Tag: maya

How Did the Maya Choose Which Children to Sacrifice?
The construction of an airport runway near the historic city of Chichen Itza, Mexico, in 1967, led to a surprising discovery: two chambers connected to the pyramids contained bones of more than 100 children, likely sacrificed in religious rituals. These remains have now been the subject of studies using cutting-edge microscopy technologies. The analyses revealed clues about the identity of these sacrificed children and the reasons for their deaths.
In an article published in the journal Nature, Mexican, European, and American researchers collected DNA data from 64 children and showed that the vast majority were male. Their dentition suggests they were between 3 and 4 years old. It was also possible to conclude that about a quarter of the children were related to each other. The samples even revealed that there were identical twins buried side by side.
Sacrifice for Corn?
At the time of the chambers’ discovery, there weren’t advanced genetic analysis techniques sufficient to provide this information, given the state of preservation of the bones. The bones were in a small space of only 3 square meters, and many were deteriorated by time, as well as showing cracks due to internal collapses. The fact that they were children made the identification process even more difficult, as biological sex only becomes evident in skeletal markers during puberty.
Years later, scientists were able to collect and analyze genetic material from a specific part of the skulls, called the petrosa, known to accumulate DNA. This way, it was possible to refute an old hypothesis that the skeletons belonged to girls, as well as determine the degrees of kinship among the sacrificed. According to the researchers, the pattern found can be linked to an important Mayan cultural myth.
“Very few things in archaeology have such a clear pattern. The selection of close relatives and twins pointed to the Hero Twins,” said Christina Warinner, co-author of the article and paleogeneticist at Harvard University, to Science magazine. The tale of the Hero Twins, linked to agriculture, narrates the story of brothers Hunahpu and Xbalanque, who travel to the underworld, where they are sacrificed and resurrected repeatedly, returning to life in the spring as corn stalks.
This possible association provides clues that help explain the sacrifice rituals. This information is supported by the discovery that the children maintained similar diets throughout their short lives. This suggests that they were raised in the same families—or even prepared specifically for sacrifice.
Although the motivations cannot be stated with certainty, the authors highlight that such practices were common in Mayan culture. According to traditions and ceremonies described in the book of Popol Vuh, a documentary record produced in the 16th century itself, human sacrifice may have been considered a privilege or even an honor, being an essential part of maintaining the balance of the cosmos in the Mayan view.
Impact of Colonization
The study was constructed with the help of a genetic database from an indigenous Mayan community in the city of Tixcacaltuyub, which had already donated DNA for research on metabolism and diabetes. By comparing samples from the two groups, scientists found a genetic proximity more than a thousand years apart, thus tracing similarities and differences.
The few disparities found brought a new insight into the impact of Spanish colonization, which began in 1511 in the region. The current inhabitants of Tixcacaltuyub possess genes that confer resistance to Salmonella bacteria, while the bones of the sacrificed boys do not. The difference may indicate that Europeans likely introduced Salmonella, which may have stimulated the evolution of resistance among those who survived.
“For the people who live in this area, it’s very valuable to know and be sure of their roots,” says Ermila Moo Mezeta, an indigenous Mayan researcher and co-author of the study, to Science. “The reward is powerful, reaffirming and giving a name to how we are connected to the past.”
August 18, 2024
Tikal: The Capital of the Maya
Temples, palaces, and pyramids from the pre-Columbian metropolis of Tikal rise from the tropical forest floor. North of modern-day Guatemala is where archaeologists uncovered this vanished civilization in 1848. Tikal, a Maya city-temple complex constructed in the Petén Basin to the north of modern-day Guatemala, has been called the “Angkor Wat of the Americas.” Its construction began in the 4th century BC. It was here that the Maya’s most powerful empire ruled over the whole Yucatán peninsula in southern Mexico during its heyday, between the years 200 and 900.
As the primary political, cultural, and military unit of this pre-Columbian society, city-states were crucial to its success. However, at the fall of the Mayan kingdom in the 10th century, the city’s 100,000 residents left, and the forest eventually engulfed it. A team of explorers didn’t find the remains of Tikal until 1848, and another century passed before the remains of Tikal became the focus of serious archaeology.
Tikal is one of Guatemala’s major tourist attractions
The Great Jaguar Temple
Tikal’s main, tourist-accessible section is 6.2 square miles (16 square kilometers) in size and contains the vast majority of its interesting landmarks. The Great Plaza serves as the focal point of the design and is framed by four distinct architectural ensembles.
The Great Jaguar Temple has a pyramidal construction with a crest that soars 155 feet (47 meters) into the air on the temple’s eastern side at 9 degrees. It was constructed about the year 734 and is the last resting place of Jasaw Chan K’awiil (also known as “Ah Cacao” or “Lord Chocolate“), the 26th king of the at least 33-king Tikal dynasty.
Jasaw Chan K’awiil’s portrait on Stela 16. Image: A. Skromnitsky, CC BY-SA 3.0
Before him lies the Temple of the Masks, where his wife, Lahan Unen Mo’, was most likely interred. Other Mayan royals were buried in a jumble of ancient houses located to the north, which are connected by flights of stairs.
Several palaces opened on patios, used as honorary residences but likely used by the government, are aligned on 705 feet (215 meters) to the south, making up the central Acropolis.
Another group of 33 buildings can be seen to the south-west of the Great Plaza in Tikal; among them is a 98-foot-tall (30-meter) pyramid adorned with stucco masks depicting the Sun god of Maya. At the time of its discovery, the archaeologists were reminded of the mood of the eponymous book by Conan Doyle, the author of Sherlock Holmes, therefore, the group was dubbed “The Lost World” (The Mundo Perdido) after the novel.
A very small fraction of Tikal has been excavated and cleared
Temple IV, Tikal.
In addition to Temple IV, the westernmost and tallest pre-Columbian sanctuary (213 ft / 65 m), there are other sanctuaries located across the area. The view from the peak is breathtaking and encompasses the entire property of Tikal.
Paths go through a national park between these structures, providing shelter from towering kapok trees (the Maya holy tree). This abundance of structures is only the tip of the iceberg; the metropolis of Tikal covered more than 23 square miles (60 square kilometers) at its peak, of which only a fraction has been cleaned and excavated.
Getting to Tikal requires taking a bus from Flores, a city located approximately 37 miles (60 kilometers) to the south. The majority of travel agencies provide daytime return trips that begin early in the morning.
A stay at one of the few motels near the park’s entrance is your best bet. Despite the steep cost and subpar amenities, you are certain to be on top of the pyramids around 6 a.m., when the sun’s rays reawaken the spider monkeys and cast a golden glow over the ancient structures. Then, an old world that mysteriously reappears.
When is the optimum time to visit Tikal?
During the cooler months of the year, when the heat is manageable and rain is rare. Avoid December and January to avoid the bulk of the tourists.
A number of carved stele from the Tikal ruins are on display at the city’s two museums. You may go on several jungle excursions since the area is encircled by a 222-square-mile (575-square-kilometer) Tikal National Park.
November 9, 2022
Why Did the Maya Civilization Disappear?
In little over a few centuries, the Mayan culture had all but vanished. There is no agreed-upon explanation for the fall and disappearance of the Maya civilization. Although there are various plausible theories that explain the decline of Maya. Let’s have a look at them here.
There wasn’t any kind of pandemic, curse, or earthquake behind the end of the Maya civilization. American archaeologist Michael D. Coe calls the collapse of the Maya civilization “the deepest social and demographic catastrophe of all the history of the humanity.” And this decline did not happen suddenly. Today, historians and scientists believe that a confluence of several causes led to the abandonment of Mayan cities between the years 800 and 1000.
The Soil Depletion
Chichén Itzá, Tonina, Calakmul, Caracol, Palenque, and many more besides! There are hundreds of city-states in Maya land, including a dozen that can support as many as 70,000 people apiece (such as Tikal). According to research by American climatologist Benjamin I. Cook, between 600 and 800 CE, the Mayan population reached a high of almost 10 million. Time when many flourishing settlements sprung up, including Yaxchilán, Bonampak, Piedras Negras, Copán, Ceibal, Xunantunich, and the Altar de los Sacrificios.
Today, there are several theories to explain why the Mayan towns were abandoned. (Image: Pixabay)
A strength at first glance, however, may rapidly become a vulnerability when you consider that these millions of people also represented millions of hungry stomachs. There was limited space for farming in their tropical and wooded environment. Due to the poor quality of the soil, milpa was employed: two to three years of cultivation followed by eight to ten years of fallow. As their numbers expanded, farmers no longer observed this period of rest and instead enhanced cultural exchange. At this time, the procedure was already in progress.
It required around 15 hectares and 50 days of labor to feed a household of 10 Maya people for a year. A catastrophic threat to Maya communities whose livelihoods depended on the land.
Because of this, Mayan farmers cleared forested areas that are tens of miles from their houses to expand their agricultural domains. An enormous loss of forest cover, which exacerbated problems like soil erosion and nutrient deficiencies as well as, in certain locations like the Petén, significant landslides, and, hence, productivity limitations. The Mayan people were forced to leave the cities because of the widespread malnutrition, starvation, and illnesses that resulted from it.
Climate Change Amplified by Deforestation
Photograph of Maya sacrifice taken from within the cave Actun Tunichil Muknal in Belize. This skeleton is popularly known as the “Crystal Maiden”. Image: Wikimedia.
Scientists have long known that stalagmites provide a powerful witness of the weather conditions of the past due to their unique composition. These limestone structures in the cave of Actun Tunichil Muknal were of interest to anthropologists, climate scientists, and archaeologists in 2012.
After a lengthy period of rainfall (about 450–660), the Maya area underwent spells of significant drought beginning in the 800s, as determined by analyzing its chemical composition, notably the concentration of mineral salts.
As a consequence, a dramatic reduction in yields occurred during the heat wave era due to the overexploitation of resources during the wet years, which was accompanied by a rise in population. An increase in the intensity of a natural occurrence brought on by deforestation. The switch from forest to maize decreased the quantity of moisture transmitted from the land to the sky, which lowered the level of precipitation.
Recent NASA computer calculations suggest that the loss of this forest resulted in a 3 to 5 degree Celsius temperature rise and a 20 to 30% decrease in precipitation. Unfortunately for these communities, corn—their primary food source—is very vulnerable to drought. To assure a harvest, they require at least an annual rainfall of roughly 24 inches or 600 millimeters.
Research shows that the critical 18-inch or 450-millimeter barrier for growing maize was seldom fulfilled between 760 and 910. This occurrence, when added to the soil’s depletion, was a fatal blow. The Maya peasants were unable to provide for themselves in the cities, so they migrated westward into what is now Mexico.
A Dated Political Structure
Map of the Maya region, with main rivers, mountain ranges and regions.
“Theater-states.” This was the governmental structure that the main Mayan towns had, according to American archaeologist Arthur Demarest’s book “Ancient Maya.” This society did not have a king who controlled the government and the economy, but instead relied on a representative government. Kings with “charismatic and shamanic” personalities called K’uhul Ajaw (divine lords) were placed in charge of each city, with the responsibility of maintaining communication between humans and the supernatural. His power came from the ritualization of his deity. The decline of the Maya culture was hastened in part due to these wasteful practices.
The territory’s structure, with so many separate cities, encouraged rivalry. The king felt pressure to increase his displays of riches as a symbol of his superiority over his subjects. The growth of cities from the 700s to the 800s amplified this competition for status. The enormous expenditures eventually brought the city to collapse.
The population boom and polygamy among the elite, which expanded the number of princes eager to face each other for positions of power, also contributed to the instability. Disputes that became deadly were a desecrated kind of authority. When the K’uhul Ajaw started acting “too human,” people had a harder time believing in him. More so since the notables of the time were unable to alleviate the famine that afflicted the Mayan populace in the 800s.
The only thing Maya found to do to stop the drought was to engage in more gory rites, offering sacrifices to the gods of rain (Chac) and agriculture (Ahmakiq). The ingredients for collapse were met: a devastated society in which people feared for their safety every day. As a result, uprisings sprang out, and the Maya presumably fled to the north.
Civil Conflicts Within the Maya Civilization
Stones from Maya temples, village castles, abandoned palaces, toppled thrones, and even damaged sculptures were used to construct hastily erected defensive walls. Not only do the ruins from the late classical era (about 900) stand in stark contrast to the typical Maya environment, but they also bear witness to a high degree of militarism and bloodshed.
The Mayan city-states often engaged in conflict and rivalry with one another. A method for kings to strengthen their rule and acquire human sacrifices for the gods. However, the instability seems to have been more pronounced after the year 900. Cities were drawn further and deeper into a hellish spiral as the frequency and severity of disputes rose.
A large portion of the population fled to exile as a result of the conflict, and governmental Maya authority began to weaken. The decline of Maya society paved the way for the conquest of the region by neighboring civilizations in Mesoamerica. Frescoes and pottery from the 9th century in places like Chichén Itzá, Tikal, and Ceibal witness the confluence of Mayan and Toltec patterns.
More centralized systems, like those of the Toltecs and Mixtecs, which the Aztecs would eventually adopt, gradually superseded the Maya “theater-states.” Even though the great cities were deserted, however, the Mayan culture has not been eradicated. About 6 million individuals in Central America can still communicate in Mayan languages.
November 9, 2022