dogma: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.” Article 1 stated that “slavery is completely abolished in the French colonies and possessions.” From that moment on, slaves were freed and considered citizens, often referred to as “new citizens” or “newly liberated.”
When it comes to the Sun King’s actual height, accounts put Louis XIV’s height at 5 feet, 4 inches (1.63 m). Perhaps Louis felt the need to hide his diminutive stature as a monarch by always donning towering heels and a full wig. Royal artists had to find a happy medium between idealizing their subjects and making them seem likeable in order to please their patrons. That’s why Louis XIV’s stature shown in artwork may not correspond to his actual height.
Louis XIV gained 4.5″ from his heels and 6″ from his wigs.
They allegedly allowed Louis XIV to appear 6 feet 2 inches tall (1.88 m).
How Tall Was Louis XIV Compared to Others?
Let’s see how a height of 5 feet, 4 inches (163 cm) stacks up against the typical height of his contemporaries. According to records, the median male height in Europe dropped to its lowest point in the 17th century.
At the time, the typical Frenchman was little more than 162 centimeters (5 feet, 4 inches) tall. Therefore, Louis XIV’s height was rather standard for the era.
Height dropped from an average of 5’8″ (173 centimeters) in the early Middle Ages to a low of around 5’6″ (167 centimeters) in the 17th and 18th centuries. Louis XIV was around the same height as males in his own day and somewhat shorter than the typical man in the early Middle Ages.
At Douai in the War of Devolution in 1667, he was intentionally depicted as tall.
He was intentionally depicted as tall.” class=”wp-image-42469″ style=”aspect-ratio:1.280958721704394;object-fit:cover”/>Louis XIV’s full stature next to other people at Douai in the War of Devolution, 1667. He was intentionally depicted as tall.
According to other historians, Louis loved high heels not to make himself seem taller but because they were in style at the time. For the Palace of Versailles, Louis XIV was “above average for his time,” but it appears that the king was still below average in stature for a medieval man.
Louis XIV Wore High Heels to Appear Taller
The Sun King, Louis XIV, ruled France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His 72 years and 110 days in power are officially the longest in any monarch’s history. He played a huge role in the evolution of Western clothing. During his rule, haute couture (a high-end fashion design, as we know it now) emerged and he established France as a global leader in aesthetics.
Louis XIV wore high heels more than anybody else in history. Historiographers think he wore heels to give the impression of being taller. Some members of Louis’ court were given permission to wear red-soled heels beginning in the 1670s, when the king designated them a badge of honor. This trend became a symbol of prestige throughout his rule.
Wigs Also Helped Louis XIV Appear Taller
A barbershop in the Middle Ages.
Wigs were a prominent part of Louis XIV’s everyday style, and the ornate wigs used by Louis XIV were said to give him a noticeable height boost. At an early age, he saw his hair fading and engaged 48 wigmakers to help him with that. During his rule, wigs were a fashionable fashion item.
Shorter wigs, often five to six inches in height and worn with a curly toupee, were popular when Marie Scorailles entered Louis XIV’s court in 1690. This would have made Louis XIV much taller than he already was.
Apparently, Louis XIV’s wigs made him seem around 6 inches taller (15 cm). His wigs were gargantuan, with a full fringe of unruly hair framing the face and cascading in curls down the back and breast. Louis XIV’s hairstylist, Binet, created a wig for every event, and the king kept them all in a dedicated closet.
Together with Wigs and Heels Louis XIV Was 6’2″ in Height (1.88 m)
Louis XIV’s wigs were an integral element of his wardrobe; he used them to draw attention to himself and establish an air of superiority by appearing taller. Shoes with heels of 3–4.5 inches (8-11 cm) were also popularized by Louis XIV and worn by his courtiers in addition to wigs.
The 4.5 inches of height (11.5 cm) he obtained from his wooden heels, together with the 6 inches he gained from his wigs, created the appearance that Louis XIV was a 6 feet 2 inches tall man in height (1.88 m).
Women and courtiers wore wigs as well, although they were often larger, taller, and fancier than those worn by Louis XIV. Wigs were an extension of both aristocratic luxury and population need, with different styles denoting different economic, cultural, and social standings.
So, although it’s hard to say for sure how much height Louis XIV’s wigs and high heels contributed, it’s possible they made a huge difference for one of the sex addicts kings of France.
The Impact of His Fashion Choices
The decisions Louis XIV made in the realm of fashion were about more than simply his own sense of taste; they were also calculated economic moves. His astute minister of finance, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, once made the comparison that “fashions were to France what the mines of Peru were to Spain” in terms of their potential profits from both internal sales and exports. During Louis’ time in power, the garment and textile industries in Paris grew to employ around one-third of the working population.
Sexual obsessives, sometimes paired with wickedness, dominated France for over four centuries. The French monarchy was characterized by continuous coitus from the time of the Valois in the 16th century to the time of Bonaparte, thru the Bourbons. It was a shindig of whores, homosexuals, transvestites, satyrs, rapers, incestuous people, and pedophiles.
King Henry IV, Who Had 70 Affairs
Henry IV was the most well-known of these serial philanderers. He was called “The Green Gallant” solely for his numerous mistresses. His biographers claim he had relationships with about seventy different women. This is likely an extremely low estimate because of the carnal nature of this man.
The behavior of Henry IV with women left the Italian canon Giovannini utterly shocked, witnessing a level of “chaos” he had never encountered before. Whether they were nuns, prostitutes, country girls, gorgeous or hideous, Henry IV didn’t care. He needed all of them.
When he saw a marquise or prostitute whose features caught his eye, he would immediately dismount and fondle her while she was leaning against a tree or in a barn.
The cheerful and joyous ruler was also extraordinarily generous when it came to rewarding his affairs later.
Louis XIV’s Sexual Appetite Began to Run Wild Early
Louis XIV was tall, muscular, handsome, physically fit, and played the guitar. Women flocked to the most attractive prince in Europe. It’s hard to put a number on the affairs of Louis XIV outside of the official fifteen.
The Sun King’s sexual appetite was reportedly ignited at the tender age of fourteen.
Not even his mom’s closest friends were safe from his lust. Regardless of matters of state, Louis XIV had the capacity to send his advisors away, seized by a sudden urge to indulge in revelry.
When he was almost sixty years old, Louis XIV still “paid respect” to the noblewoman Françoise Maintenon on a daily basis. His alleged extramarital affairs were said to have cost as much as Versailles.
Louis XV Inherited His Father’s Genes for Lust
Louis XV, Louis XIV’s illegitimate son, shared his father’s “fixation”. But until he was 24, ladies actually paid him no attention. Then he met the noblewoman Mailly-Nesle, whose boyfriend, Richelieu, arranged for them to sleep together. That sparked the whole sex addiction of Louis XV.
The monarch went from being a model citizen to opening his own brothel and engaging in pedophilia, and he didn’t stop until he died. According to French historians, Louis XV is without a doubt one of France’s most notorious adulterers, alongside Henry IV.
The isolation of being a monarch, the weight of responsibilities that would crush lesser mortals, and finally the comfort of authority (because nobody can refuse to obey a king) might all contribute to this rage among French monarchs. Sex eventually became a normal pastime for the French royal court around this time.
Considering the staggering number of bastards produced by this massive orgy, it’s possible that millions of French citizens have a trace of kingly blood in their veins today (this was not supposed to sound good).
An estimated 6.5 million people from all over the globe visit the Palace of Versailles each year because it is a marvel of global heritage and one of the most visited historical sites in the world. As a symbol of the might of the Sun King and the France of the Grand Century, Louis XIV accomplished at Versailles his ideal of stone, gold, greenery, water, and light, combining all the energies of national industry. He may not have realized all the ways in which his choice to construct his castle would affect others. The departure of the government from Paris signaled a newfound freedom and boldness in the city.
History of Versailles before the Sun King
In 1038, in a charter of the monastery St. Père de Chartes, the word “Versailles” occurs for the first time. One of the people that signed the document was named Hugo de Versaillis. As the Hundred Years’ War came to a close, the tiny town was in a terrible situation, with dwellings destroyed and abandoned and the castle in ruins. In 1472, a minor settlement by the name of Versailles-aux-bourgs-de-Galie (Versailles in the town of Gally) was documented. After that, in 1475, Gilles de Versailles, lord of Versailles, ceded Trianon to the abbey of Saint Germain. In this context, the name Trianon appears for the first time. Louis XI purchased the little town and razed it in order to make way for his plans to construct a royal estate and resting palace there. It was the First Royal Caprice of Versailles, and the king’s goal was to go away from Paris and have some fun in a more relaxed environment.
When traveling from Paris to Brittany, Versailles was the first major attraction. On the other hand, the property was mostly marshy and bordered by uncultivated fields. It was a harsh environment with plenty of darkness and wildness. A combination of poor health conditions (a result of the persistent humidity) and widespread disease epidemics led to a rapid decline in the human population, which in turn led to the rapid repopulation of the animal kingdom. Domain sold to Charles IX’s financial secretary, Martial de Loménie, in 1561; he eventually expanded it to 150 hectares. On Saint Bartholomew’s Day in 1572, however, Loménie was allegedly strangled to death by Catherine de’ Medici so that the Count of Retz might inherit the Château de Versailles.
In the year following, Albert de Gondi, Count of Retz, paid 35,000 livres for the castle and land of Versailles. From this point on, we may assume that the future rulers of Europe had a genuine appreciation for Versailles. From July 7 to 9, 1578, Henry of Navarre resided there; he came back again in 1604 and 1609. Prince Louis, who would grow up to be King Louis XIII, went on his first hunt there in 1607, at the tender age of 6. In 1616, Albert de Gondi bequeathed the seigneury to his son, Jean François.
A few times later, King Louis XIII and his associates returned to the almost deserted estate after accompanying him on hunting expeditions. Getting sick of his uncomfortable sleeping arrangements, he set out in 1623 to construct a modest brick, stone, and slate home in the midst of the forest, on a hill surrounded by marshes. He came to consider this crude structure as a prime hunting spot. Louis XIII amassed a 40-hectare estate by purchasing the neighboring property.
The main structure of his little castle was 78 feet (24 m) in length and 20 feet (6 m) in depth, with two modest wings on each side. It was located at the end of the current Marble Courtyard (Cour de Marbre). The central chamber of Louis XIV’s residence was the king’s bedroom, which was surrounded by four rooms with tapestry walls. When the monarch finally got to spend his first night at Versailles with his subjects in March 1624, he was overjoyed. This was his safe haven, where he could just be himself.
The architect, Philippe Leroy, would construct a 108-by-46-foot (33-by-14-m) rectangular structure with 4.30-foot-thick (1.30 m) side walls, three galleries advertising the presence of a game inside, and an ashlar tile floor. During excavations in the Grand Commun’s courtyard, a crew from the Inrap uncovered these components, as well as the residence of the paumier (the room’s caretaker).
When Louis XIII was a young man, in April 1632, he purchased the Versailles estate from Jean François de Gondi, the uncle of Cardinal de Retz.
It was stated that “a miller governed where Louis XIV ruled,” referring to the legend that a windmill formerly stood at the summit of the Versailles plateau, where the modern château now stands.
The monarch purchased the castle with the intent of razing it to the ground in order to expand the grounds around the royal palace. He added to his hunting grounds by purchasing more property. Once it became clear that the initial pavilion would not be large enough, construction under Philibert Le Roy started in May 1631 and was finally finished in 1634. After moving into his new digs, Louis XIII settled down. From 1636 on, the king often visited, taking pleasure in his new home and the surrounding gardens, which were designed in the French style and ornamented with arabesques and intricate interlacing.
West of the castle, the earliest signs of the gardens date from the 1630s. A tiny round basin was surrounded by a parterre of compartmented boxwood needlework. The crew began planning the Bassin d’Apollon (The Apollon Pond) in 1639, when they laid out a main road from the castle terrace westward into the valley’s depression. The gentle slope of the ground was followed in this delightful garden. The primary axes, which made up the basic lines of the gardens, remained mostly unchanged until the renovations authorized by Louis XIV.
In 1643, Louis XIII made the following declaration: “If God gives me back my health, as soon as my dauphin is old enough to ride a horse and of age, I will put him in my place, and I will retire to Versailles with four of our fathers to talk about divine things.” The end of the world, he thought, was drawing near. It was on May 14 when he finally passed away. After almost eighteen years, the royal family no longer called Versailles home.
The Palace of Versailles in the 17th century
Versailles in 1668, painted by Pierre Patel.
Louis XIV became wary of Paris following the events of the Fronde and wished to retire elsewhere. So he set off in search of a large area in which to construct his fortress. In 1651, he paid Versailles his first visit and immediately became enamored with the palace. Louis XIV’s visit to the unfinished Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte (Palace of Vaux-le-Vicomte) in 1659 inspired him to create a château unlike any other in his kingdom or even Europe, one that would forever stand as a monument to his majesty and the magnificence of his reign.
The layout of the castle was meticulously crafted to draw attention to the monarch: the king’s private quarters were situated in the palace’s geometrical center, on a grand axis that ran from the king’s statue in the entry courtyard to the palace’s Green Carpet and Grand Canal. First visited by Louise de La Vallière, the king’s mistress at the time, this fortress was built for one purpose: to keep his affairs private. The “Château de Carte” would become the “Garçonnière Royale.”
It was not until 1660 that Louis XIV took his new wife, Queen Maria Theresa (Maria Theresa of Spain), there. From 1661 on, the expansion of Versailles started. The king dropped almost 1,010,000 livres between 1661 and 1662. He chose to create, in place of the hunting lodge of his father, one of the most spectacular palaces in Europe, which sparked criticism from the courtiers.
It was founded on a site that was both unforgiving and inaccessible, with terrain that was both sandy and swampy. The Trianon mansion had to be torn down, and the surrounding area had to be drained and leveled. As the saintly bishop Simon of Cyrene once put it, “Versailles is an ungrateful place, sad, without view, without wood, without water, without land, because everything is shifting sand and swamp, without air, therefore not good.”
The construction of the Palace of Versailles
Le Vau’s garden façade around 1675.
Louis XIV had the most talented architects, designers, gardeners, and fountain makers he could find recruited to make over the structures. Louis Le Vau oversaw the reconstruction of the Communs, while Charles Errard and Noël Coypel started the opulent interior design of the apartments by incorporating a motif based on the sun, a fixture throughout the Palace of Versailles. The Orangery and the Menagerie were both designed by Le Nôtre. Size-wise, the gardens expanded, and statues by Girardon and Le Hongre were added for flair. In those days, the Palace of Versailles served only as a place for social gatherings and leisure activities like garden parties.
Louis wanted his friends and family to have a good time at his home, which he took great pride in. A unique feature of his visitors’ flats was that they were fully furnished. For the first time in the history of royal households, Colbert boasted, “His Majesty has everyone fed, and has wood and lights in all the rooms.” Recalling Colbert’s famous letter, we read, “During the time that Your Majesty had spent such large amounts on this residence, she had ignored the Louvre, which was unquestionably the most splendid palace in the world.” It’s unfortunate that the greatest monarch was judged by the standards of Versailles.
The first celebrations were conducted in the castle in May 1664, and they were called “The Pleasures of the Enchanted Isle.” Mademoiselle de La Vallière was the intended guest, and they were presented to her in secret and lasted for 8 days. Louis XIV then had Versailles prepared for his use between 1664 and 1666 so that he could spend an extended period of time with his Council. He preserved Louis XIII’s old chateau. The size of the castle was increased by a factor of three by Le Vau. The first Orangery and the Menagerie were both constructed in 1665, but unlike them, the grotto of Thetis had not withered away. The Grand Canal wasn’t started until two years later. Le Nôtre was responsible for the landscaping, outdoor furniture, and layout of the expanded central alley. He enlisted the help of the sons of Italian engineers who were fluent in hydraulic systems—the Francines.
The second show in July 1668 would be the “Grand Divertissement Royal de Versailles.” Many of the courtiers couldn’t find a place to sleep because of the commotion caused by the festivities, and the modest castle became more unpopular. Le Vau then proposed two options for expanding the castle, one of which involved demolishing the original structure, and the other, which was built between 1668 and 1670, involved expanding the castle on the garden side with a stone envelope, which was in reality a second building enclosing the first. On each side of the original castle were two royal residences: the Grand Appartement du Roi to the north and the Queen’s to the south. A huge patio overlooking the greenery was built in the space between them. Rance marble columns, gilded wrought iron balconies, and marble busts adorned the façade. Marble slabs served as the floor of the courtyard. After being elevated, the Commons now included a peristyle of columns topped by sculptures and a succession of pavilions that led to the Louis XIII castle. A solid gold gate guarded the entrance to the Royal Court. A threefold increase in the domain’s surface area.
From Colbert’s report: “We have 566 men who labor here, and the costs of masonry were as follows: 335,000 livres in 1669, 586,000 in 1670, and 428,500 in 1671, the year the major construction was finished.” François d’Orbay picked up where Le Vau left off when he passed away in October 1670. In the city, Louis XIV was able to save his father’s fortress, but in the gardens, it was destroyed or obscured by construction. From that point on, the residence of Louis XIII was known as the “Old Castle,” while that of Louis XIV was known as the “New Castle.”
All stone, with long facades broken by outriggers, and a sizable terrace built between the two royal rooms, the Château Neuf was of Italian design. A great entryway, such as the Grand Degré du roi or Escalier des Ambassadeurs, was required to enter the opulent residence. The most luxurious castle entryway ever built required 6 years and a large budget. During the reign of Louis XV (1752–1783), this stairwell was demolished after having been in operation for barely 70 years.
Despite the basic Italian design, the French spirit was dominated by the existence of arched windows on the first floor, the presence of Ionic columns, niches, and high rectangular windows (arched by Mansart in 1669), the placement of statues in the niches, and the appearance of bas-relief above the windows. The second floor had a Corinthian style of decoration and was topped by a balustrade where trophies rested.
It was in 1670 that construction began on the Trianon de Porcelaine. At the same time, courtiers started constructing mansions in the area around the castle; in only two years, 14 massive hotels sprang up in Versailles (including the hotels of Luxembourg, Noailles, Guise, Bouillon, and Gesvres). Louis XIV finally completed the palace he had always envisioned as the symbol of his reign. The monarch wanted all of the ministers and their functions centralized. Intent on making Versailles his permanent home, he made plans to do so. Mansart was pressed into service to elaborate on plans for the construction of the Court. To many, the palace of Versailles represented centralized power and control.
Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors) in the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France.
The Hall of Mirrors was built between 1678 and 1684 on what had been the new castle’s terrace. The lengthy galleries that served as passageways and connections between rooms were much liked by Louis XIV, who had them built at the Tuileries, the Louvre, and Fontainebleau. Le Brun was tapped to do the ornamentation. The Gallery, which measured 240 feet (73 m) in length and was bounded to the north by the Salon de la Guerre and to the south by the Salon de la Paix, would have far-reaching consequences, including the relocation of the king’s apartment to the Château Vieux, the transformation of the Appartement du Soleil into the Grand Appartement, and the hosting of receptions.
Building on the south wing, which was to accommodate the nobility, began in 1678. Work started on the pièce d’eau des Suisses and the Bassin de Neptune in the Cabinet des Bains, as well as the earthworks for the Parterre du Midi and the new Orangerie.
The terrace and the royal couple’s cabinets were afterwards replaced in 1679 by the Gallery of Glazed Cabinets (Galerie des Glaces), the Salon of War (Salon de la Guerre), and the Salon of Peace (Salon de la Paix). Floors topped the central structure on the side facing the marble court. To keep time, a clock was installed. To mirror the elegance of the Ambassadors’ staircase, a second staircase fit for a queen was erected. The only things that remained were the bust of Louis XIV and the two doors leading into the Grand Appartement. As soon as the wings for the Ministers were finished, work started on the Grandes and Petites Ecuries.
The Grand Apartments’ interior design was finished in 1681. Water from the Seine was pumped by the Machine de Marly. The French Gardens, embellished with marble and bronze sculptures, came to be after the excavation of the Grand Canal and the Swiss Waterworks, which allowed for the addition of more trees and fountains to the gardens.
Louis XIV moves to Versailles
Saint Cloud was no longer suitable as Louis XIV’s palace; therefore, on May 6, 1682, he uprooted his family and made the journey to Versailles. An eyewitness described the setup as follows: “On the sixth of May, the King left Saint Cloud to come and settle in Versailles, where he had wanted to be for a long time, even though it was full of masons, with the intention of staying there until after the birth of Madame La Dauphine, who was obliged to change apartments on the second day she arrived because the noise prevented her from sleeping. During construction, the King relocated to a new residence. Scaffolding littered the Hall of Mirrors, making it necessary to traverse the space by means of planks of wood. In terms of age, Louis XIV was 44. He broke with the itinerant tradition of the kings of France who went from castle to castle.
Salons and cabinets housing the king’s treasures and collections were built by architects in a private residence in 1683. The walls of the Cabinet aux Tableaux, Cabinet aux Coquilles, and Cabinet des Médailles (all illuminated by rock crystal chandeliers) were covered with paintings from the royal collections and other opulent oddities. These “curiosities” included, but were not limited to, vases lined with gold and diamonds, antique busts and figures, a large gold nave lined with diamonds and rubies, porcelain from China and Japan, vases of agate, emerald, turquoise, jade, jasper, and star stone, a large number of vases of pearl conch, statues of ancient animals, and a large jasper vase that was used at the baptism of Charles V.
In 1684, the Collectors’ apartment was expanded by including the Montespans’ previous flat, and the new space was turned into a small gallery with a ceiling painted by Mignard on the subject of Apollo and Minerva, a floor of valuable wood parquet, and walls covered in luxurious textiles. Louis XIV displayed the crown jewels of his art collection here, including the Mona Lisa.
The construction of the annex buildings
The Orangery, which stood in place of Le Vau’s and supplied annual supplies of 3,000 shrubs and 150,000 plants, the stables, the Grand Commun, and the north wing of the courtiers were all built between 1685 and 1689. The Hall of Mirrors was finished by Le Brun in 1686. To replace the porcelain Trianon, Louis XIV had a modest castle of marble and porphyry with gardens constructed there in 1687; this building is now known as the Grand Trianon.
Both the north and south wings were built as the façade progressed. The Princes, the Court, the Stables, the Carriages, the General Services, and the Servants all found their new homes in these two structures. At that time, the length of the façade was 2,200 feet (670 m).
Construction of the Saint Louis-dedicated Royal Chapel started in 1689, was halted by the war, resumed in 1699 under the direction of architect Peter Paul Mansart, and was finally finished in 1710. There were two stories in the building, the upper one allocated for the King and the lower one for the Court, in keeping with the palatine style. From the highest point of the tribune, the King observed the mass, while his courtiers, their backs to the altar and their faces turned upward, surveyed their ruler. The architecture had a Corinthian column design. The Italian influence Bernin brought to architecture would be lost. The King’s Apartments were unadorned by the beauty of multicolored marble. The middle of the nave was decorated with a pattern of the royal arms, and a crowned image of King “L” was hugged in front of the altar steps. The painted imagery on the vault contrasted the Old and New Testaments. The organ was placed above the altar.
The original grotto of Thetis, constructed in 1665 and destroyed in 1685, stood in what was now the chapel’s top vestibule. The white stone, Corinthian capitals atop the columns and pilasters, stucco medallions depicting the four corners of the globe on the ceiling, and arcades topped with sculpted statues of the Virtues above the doors and windows are all carried over from the Chapel’s design. This corridor connected the Great Apartments to the Chapel and provided access from the North Wing apartments to the theater.
The interior fittings
In 1689, the Queen’s apartments could be reached by the Queen’s stairway, which led to the Salon de la Paix via the Antechamber, the Grand Cabinet, and the Chamber. This enfilade faced the south side of Le Vau’s enclosure. The courtyard of Marbre was the center of the new royal quarters. There were seven individual rooms in all. The future bedroom of Louis XIV, the salon du Roi, was set up in the castle’s center, and the suite was finished with the cabinet du Conseil and the cabinet des Termes or des Perruques. During this time, there were between 22,000 and 36,000 people working on the different construction sites, along with 6,000 horses.
The Bâtiments’ supervisor, Louvois, exerted extreme pressure on contractors, laborers, and artists, threatening anyone who wasn’t fully committed with jail time. People were becoming hurt, disabled, and even killed as a result of the accidents that occurred due to the dangerous working circumstances. The following benefits were offered as compensation: Widows get 60–100 livres; 30–40 livres for a shattered limb and 60 livres for a punctured eye.
The construction site was often disrupted by strike movements (sometimes known as seditions). To discourage such behavior, Louvois laid out the compensation structure for the stonemasons: “for each toe of stone of Saint Cloud, 6.5 feet (2 m) high, polished, it returned to them 50 sols; for those from 20 to 21 inches (50 to 53 cm), 45 sols.” About the same time, a whole forest was planted. Jules Hardouin-Mansart, the architect and site manager, oversaw the entire construction of this impressive structure. In those days, the bill came to almost 80 million livres.
Originally a small town, Versailles was expanded into a proper metropolis around its namesake castle. Hotels were established by the castle’s nobility for their staff, and the town’s bars were a hub of activity. On the eve of the revolution, there were as many as 70,000 people living in Versailles.
The king’s chambers were relocated to the heart of the castle in 1701. The “Salon de l’il-de-boeuf” was a hybrid of the 1689 room and the antechamber of the Bassan family.
Saint Simon made the following remark: “We will not finish on the monstrous defects of a palace so enormous and so enormously expensive, with its accompaniments, which were even more so: an orangery, vegetable gardens, kennels, large and small stables, prodigious outbuildings, and finally a whole city.” Even yet, Louis XIV’s Versailles, a masterpiece in ruin and terrible taste, could not be finished.
The gardens of Versailles
After the scandal at Fouquet in 1662, Louis XIV turned his attention to Versailles. He enlisted Le Vau, Le Brun, and Le Nôtre, the architects and landscapers responsible for Vaux le Vicomte, to design and build an elaborate addition to the Palace of Versailles. At this point in time, the gardens were considered a part of the castle’s overall growth. The number of groves and parterres was increased, and brand-new ones were laid down. The Orangery and the Grotto of Thetis were also constructed around this period. Le Vau’s masterwork is the Orangery, which he built to the south of the castle to make use of the natural slope of the hill. For the winter, orange trees were kept in this area. The orange trees and bushes at Vaux le Vicomte were the first to be taken.
The grotto of Thetis, located to the north of the castle, served as a symbolic portion of the grounds that connected the Sun King to the solar metaphor. Dedicated to the mythical figure of Apollo, the grotto was finally finished in the year 1670. There were sculptures of the sun deity being cared for by Nereids, and there were shell decorations around the room. The pond of Clagny was pumped to a reservoir above the grotto, where it was stored until it was needed to irrigate the gardens and power the fountains that make up the musical gardens.
The gardens were formally opened in 1664 in honor of Anne of Austria and Maria Theresa of Austria, but were dedicated to Louise de La Vallière. The occasion was known as the “Fête Galante,” or delights of the Enchanted Island. From 1665 to 1668, the gardens had a renaissance, marked by the construction of fountains and the planting of additional trees, as well as the incorporation of symbolic elements inspired by the sun and Apollo. First topographical networks were developed when the Latone and Apollo basins were finished. The Labyrinth, located to the south of the Latone parterre and close to the Orangery, was a simple network of paths designed by Le Nôtre, and the Latone basin, located on the east-west axis, represented an episode from Ovid’s Metamorphoses in reference to the revolutions of the Fronde that Louis XIV kept in mind.
The Bassin d’Apollon was built on what was formerly the site of the Bassin des Cygnes during the reign of Louis XIII and occupies the same general axis. It was the gardens’ main point and the passageway to the Grand Canal. The east-west axis is stretched by this Grand Canal, which was constructed between 1668 and 1671 and is 4,920 feet (1,500 m) in length, 203 feet (62 m) in breadth, and 23 hectares in area. For amusement purposes during the Ancien Régime (also known as the Old Regime), it was employed on boats.
A Little Venice was installed to house the caravels and yachts received from the Netherlands, the gondolas received by the Doge of Venice. Flowing from the gardens’ fountains upstream, the water eventually made its way into the Grand Canal. With the use of windmills and horse mills, this water was recirculated to the reservoir built above the grotto of Thetis, where it was used to replenish the water in the fountains. This setup was a closed-circuit system.
Exotic flowers such as Spanish jasmine and Turkish hyacinths and narcissus were brought in. It was imperative that only the most fragrant flowers be used.
During the years 1672–1677, the Labyrinth was renovated so that it could be used to teach Louis XIV’s son, the Dauphin, to read and write. Specifically, new fountains depicting Aesop’s tales were erected, and plaques were carved. The completed Labyrinth had 39 fountains and 333 lead animal statues.
The Parterre d’Eau, a castle terrace located over the Latona fountain, brought together the architectural and landscape design symbols from the expansive living quarters below.
Each of the 24 statues in the Parterre d’eaux musicales represented either one of the 4 elements (earth, air, water, and fire), one of the 4 seasons (spring, summer, fall, and winter), one of the four continents (Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas), one of the four types of poetry (pastoral, satyric, heroic, and lyric), one of the 4 times of day (morning, afternoon, evening, and night), and the 4 abductions: Boreas kidnapping Orithye, Saturn kidnapping Cybele, Pluto kidnapping Proserpine, Neptune kidnapping Coronis.
The Bassin des Sapins, located to the north of the château, was laid out on a north-south axis in 1676, and the Pièce d’Eau des Suisses, located in a marshy area to the south of the château, was finished in 1678. It covered an area of 15 hectares and was the second-largest canal in Europe after the Grand Canal.
The groves
Le Nôtre expanded the gardens by adding or enlarging 10 bosquets, including the bosquet du Marais in 1670, a rectangular basin with metal reeds around the perimeter, swans at the corners, and an iron tree in the middle; 1671: Water Theatre Grove (Bosquet du Théâtre d’Eau), Ile du Roi, Miroir d’Eau, Three Fountains Grove (Bosquet des Trois Fontaines); 1672: The bosquet de l’Arc de Triomphe was renovated in 1676 with a décor evoking military achievements. The year 1675 saw the creation of many notable trees: the bosquet de la Renommée or des Dômes, the bosquet de l’Encelade (a Titan doomed to a life of servitude beneath Etna), and the bosquet of 1678: the bosquet des Sources; 1680: new bosquet: the Gallery of the Antiques, an open-air gallery with antique sculptures; 20 statues on pedestals, each divided by three water jets; The Ballroom was constructed in 1681 and 1683 in a secluded area of the gardens, complete with a waterfall; and finally, in 1684 and 1685, the Colonnade was constructed on the site of the former Bosquet des Sources, featuring a peristyle of 32 arches and 28 fountains, as well as the current statue of Proserpine.
When it came to the groves, Louis XIV also requested certain changes. Since 1680, the green space between the Latone and Apollo basins has been known as Tapis Vert. The Parterre d’Eau was remodeled in 1684 to include bronze sculptures of the rivers of France. Between 1685 and 1686, the Parterre du Nord (North Parterre) was redesigned, and new and larger reservoirs were installed to the north of the Aile des Nobles; between 1704 and 1709, copses were redesigned and renamed, suggesting the austerity that marked the last years of Louis XIV’s reign, such as the copses of the Marai.
History of the Palace of Versailles after the death of Louis XIV
On September 9, 1715, after Louis XIV’s death, the new king’s guardian, Philippe d’Orléans, moved out of Versailles and into the Palais Royal. The young monarch at the time was just three years old. The Duke of Noailles advocated demolishing the fortress during this reign. However, he was unable to get enough traction because of his lack of backing.
Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, stayed in the Grand Trianon during his 1717 visit to Versailles.
In 1722, at the age of 22, Louis XV returned to Versailles and took up residence in his grandfather’s former chambers. While Louis XIV was preoccupied with historical traditions, the castle never again achieved its former glory. Louis XV did not like Versailles very much, so while he was there, he retreated to the Petits Appartements, the Trianon, Marly, Compiègne, or Fontainebleau.
In spite of this, he did make some changes, including demolishing the Baths’ apartment and the Ambassadors’ staircase, building the lounge of Hercules, the opera, and the Small Trianon, and remodeling the royal family’s quarters to make them more in keeping with contemporary tastes and more comfortable (all of which were Gabriel’s creations). He also decorated the Hercules lounge, which was a large room with walls covered in marbles selected by the king. There was a connection between the King’s quarters and the chapel’s anteroom via the Salon d’Hercule.
The Queen’s Chamber had a makeover beginning in 1729, with the project being finished in 1735. From 1729 until 1736, the Salon d’Hercule was under construction. It had been built atop what had been a chapel. The Apotheosis of Hercules was shown on the ceiling, and a massive painting by Veronese was presented to Louis XIV in 1664 for display on the rear wall. In 1739, during a gala honoring Louis XV’s oldest daughter, the monarch officially entered office. Both the wedding of the Duke of Chartres in 1769 and the birth of the Dauphin in 1782 were celebrated in this salon.
From 1738 to 1760, the apartment of the Collectors of Louis XIV was constantly redesigned. Then, in 1741, work was finally finished on the Bassin de Neptune. When Louis XV took power in 1750, he instituted a new kind of chamber: the dining room of the hunting lodges. That same year, he also had botanical gardens constructed and kept up in the area that is now known as the Queen’s Hamlet.
The King of England had the Ambassadors’ Staircase, the Small Gallery, and the Medals Cabinet destroyed in 1752. It was necessary to demolish these two “witnesses” to Louis XIV in order to make way for the room of the French monarch’s oldest daughter, Madame Adélade. Second renovations to the structure were started in 1755 by Louis XV, who merged the Cabinet du Roi (later renamed Cabinet du Conseil) and Cabinet des Thermes (later renamed Cabinet des Perruques) to create the Grand Salon du Conseil. The inner cabinets of the monarch were created on the upper level. There was no gilding on the woodwork in this area of the castle. The sculptures were given life by the use of vibrant and contrasting hues. A modest gallery that looked out into the marble court was the apartment’s defining feature.
Beginning in 1758 and continuing until 1770, the Royal Opera House was constructed at the end of the North Wing of the castle. Since Madame de Pompadour was a performer with a touring company, the initial theater rapidly became inadequate. The Royal Opera was inaugurated at the wedding of her grandson with the archduchess Marie Antoinette in May 1770.
As the princesses moved from the South Wing to the North Wing on the first floor of the Central Body over the years, Gabriel had to perform multiple tasks to make room for them all, including tearing down the Bathing Apartment, the Staircase of the Ambassadors, and the partitioning of the Lower Gallery. Some of the woodwork from these rooms, which Louis Philippe demolished, is a testament to the period’s lavishness.
As was customary during Louis XIV’s reign, the dauphin and his wife moved into one of the two rooms on the ground level (beneath the Queen’s apartment) and into the Hall of Mirrors. All of the palace was destroyed in the 1800s, except for the library and the room for the dauphin.
Gabriel worked on the Petit Trianon from 1761 to 1769, and in the same year that Princess Adelaide relocated, his apartment was linked with hers to create the King’s Room.
Gabriel’s “Grand Projet,” the rebuilding of the city-facing façade, got underway in 1772. The project was abandoned, with just the Louis XV Wing constructed. The “Grand Degré” inside was finished in 1785.
The palace was the most extravagant royal house in Europe towards the end of the Ancien Régime.
Under Louis XVI, the quality of living at Versailles steadily deteriorated, and the royal family and courtiers began to leave. Spending money on the castle was a bad idea. Due to the severe absence of conveniences like restrooms and heating, a complete refurbishment of the structures became necessary. Until the Revolution, work on the project had to be put on hold. Marie Antoinette’s involvement in the Petit Trianon’s construction led to substantial additional costs. Except for the Assumption on August 15 (when all the courtiers were required to be there), the major feasts at Versailles ceased. It was during this event in 1785 that King Louis XVI had the Cardinal of Rohan imprisoned for his involvement in the scandal surrounding the Queen’s Necklace.
Louis XVI, influenced by the Philosophers, had the gardens fully rebuilt in 1774 and 1775, transforming Le Nôtre’s French gardens into English-style gardens by removing trees and plants from the time of Louis XIV. However, the estate’s topography did not work in favor of the English-style gardens, since these gardens had unusual forms. Therefore, the gardens were redone in a French fashion. Louis XVI ordered that the palisades that had lined the fortifications be taken down and replaced with either lime or chestnut trees. He ordered the construction of the rock-cut grotto known as the Baths of Apollo.
Louis XVI had the Labyrinth of Louis XIV destroyed in 1778. An arboretum filled with rare plants now stands there. This section of the garden is where the Queen’s Necklace incident occurred, which put Marie Antoinette in danger.
Louis XVI had a special chamber, the Library, constructed and furnished for him upon becoming king. In 1777, Gabriel was entrusted with the decorating, Rousseau with the sculptures, and two globes, one of the earth and one of the heavens, finished off the room. After consulting with the Baron de Breteuil and the Garde des Sceaux Miromesnil, Louis XVI made the decision to place the Grand Chaplain under arrest while at this library. Before its restoration in 1783, the Cabinet doré served as a storage space for Louis XIV’s possessions, a showcase for Louis XV’s gold dinnerware, and a music chamber for Madame Adélade. Once again, Louis XVI displayed his treasures in this cabinet, and the name was changed to the Cabinet des Papillons.
The Estates General of 1789 were assembled at Versailles; therefore, the palace saw both the zenith and the nadir of the Bourbon dynasty.
Versailles in the tumult of the Revolution
When the Parisian populace, led by women, marched on Versailles in October 1789, the castle’s gates were locked, and a shootout ensued until the populace broke through and returned the royal family to Paris. A return to the castle’s former glory was impossible. At its peak in 1791, the population of Versailles was 51,000. By 1791, it had dropped to 39,000. The furniture in the castle was moved using furniture guards. The Ministry of the Navy now had Louis XV’s splendid desk.
Versailles was “de-royalized” in 1791 when artwork like paintings, mirrors, and royal insignia were taken from the walls and brought to the Louvre, which by 1792 had become the Central Museum of Arts. Versailles’ public library received the books and medals.
Later, in 1792, the Convention ordered the clearing of the Grand Parc and the sale of its acreage. The Botanical Gardens’ director pleaded with the new administration to spare the gardens. He was ultimately successful, but only on the condition that the beds be used for vegetable gardens and the orchards become community gathering places. The gardens were made accessible to the public, but the proposed washing facilities never materialized, so visitors instead found themselves doing laundry in the fountains and drying it on the bushes. The royal residence was converted into a cultural mecca, with the Natural History Museum taking up residence in the former Mesdames’ apartment on the first floor of the north wing, the Ecole Centrale de Seine et Oise moving into the former Ministers’ wing, the Salon d’Hercule becoming a school of life models for the future School of Fine Arts, and the Opera House becoming a music conservatory.
In 1793, the Convention sold at auction the furniture of the castle: 17,180 lots spread over the years 1793 to 1796, the most beautiful pieces went to England, furnishing Buckingham Palace or Windsor Castle.
Napoleon considered making the castle his imperial residence for some time. He was fond of the adage “What is huge is beautiful,” yet he found Versailles to be too little and unsettling. The architect Fontaine was present when he made the following declaration to him one day: “Why the Revolution which destroyed so much, did not demolish the Palace of Versailles! I would not have today a wrong of Louis XIV on the arms, an old badly made castle, a favorite without merit to make bearable.” To save money, he avoided treating Versailles like an Imperial Palace and instead just repaired the damage that was visible. He liked Trianon, so in 1805 he conducted some renovations and furnished it. However, he continued to clear the bosquet around the Arc de Triomphe and the Trois-Fontaines of their trees. It was required to transplant trees after the erosion destroyed the originals.
The Royal Palaces of Versailles and Trianon were governed by Philippe Antoine de Noailles, Prince de Poix, beginning in 1815.
Louis XVIII considered putting money back into Versailles. When he weighed the cost and the ethics involved (returning the royal family to Versailles would be seen as a provocation), he decided to scrap the plan. King Louis XVIII of France “made his passage” in 1817 when he had the King’s Island and the Water Mirror’s groves combined to create the Jardin du Roi.
Versailles since the 19th century
Louis Philippe I, King of the France, was the only one who could preserve Versailles from certain destruction and any other potential dangers. He made the decision to give it to the French. In 1833, he issued a proclamation directing his minister, the Count of Montalivet, to turn the castle into a museum. From the time of Clovis to that of the Ancien Régime, from the French Revolution to the Empire and the Restoration, the museum would honor the triumphs of military might.
More than 23 million Francs were spent from the king’s own pocket to complete the restoration. And for his own use, he had the Grand Trianon renovated. Located in the South Wing, the 393-foot-long (120 m) and 42-foot-wide (13 m) Gallery of Battles was custom-built for Louis Philippe and has 32 paintings honoring famous military victories, ranging from the Battle of Tolbiac to the Battle of Wagram.
Museum opening ceremonies took place in June 1837, with the institution being dedicated at the time to “all the grandeur of France.” With almost 6,000 paintings and 3,000 sculptures, it would serve as the primary resource for studying French history. The French king had a political agenda established that aimed to unite the country. References to the past were often used to stress this point.
In the Hall of Mirrors and the salons of the enormous apartments, a meal for 1,500 guests was put up for the inauguration, after which the Misanthrope was performed and guests were delighted with a promenade with torches until 2:00 in the morning.
Let us quote the words of Victor Hugo on this occasion: “What King Louis Philippe did at Versailles is good. To have accomplished this work is to have been great as a king and impartial as a philosopher, it is to have made a national monument out of a monarchical monument, it is to have put an immense idea in an immense building, it is to have installed the present in the past, 1789 vis – vis 1688, the emperor in the king’s house, Napoleon in Louis XIV’s house, in a word it is to have given to this magnificent book that is called the history of France this magnificent binding that is called Versailles.”
A lot of the ancient trees that had stood since Louis XVI’s reign were lopped down and replanted in 1860. Because of the Franco-German war and the subsequent collapse of the Second Empire, replanting did not start until 1883.
While he did put forth some effort, Napoleon III refrained from continuing his uncle’s more lavish endeavors. During the 1867 World’s Fair, the renowned furnishings that had been removed from the castle were returned courtesy of Empress Eugenie, who had a cult following because of Marie Antoinette.
The fortress was used as the Prussian army’s command center during the siege of Paris in 1870. In January 1871, the Hall of Mirrors was the site of the proclamation of the German Empire. Thiers and his administration hid out there during the Commune and stayed there until 1879. The population of Versailles rose from 40,000 to 150,000 as it recovered its position as a government center.
For both the Third and Fourth Republics’ presidential elections, the castle served as the designated location. After World War I, the Allies and Central Powers met in Versailles, France, in June 1919 to sign the Treaty of Versailles.
Versailles was now a national palace available to the President of the Republic for use in entertaining visiting dignitaries and holding meetings of the Congress of the Parliament.
What is the surface area of the Palace of Versailles?
As the biggest castle in the world, the Château de Versailles surpasses even Windsor in size thanks to its massive surface area of almost 63,154 m2 and the 815 hectares of the adjacent park. The area is home to a wide variety of historical structures, including the Grand and Petit Trianon, as well as the Grand Canal and the Swiss water feature, both of which were designed by Le Nôtre.
How many rooms are there at the Château de Versailles?
The castle contains 2,300 rooms. There are also 67 staircases, 352 fireplaces, 2,153 windows, more than a hundred clocks, and the famous Hall of Mirrors is composed of 357 mirrors.
Bibliography:
Saule, Béatrix; Meyer, Daniel (2000). Versailles Visitor’s Guide. Versailles: Éditions Art-Lys. ISBN 9782854951172.
Spaworth, Anthony (2008). Versailles: A Biography of a Palace. Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 978-0-3123-5785-6.
Michelin Tyre PLC (1989). Île-de-France: The Region Around Paris. Harrow [England]: Michelin Tyre Public Ltd. Co. ISBN 9782060134116.
Henry IV signed the Edict of Nantes in 1598, after decades of religious conflict had ravaged the Kingdom of France. Before becoming a Catholic in 1593, Henry IV was a Protestant. As the only survivor of the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre, the monarch was determined to bring about religious harmony in his realm. He was familiar with the devastating effects of such insular disputes.
Articles in the edict aim to facilitate peace between Catholics and Protestants. Protestants were thus given the right to religious liberty. The latter had sheltered themselves inside fortified cities. Louis XIV, his grandson, was destined to ruin his ancestor’s hard work. The Sun King (Louis XIV), at heart a devout Catholic, issued the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, rescinding the Edict of Nantes and forcing the Reformed (Protestants) to leave France en masse.
When Was the Edict of Nantes Signed?
Henry IV of France. Paint: Frans Pourbus the Younger.
The Edict of Nantes was signed by King Henry IV on April 13, 1598. This sovereign act was meant to ease tensions between Catholics and Protestants. Since 1562, followers of the two faiths have been at war with one another. St. Bartholomew’s Day was only one of eight violent civil wars that ravaged the kingdom. There were 92 articles in the Edict of Nantes. It was the result of several years of negotiations to ensure the internal stability of the kingdom. When first issued, the Edict of Nantes was met with resistance from both populations. In 1599, talks were set in motion and eventually concluded.
Was the Edict of Nantes an Edict of Tolerance?
The relationship between the two faiths was the primary focus of the Edict of Nantes. Tolerance was therefore recast as the concept of living together in this context. The Edict of Nantes established a set of regulations that must be followed. A closer look at these regulations, however, reveals that the edict was biased in favor of the Catholic faith. Certainly, civic and political rights, as well as the freedom to practice their religion were guaranteed to Protestants but this was not the case everywhere. In addition, a new tax was imposed on Protestants.
How Did the Edict of Nantes Affect Protestants?
The Edict of Nantes
Among Protestants, conditions varied after the Edict of Nantes was implemented. They were tried in tribunals presided over by fellow Protestant magistrates in more progressive municipalities like Bordeaux. In other cities such as Lyon or Toulouse, Protestants still weren’t allowed to practice their religion openly. There were a total of 150 safe havens, including forts, palaces, and manors, where Protestant nobles and their families could reside. Garrisons could be set up to protect these havens from potential attackers. They provided a safe haven for Protestant academies that educated future pastors.
When Did the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes Take Place?
Louis XIV.
Beginning in 1681, Louis XIV ordered his dragoons to employ violence against the French Huguenots in an effort to win them over. Finally, on October 18, 1685, the Edict of Fontainebleau repealed the earlier Edict of Nantes. Protestantism was outlawed in a new edict approved by King Louis XIV.
As a devout Catholic, the King had spent years trying to stamp out the practice. Protestants, in his estimation, were a small minority who had an unhealthy obsession with England and Northern Europe.
Protestants, also known as the Reformed, continued to leave France in large numbers after the Edict of Fontainebleau was issued, settling in countries like Germany and the Netherlands. 200,000 Protestants left France between the years 1679 and 1700. Nonetheless, after 1685, they were no longer allowed to leave the country.
Protestants were pressured into becoming Catholic. Only 45 Protestants were “officially” living in France in 1686. The false conversions could not be counted.
What Were the French Wars of Religion, and How Did They Lead to the Edict of Nantes?
The French Wars of Religion were a series of conflicts between Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots) in France during the 16th century. These wars resulted in significant bloodshed and instability. King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598 to grant religious tolerance and end the violence by allowing Huguenots to practice their religion in certain areas.
The French politician Nicolas Fouquet (1615–1680) was born into a rich bourgeois family, and his father had become a nobleman with the acquisition of a government post. Cardinal Mazarin, the Chief Minister, named Nicolas Fouquet Superintendent of Finance on February 7, 1653. A few years after reaching the pinnacle of his success, he dramatically fell from grace due to his involvement with personal gain.
Nicolas Fouquet, born in 1615, was originally intended for the church, but he rebelled and chose another route. His father gave in and secured him a seat as a counselor in the Parliament of Metz. When he was sixteen, this was his first job. Then, in 1636, he obtained one of the Master of Requests positions, which were established to raise money for the war that had been proclaimed against Spain. Given that he wasn’t 32 years old yet, Nicolas Fouquet was granted an exemption. Four years later, in 1641, he graduated with a law degree.
Nicolas Fouquet had a quick career: in 1642, he became intendant of justice, police, and finances in the army of Marshal de Châtillon in Flanders; in 1644, intendant of justice, police, and finances in Dauphiné; three years later, intendant in the army of Picardy; in 1648, intendant of the generality of Paris; and in 1650, at the age of thirty-five, he bought the office of attorney general of the Parliament, which he sold in August 1661, on the sneaky advice of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, a trusted man of Jules Mazarin, who was brought to the service of King Louis XIV after Mazarin’s death. So, after that Fouquet was no longer the subject of the Parliament.
To what heights can I not rise?
The Fouquet family motto was “Quo non ascendet?” (To what heights can I not rise?) and in 1653, Nicolas Fouquet became the great treasurer of the kingdom of France, which was the pinnacle of his professional career.
On February 7, 1653, he was named Superintendent of Finances at the age of 38. He could only hope to reach this position, as it was his ultimate goal. Although he was sought for the job after the death of the superintendent, he owed his appointment to his brother Basil, who was considered “a puppet” of Jules Mazarin, the young Louis XIV’s Chief Minister. However, Abel Servien, a more senior man, was chosen by the cardinal Mazarin to counteract Fouquet’s ambition. But Fouquet became the only supervisor when Servien passed away in 1659.
The holder of this high position had to meet the daily requirements of the state, which had been living on credit since 1635 and was deeply in debt. Nicolas Fouquet appealed to groups of creditors and lenders. Those in the financial industry who had faith in Nicolas Fouquet helped him build up a sizable network. Additionally, he made loans to the government at usurious interest rates, using the riches his father left him in 1640.
However, since the requirements of the French state were so crucial, he had to mortgage his possessions in the end. He played the affluent yet racked up significant debt for both the kingdom and his private spending (real estate acquisitions, maritime ambition, etc.). When Cardinal Mazarin passed away in March 1661, he had aspirations of becoming Chief Minister after rising to prominence in the French kingdom. He failed to see that the times had changed: Louis XIV was now preferring to rule without the assistance of a Chief Minister.
The Design of Versailles Was Inspired by His Chateau, Vaux-Le-Vicomte
Engraving showing Nicolas Fouquet’s Vaux-le-Vicomte chateau, which he owned as Louis XIV’s financial administrator.
Between the royal palaces of Vincennes and Fontainebleau, near Vaux-le-Vicomte, Nicolas Fouquet acquired a castle in terrible condition in February 1641. He expanded the estate via purchases in an effort to turn it into a luxurious residence. He commissioned the works from the best artists of the time. Above all, he enlisted the services of a triumvirate with a good reputation: Charles Le Brun (painter, in charge of interior decoration), André Le Nôtre (landscaper), and Louis le Vau (architect).
He pushed them to think beyond the box to create a distinctive ensemble. It was a success. Vaux-le-Vicomte is a marvel of architecture and landscape design, with viewpoints, terraces, waterfalls, basins, statues, the first formal gardens, and lavish interior ornamentation. Their skills would subsequently be put to use at Versailles by King Louis XIV.
France’s finance minister Fouquet had thrown a party in August of 1661 with a gala dinner, fireworks display, stage performance, and raffle to celebrate the opening of his beautiful new château (palace) Vaux-le-Vicomte. The guest of honor, King Louis XIV (1638–1715), envied the château so much that his face changed color from embarrassment, as if he was going to vomit.
Up to that point, Fouquet (1615–1680) had accomplished a significant amount of success in his life. Furthermore, he was just making predictions for the future of the office. Ultimately, he aimed for the position of Chief Minister. He’d be second only to Louis XIV in terms of authority if this happened. But Fouquet’s career came to an unexpected end after he put on the beautiful “fête,” or party, called Fouquet’s Fall today.
Ambitions of Becoming a Chief Minister
During the lavish celebration on August 17, 1661, in his castle of Vaux-le-Vicomte, Nicolas Fouquet welcomes Louis XIV.
On August 17, 1661, Nicolas Fouquet held the famous opening ceremony for his chateau, Vaux-le-Vicomte. He was a very influential figure in France at the time. He had become the government’s top lawyer and attorney general. His expectations were higher, however. In March of that year, Prime Minister Jules Mazarin (1602–1661), who had long ruled over state matters for the infant Louis XIV together with the Queen Mother, passed away. Mazarin’s departure has resulted in a political vacuum and complicated state finances. He and Fouquet were probably the only ones who knew who had authorized which funds, taken out loans, and paid them back. Fouquet’s fortune and the state’s treasury were not always clearly separated.
With Mazarin’s death, a key position in the government was left unfilled. Fouquet strongly suggested that the young monarch, King Louis XIV, name him as his heir, but the King did not agree. Louis had doubts about the self-assured newcomer. The King then announced, to widespread astonishment, that he intended to become a one-man government, eliminating the position of Chief Minister. Fouquet, like many of his fellow courtiers and politicians, thought that the King would soon abandon politics in favor of parties, hunting, and ladies. To be on the safe side, however, Fouquet did all in his power to discourage Louis from going through with it.
He intended to prepare a lavish banquet for the king. He was well aware that the House of Bourbon frequently credited a successful party with a promotion. Fouquet leaned in and gave it his all. A grandiose party was due in three weeks, and he was scrambling to pull it off. Nothing could go wrong since all the artists in his court were participating in the preparations.
The Danger of Wild Animals
Lion and Serpent (Lion au Serpent) (Image: Met Museum)
Fouquet planned a lavish dinner for Louis XIV, complete with 30 buffets, golden dinnerware, a theater, a raffle, and, of course, fireworks. The Sun King, however, was not in the least bit captivated. Only at royal festivities or significant triumphs were pyrotechnics permitted, and Fouquet had two fireworks displays that lit up the night sky. The King felt humiliated and intimidated by the event’s pomp and extravagant wealth. He started to believe that Fouquet was yearning for the throne. The only thing that could be said for sure was that Louis was completely over himself.
The Fronde, an uprising of nobles and parliament against the royal family from 1648 to 1653, occurred during Louis XIV’s childhood. He had dethroned the nobility of the sword and surrounded himself with courtiers to avoid another coup d’état by the nobles. But the bourgeoisie grew stronger because they could now buy offices and rise to the ranks of official nobility. Fouquet was such a citizen; rich, cultured, and ambitious. And to show that his ambition was not yet satisfied, Fouquet did not skimp on meaningful symbolism at his party.
Squirrels, which were important to the Fouquet family, were shown all over the castle, from the outside to the allegorical paintings. The motto “Quo non ascendet?” (To what heights can I not rise?) was inscribed on the family’s coat of arms. A painting of a squirrel interacting with a lion and a snake was perhaps the most intriguing thing for the Sun King.
The lions and snakes were symbols that one had to be careful with. Even before La Fontaine began concealing moral teachings in animal fables, this was common knowledge among contemporary people. The lion had always been seen as a strong leader, while the snake was seen as the lion’s sneaky advisor. The snake and the lion got together to eliminate the squirrel. Since Mazarin’s death, royal adviser Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683), whose coat of arms depicted a snake, had grown closer to the King. He, too, wanted to be Chief Minister, but Fouquet, a financial juggler and arts patron, was standing in his way.
One day, Colbert presented the King with an allegation that Fouquet had fortified the domain of Belle-Ile. Colbert claimed that his spy, disguised as a merchant, returned with the news and that Fouquet had a garrison of 200 men and a formidable arsenal (400 cannons, 3 or 4 warships, etc.). Louis XIV decided to arrest Fouquet at Nantes in the Estates of Brittany.
Colbert worked as a clerical assistant at the court. He had meticulously documented Fouquet’s misbehavior for quite some time. An opportunity presented itself after the feast when Louis XIV was boiling with jealousy. Colbert then gave the king his list. Nicolas Fouquet was among them.
He was taken into custody six weeks after the Vaux-le-Vicomte fireworks incident. Embezzling state money and committing high treason were the charges. Finally, after a three-year trial, the judges handed down a life sentence for Fouquet. His fortress was sealed up. But before that, the Sun King had the artwork, tapestries, and even trees inside the Vaux-le-Vicomte moved to his court, and he even brought the painters to himself. He was transforming his father’s former hunting lodge at Versailles into a home, and so he required the services of architects and painters like Le Vau, Le Brun, and Le Nôtre to pull it off.
A Protracted Trial That Was More Political Than Legal
Nicolas Fouquet was detained on King Louis XIV’s orders on September 5, 1661, at Nantes by D’Artagnan.
Nicolas Fouquet was accused of both lese-majesty (the insulting of a monarch; treason) and participating in a conspiracy against the royal authority. This included financial misconduct while performing his official duties. He was put on trial before an unusual court. Colbert and Louis XIV wanted this matter to be resolved soon, but more than three years passed due to the inquiry, legal disputes, and public arguments.
Additionally, things were not done in accordance with the rules: following Colbert’s orders, investigators fabricated papers; crucial witnesses were not heard; Nicolas Fouquet was held in isolation as a prisoner. Not to mention that the ingenious financial structures made it difficult to uncover proof. Additionally, since he was a smart, competent jurist, and lawyer, Fouquet defended himself and interfered with the trial.
Despite managing to save his life, Nicolas Fouquet was found guilty of embezzlement of public funds on December 22, 1664. Fouquet received the punishment of exile and property seizure. But Louis XIV raised the punishment to life in prison. For 26 years, Nicolas Fouquet was imprisoned in the Pignerol Fort. While waiting for his release, he died there in 1680.
The Lavish Celebration of August 17, 1661: The Fallacy of Grandeur
Nicolas Fouquet was also a great patron of the arts. And he supported the authors of the time like Madame Sevigne, La Fayette, Molière, Corneille, La Fontaine, and Charles Perrault. They were all affected by the folly of grandeur in his projects and his choices. Influential and powerful, he wanted to impress the gallery and please Louis XIV to win over the monarch. He had planned a celebration of unparalleled splendor just for this in his castle of Vaux-le-Vicomte in the summer of 1661. The feast he had prepared was of a magnificence never equaled until then, which left Louis XIV feeling humiliated.
Water jets shot out of basins and fountains as the carriages went by. He requested the famous majordomo François Vatel for supper, and he provided a meal that contained both savory and sweet foods. Les Fâcheux, an original comedy by Molière, was commissioned just for the occasion. As a result, he produced a comedy-ballet with musical interludes that would become highly popular with Louis XIV a few years later. This piece’s music had the Lully signature. And to cap off this very successful night, Nicolas Fouquet provided enormous fireworks, which were directed by Italian expert Torelli. The event was flawless, and charming for everyone in attendance.
According to legend, Louis XIV’s jealousy led him to decide to remove Fouquet, the director of finance, following this celebration. This is untrue, however, since the King chose to have this strong and troublesome person arrested in May. Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who wished to see Fouquet executed, was successful in persuading the monarch that the superintendent had committed misconduct. This was also because Fouquet was his rival for becoming Chief Minister.
On September 5, 1661, D’Artagnan, the captain lieutenant of the musketeers, captured Nicolas Fouquet in Nantes according to the king’s instructions. And on September 15, Louis XIV disbanded the Superintendence and replaced it with a Royal Council of Finance.
FAQ
What were Nicolas Fouquet’s main achievements as superintendent of finances?
As superintendent of finances, Nicolas Fouquet implemented several reforms that helped to modernize and centralize the French economy. He established a system of tax collection and introduced measures to regulate public spending. He also oversaw the construction of several public works projects, including canals and fortifications.
How did Nicolas Fouquet’s patronage of the arts and architecture influence the cultural life of France?
Nicolas Fouquet was a major patron of the arts and architecture, commissioning works by some of the most celebrated artists of his time. He was especially associated with the development of the classical French style, which was characterized by simplicity, order, and symmetry. His support for the arts helped to promote French cultural identity and establish the country’s reputation as a center of artistic excellence.
What were the circumstances of Nicolas Fouquet’s arrest and trial?
Nicolas Fouquet’s arrest and trial were triggered by his lavish spending on the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte, which was seen as a challenge to the authority of King Louis XIV. Although there is little evidence to support the charges of embezzlement that were brought against him, Fouquet was found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment. He spent the rest of his life in prison, where he wrote poetry and continued to receive visitors and correspondence.
How did Nicolas Fouquet’s downfall reflect the political and social tensions of the 17th century?
Nicolas Fouquet’s downfall reflected the political and social tensions of the 17th century, which were characterized by a struggle for power between the monarchy and the nobility. Fouquet was seen as a representative of the old nobility, which was perceived as a threat to the authority of the king. His trial was also influenced by religious and philosophical debates, as he was associated with the libertine movement, which advocated for individual freedom and artistic expression.
What was Nicolas Fouquet’s legacy in French cultural and political history?
Nicolas Fouquet’s legacy in French cultural and political history is complex and contested. On the one hand, he is remembered as a symbol of the excess and corruption of the old regime, whose downfall helped to consolidate the power of King Louis XIV. On the other hand, he is celebrated as a patron of the arts and architecture, whose vision and taste helped to shape the cultural identity of France. His life and career continue to inspire debate and discussion among historians and cultural critics.
What was the significance of the famous “Fête des Vaux” held by Nicolas Fouquet in 1661, and how did it contribute to his downfall?
The “Fête des Vaux” was a lavish party held by Nicolas Fouquet at his estate in Vaux-le-Vicomte in 1661. The party was attended by many members of the French court, and was widely seen as a display of Fouquet’s wealth and power. However, the party also drew the attention of King Louis XIV, who was jealous of Fouquet’s success and began to investigate his finances. This eventually led to Fouquet’s arrest and imprisonment.
References
Andrew Lossky, The Seventeenth Century: 1600-1715 (1967).
