The term sea monsters refers to mythical creatures living in the water. Many descriptions of sea monsters relate to beings whose existence has not been proven so far. However, some accounts can be attributed to exaggerated descriptions of creatures such as whales, devil rays, giant squids, or colossal squids. In comparison to other marine creatures, these marine monsters are often depicted as exceptionally large and hostile towards sailors. Historical accounts portray huge creatures attacking ships, devouring sailors, or spewing water.
Background of Sea Monsters
The origin of sea monster myths is often unknown. However, there are a multitude of written traditions, mostly from sailors, describing encounters with presumed sea monsters. The Swedish clergyman Olaus Magnus illustrated numerous sea monsters in his works Carta Marina and Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus in 1555, and later authors adopted his descriptions. For instance, Magnus’s sea monsters can also be found in Conrad Gessner’s significant work, Historia Animalium.
Some eyewitness reports of sea monsters can be traced back to exaggerated descriptions of real creatures such as whales or giant squids. Despite abundant and sometimes credible descriptions of creatures like sea serpents, their existence cannot be proven. Cadaver findings initially thought to be remnants of sea serpents were identified as the remains of giant sharks or oarfish.
Cryptozoology explores evidence for the existence of unproven species, such as sea monsters.
Historical Descriptions and Accounts of Sea Monsters
A sea snake attacks a ship.
Certain historical sea charts like Carta marina or medieval encyclopedic works like Liber Floridus were adorned with depictions of sea monsters and dragons.
Reports from seafarers about such beings have persisted over long periods in different cultures.
In the Old Testament, Jonah is swallowed by a large fish. Avienus reports in his work Ora maritima about the Carthaginian sailor Himilco encountering “monsters from the depths” (Ora maritima 117-29). In 1555, Olaus Magnus described in his work Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus the “largest and most monstrous creature of the Indian Ocean.” It was about 330 feet long and “extremely cruel.” It attacked ships by spewing large amounts of water onto the ship and crew. Additionally, it attempted to capsize ships by throwing itself onto the bow or stern.
The crew of HMS Squirrel (1582) under Humphrey Gilbert allegedly sighted a lion-like monster with “glaring eyes” during their return from Newfoundland in 1583.
The “Apostle of the Greenlanders” Hans Egede describes in Det gamle Grønlands nye Perlustration in 1729 a huge water-spouting sea serpent that was said to have claws and a shell-covered skin. The monster was supposed to be three to four times longer than the ship and capable of rising far out of the water with its ends.
The Kraken wraps around a vessel with its tentacles.
According to a captain’s letter published in 1852, the whaler Monongahela supposedly killed a giant sea serpent in the South Pacific. The creature was said to move through the water with undulating motions, be over 110 feet long, and have a long, flat head with sharp teeth. The remains of the described creature, along with the ship and crew, vanished without a trace.
In a 1919 article for National Geographic, John Oliver La Gorce describes how a devil ray supposedly grabbed the anchor chain of a ship with its tentacle horns and pulled the anchor chain, anchor, and ship out to sea. The description is considered unbelievable and is likely attributed to the limited knowledge of devil rays at that time.
Known Sea Monsters
Sea Monsters
Cadborosaurus (“Caddy”)
Cetus from the Perseus legend
Leviathan
Midgard Serpent (Jörmungandr)
Giant Kraken
Sea Serpents
The Sirens from Homer’s Odyssey
Scylla and Charybdis in Homer’s Odyssey
Umibōzu
Monsters in the Inland Waters
In the myths and legends of many people, marine monsters appear in lakes and occasionally in rivers. One of the most famous monsters in an inland water body is the Loch Ness Monster. Other lake monsters include:
It is possible to designate a real marine creature with a frightening appearance, such as a whale, giant squid, or fish from abyssal fauna, as a “sea monster” – especially when they are stranded and distorted by decay. However, sea monsters are primarily part of collective imaginations, and many of them are imaginary.
Historically, the fear of sea monsters has gradually diminished with the emergence of marine biology, which identifies and studies marine organisms. Progress in this field has helped distinguish real species from fictitious ones, such as giant sea serpents, mermaids, water nymphs, etc.
Nevertheless, the study of sea monsters is not limited to the issue of the reality of their existence.
Disciplines like anthropology, mythology, and comparative mythology seek to contextualize these creatures within the broader framework of collective imaginations.
They attempt to understand the place and role these creatures play in the culture of a particular community at a given time. A sea monster like the bishop-fish, for example, is linked to the Christian imagination prevalent in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, while the serpent Jörmungandr cannot be understood independently of the imagination specific to the Norse mythology to which it belongs.
Cryptozoology, a pseudo-science with highly contested value, focuses on the problem of the existence or non-existence of animals whose reality is not assured. This includes sea monsters like the famous Loch Ness Monster.
In Norse mythology, Lævateinn is a weapon crafted by Loki, interpreted as a dart, sword, or wand. It’s the only weapon capable of defeating the mythical rooster Víðópnir. According to the Norse myths, the rooster Víðópnir, who resides atop the World Tree, can only be slain by the sword Laevateinn. Like Mistilteinn in the tale of Fróði, it is considered a sword when used as a proper noun. When “Laev” and “teinn” are taken together, the result is “Laevateinn,” which means staff. The crafty Lopt (Loki) crafts it and Sinmara, who is married to the giant Surt of Muspelheim, keeps Lævateinn safe in a box called Lægyrn, where it is protected by nine locks.
Fact
Description
Crafted by
Loki
Mentioned in
Poetic Edda poem Fjölsvinnsmál
Possible Forms
Dart, sword, or wand
Meaning of Name
Wounding Wand, Damage Twig, or Wand-of-Destruction
Location
Lies in Lægjarn’s chest, which is fastened by nine locks
Keeper
Sinmara
Unique Ability
The only weapon capable of slaying the cock Víðópnir
Condition to Obtain
Sinmara will only award it to the one who brings her Víðópnir’s tail feather
Lævateinn in the Myth
Verse 26 of the Edda poem “Fjölsvinnsmál” mentions the Laevateinn legend. The story follows the protagonist Svipdagr as he searches for the lady Menglöð and has a conversation with the giant Fjölsviðr outside the Muspelheim fortification. Laevateinn is only mentioned in the conversation with this giant.
“Tell me this, Fjölsviðr! as I wish to inquire of you: whether there be any weapon, that Viðofnir possesses, which may cause him to sink into the halls of Hel?”
Fjölsviðr replied:
“It is called Laevateinn, and Loptr forged it, by the gates of Hel; in Lægjarn[Loki]’s chest, it lies beside Sinmara, guarded by nine locks.”
Sophus Bugge’s Fjölsvinnsmál (1867)
Svipdagr needs the flesh of Viðofnir, the rooster living at the top of the world tree Yggdrasil, to gain access to the citadel. Viðofnir can only be killed by Laevateinn. On the other hand, the tail feather of Viðofnir is also necessary for him to obtain Lævateinn from Sinmara (a gigantess). This is a never-ending puzzle, and it is simply implied that only the selected one may enter the citadel.
What Really Is Lævateinn?
Lævateinn was allegedly crafted by Loki.
Although the Nordic tales do not specify, the Lævateinn is often thought to be a sword. But there are other possible meanings, such as a stick, an arrow, or a spear. Swedish religion scholar Folke Ström calls Lævateinn a “magic sword” in his “Religion and Mythology of Ancient Scandinavia.”
Strom notes that it was carved with runes and made beneath the gates of the underworld. As told in English writer and translator Kevin Crossley-Holland’s “The Norse Myths,” its creation was supposedly accomplished by reciting runes at Niflheim’s entrance, a realm of primordial ice and cold in Norse cosmology.
The Meaning of the Name
“Lævateinn” is a notation found through the collation of the Norwegian linguist Sophus Bugge. In the original manuscript, it is actually written as “Hævateinn,” and earlier revised editions and translations follow this spelling.
Linguistically, it can be broken down into “Læva-teinn.” “Læva” is the plural genitive form of “læ,” meaning “destruction, calamity, misfortune, betrayal, and harm.
” On the other hand, “teinn” signifies “branch, rod.” This leads us to the following potential inferences:
“Branch of betrayal”
“Staff of magic that harms”
“Staff of harm-inflicting magic”
“Magic staff causing harm”
According to the Austrian philologist Rudolf Simek, Lævateinn truly means “sword” in kenning, a figure of speech or a poetic phrase, rather than a weapon’s name. In contemporary Japanese fantasy writings, “Laevateinn” means both the sword and flames that Surt wields at Ragnarok.
The flaming sword that giant Surtr wields during Ragnarok is thought of as Laevateinn by a handful of scholars, including the Swedish literary historian Henrik Schück (1855–1947). The kenning from the poem Fjölsvinnsmál, which reads svigi laeva (“destruction of twigs”), is most commonly interpreted as “fire,” and Schück matched this term with the sword based on his understanding. A sword erupting in flames was powerful enough to be from Loki.
The Sword of Freyr
Laevateinn, Freyr’s sword (which he refers to as the “sword of victory”), and a number of other weapons are said by the Swedish author Viktor Rydberg to be similar in his book “Undersökningar i germanisk mythologi (Investigations into Germanic Mythology)” (1886–1888, 2 volumes).
Swedish author Viktor Rydberg, in his work “Investigations into Germanic Mythology” (1886-1889, 2 volumes), asserted that Lævateinn, Freyr’s sword (which he calls the “sword of victory”), and several other weapons are actually identical. This book focuses on Rydberg’s interpretation and reconstruction of myths rather than academic studies or translations of myths. In the book, he puts forth the idea that various Eddic poems, Saxo Grammaticus’ “Gesta Danorum,” anecdotes in sagas, and others originally belonged to the same overarching myth.
According to Rydberg’s assertion, the renowned blacksmith in Norse mythology, Völundr, is one of the sons of Ivaldi. In a wager between Loki and the dwarf brothers Brokkr and Eitri, where the treasures crafted by Ivaldi’s sons (such as Gungnir) competed against those crafted by the brothers (such as Mjölnir), Völundr forged Laevateinn after his sons’ treasures were deemed inferior to those of the brothers. Loptor in the story of Svipdagr is not Loki but Völundr, also known as Wayland, and is revealed to be Svipdagr’s uncle.
Moreover, according to Rydberg, Mengloð is identified as Freyja, Fjölsviðr as Odin, and the fortress they inhabited is, in reality, Ásgarðr (Asgard). Svipdagr was able to enter the fortress because he already carried Lævateinn, and after marrying Mengloð, who is Freyja, he presents the sword he brought with him to his brother-in-law, Freyr. In other words, Lævateinn becomes Freyr’s victorious sword. In an alternate version, Svipdagr, a hero with the blood of Thor, is killed by the hero Hagen (Högni), and after various twists and turns, the victorious sword eventually comes into the possession of Freyr.
It is also believed that the magical staff “Gambanteinn” that Svipdagr wielded to threaten Gerðr is similar to Laevateinn, and that Skírnir is a manifestation of Svipdagr. In addition, as Mengloð is named Freyja, Rydberg implies that Óðr, Mengloð’s spouse, and Svipdagr are one and the same. Óðr and Hodr are both mentioned in Saxo’s “Gesta Danorum,” and the Norse god Höðr is represented by Hodr. Rydberg suggests that the mistletoe weapon “Mistilteinn,” which Höðr used to slay Baldr, may be Lævateinn.
Rydberg elaborates by noting that these swords have some characteristics, such as the capacity to kill gods or beings with divine characteristics. Both proponents and detractors of Rydberg’s study were vocal in their reactions to its publication.
As progenitors of both gods and mortal existence, the Titans occupy a unique space in the Hellenic narrative. Born from the primordial union of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky), these formidable beings wielded dominion over realms that spanned from the vastness of the heavens to the depths of the underworld. Their stories, characterized by the gravity of cosmic struggles and divine conflicts, provide insight into the relationships that governed the cosmos in antiquity.
Cronus (Kronos)
Titan of time and the ages, often depicted as the leader of the Titans.
The Fall of the Titans, oil painting by Cornelis Cornelisz van Haarlem, 1588–1590.
Kronos was a potent and renowned Titan in Greek mythology, acknowledged as both a creator and a destroyer. Born as the son of the Earth goddess Gaia and the sky god Uranus, he fathered six Olympian gods and goddesses: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, and Hestia. Playing a pivotal role in the Greek gods’ saga, Kronos overthrew his father and ushered in the Golden Age, only to be later defeated by his son Zeus.
As the youngest of the twelve Titans born to Gaia and Uranus, Kronos had siblings like Oceanus, Hyperion, Coeus, Iapetus, Crius, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Theia, Themis, Tethys, and Rhea. Some of his siblings, despised by Uranus, were imprisoned in Tartarus, including the Cyclopes and the Hekatoncheires. Gaia, discontented with this, persuaded Kronos to rebel against his father. Armed with a sickle given to him by his mother, Kronos castrated Uranus as he sought union with Gaia. The blood and seed of Uranus gave rise to new beings, such as the Erinyes, the Giants, and the goddess Aphrodite.
Having dethroned Uranus, Kronos became the ruler of the world, marrying his sister Rhea. Initially, he governed as a benevolent and wise leader, initiating the Golden Age characterized by peace, harmony, and the absence of laws or suffering. Kronos was also revered as the god of harvest and time, equated with the Roman god Saturn.
Yet a prophecy haunted Kronos, foretelling his overthrow by one of his own children and mirroring his own actions against Uranus. Driven by fear, he devoured each child Rhea bore, unaware that she had deceived him by substituting a rock for Zeus. Rhea secretly gave birth to Zeus on the island of Crete, where he was nurtured by a goat named Amaltheia.
Upon reaching maturity, Zeus confronted Kronos, tricking him into regurgitating his siblings and the rock. Zeus also liberated the Cyclopes and the Hekatoncheires from Tartarus, forming an alliance with them and certain other Titans to wage war against Kronos and his loyalists. This conflict, known as the Titanomachy, endured for a decade until Zeus and his allies emerged victorious. Kronos and the defeated Titans were cast into Tartarus and imprisoned indefinitely.
However, Kronos did not remain in Tartarus forever. In some mythological versions, Zeus freed him after defeating the Giants and Typhon. Kronos then ruled over the Elysian Fields, the paradise for souls who led virtuous lives. In alternative versions, the Romans worshiped Kronos as Saturn, commemorating the Golden Age annually through the festival of Saturnalia.
Rhea
Titaness and mother of the gods, associated with fertility and motherhood.
Rhea giving the rock to Cronus, 19th-century painted frieze by Karl Friedrich Schinkel.
Rhea was one of the twelve Titans born to Gaia and Uranus. She was both the sister and wife of Kronos, the ruler of the Titans, and the mother of six Olympian gods and goddesses: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, and Hestia. Revered as the mother of the gods and the goddess of nature, fertility, and motherhood, Rhea was often depicted with symbols such as a tower crown, cymbals, a chariot, or a tambourine. Her sacred animal was the lion, her sacred object was the cornucopia, and her sacred tree was the silver fir. The Romans identified her with the goddess Ops.
By preventing her son Zeus from becoming the prey of his father Kronos, Rhea played a crucial role in Greek mythology.
Rhea did not fade into obscurity. Zeus respected and revered her as the mother of the gods. She was equated with the Great Goddess or Earth Mother, assuming various names and forms across different cultures and eras, such as Gaia, Cybele, Demeter, or Hera. Considered the embodiment of nature, fertility, and motherhood—bestowing and taking life—Rhea became linked with different aspects of herself or her daughter, including Amaltheia (Zeus’s nurse), Io (Zeus’s lover), and Adrasteia or Nemesis (the avenging goddess). At times, she was regarded as the ruler of the Isles of the Blessed or Elysium, where the Golden Age, created with Kronos, endured.
In summary, Rhea emerges as a significant and multifaceted figure in Greek mythology, embodying both Titan and goddess. Born of Earth and Sky, she was the wife and sister of Kronos, mother to six Olympians whom she protected from her husband’s wrath. Revered as the mother of the gods and the goddess of nature, fertility, and motherhood, Rhea was identified with other goddesses or different aspects of herself. She embodied both creation and destruction, ultimately becoming a symbol of paradise.
Oceanus
Titan of the ocean, often depicted as a great river encircling the world.
Oceanus was the son of the primordial gods of the sky and earth, Uranus and Gaia. He was one of the twelve Titan offspring, also known as the Elder Gods. Oceanus married his sister Tethys, the goddess of freshwater. Together, they had 3000 children known as the Oceanids, who were the gods and goddesses associated with rivers, seas, streams, and estuaries on Earth.
Oceanus served as the Titan god of the river Oceanus, believed to encircle the world and connect Earth with the sky and the underworld. He was the father of all rivers and the Oceanids, occasionally even considered the father of the gods and the origin of the world. Initially, Oceanus ruled over the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. When the Olympians took control, Poseidon became the ruler of the Mediterranean.
Due to the prolific nature of Oceanus and Tethys, they feared that their rapid reproduction would lead to floods if it continued unchecked. Consequently, they chose to divorce to address this issue. Unlike his Titan brethren, Oceanus did not participate in the Titanomachy, the war between the Olympians and Titans for control of the cosmos. This spared him from the punishment the others later received, which was imprisonment in Tartarus, the underworld.
In summary, Oceanus is a central figure in Greek mythology, representing both the creation of the world and the natural phenomena associated with rivers and seas.
Hyperion
Titan of light, associated with the sun and wisdom.
Gustave Doré’s illustrations to Dante’s Inferno, Plate LXV: Canto XXXI: The titans and giants.
Hyperion was one of the twelve Titans, the offspring of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky) in Greek mythology. He was the god of heavenly light, and his name translates to “he that walks on high” or simply “the god above”. Hyperion married his sister Theia, the Titaness of the sun and sight, and together they had three children: Helios (Sun), Selene (Moon), and Eos (Dawn).
Hyperion, along with his son Helios, represented the sun, and the two were sometimes identified interchangeably. In Homer’s Odyssey, Hesiod’s Theogony, and the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Hyperion is mentioned as Helios’ father. However, in the Iliad and other parts of the Odyssey, Helios is also referred to as “Helios Hyperion,” where “Hyperion” is used either as a paternal name or another epithet.
Hyperion was one of the Titans who fought against his father Uranus to elevate his brother Cronus to power. After Cronus castrated his father, he imprisoned the six younger siblings of the Titans, the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires, back into Tartarus. Up until the Olympians, who are the offspring of Cronus, overthrew Hyperion and the other Titans, they ruled the universe.
Following the Olympians’ victory, the Titans were banished to Tartarus, where Zeus tormented them with lightning bolts. However, Hyperion and his children were spared from this punishment as they did not actively participate in the war. They continued to fulfill their roles as celestial lights until they were later replaced by the Olympians.
Hyperion is one of the oldest deities in Greek mythology, symbolizing light and knowledge. He is the father of the three major celestial bodies that govern day, night, and twilight. However, he lacks his own myths or specific functions, serving primarily as a progenitor for the three heavenly deities.
Mnemosyne
Titaness of memory, mother of the Muses, and associated with the arts.
Jupiter, disguised as a shepherd, tempts Mnemosyne by Jacob de Wit (1727).
Mnemosyne is a captivating figure in Greek mythology, recognized as the goddess of memory and remembrance. The name Mnemosyne, derived from Ancient Greek, translates to “remembrance, memory.” She is a daughter of Uranus and Gaia, belonging to the Titans—divine offspring of the Earth goddess Gaia and the sky god Uranus.
Interestingly, Mnemosyne is not only a deity but also a river in the underworld. In contrast to the River Lethe, whose waters induce forgetfulness, the waters of the Mnemosyne river lead to remembrance.
Furthermore, Mnemosyne is acknowledged as the mother of the nine Muses, offspring she bore with her nephew Zeus. Legend has it that Zeus and Mnemosyne united for nine nights, giving rise to the nine Muses. These Muses are goddesses of the arts, representing various facets of culture and knowledge.
In summary, Mnemosyne holds a central role in Greek mythology. As the goddess of memory and remembrance, she significantly influences human culture and history. Her offspring, the Muses, serve as symbols for the diverse arts and sciences shaping human civilization. Through her association with the underworld’s river of memory, Mnemosyne also symbolizes the continuity of life and human experience beyond death.
Theia
Titaness associated with shining light and clear sight, often linked to the moon.
Theia fights against the giants. Altar of Pergamon. Image: Wikimedia.
Theia was one of the twelve Titans, the offspring of the Earth goddess Gaia and the sky god Uranus in Greek mythology. She was the goddess of sight and brilliance, bestowing radiance and value upon gold, silver, and gemstones through her role. Her name simply means “goddess” or “divine,” but she was also called Euryphaessa, meaning “far-shining.”
Theia was the sister of other Titans, the Cyclopes, the Hecatoncheires, the Giants, the Meliae, the Erinyes, and the half-sister of Aphrodite (in some versions), Typhon, Python, Pontus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Nereus, Eurybia, and Ceto.
Her brother-husband was Hyperion, a Titan and the god of the sun, and together they were the parents of Helios (the sun), Selene (the moon), and Eos (the dawn). She appears to be the same as Aethra, the wife of Hyperion and mother of his children, in some accounts.
Theia played a minor role in mythology, mainly notable for the children she bore, although she appears in some texts and rare traditions. For instance, Pindar praises Theia in his fifth Isthmian Ode: “Mother of the Sun, Theia of many names, for your sake men honor gold as more powerful than anything else; and through the value you bestow on them, O queen, ships contending on the sea and yoked teams of horses in swift-whirling contests become marvels.”
Theia is also associated with a hypothetical ancient planet in the early solar system, which, according to the giant impact hypothesis, collided with the early Earth about 4.5 billion years ago, with some of the ejected debris forming the Moon. Such a collision, where the cores and mantles of the two planets merged, could explain why the Earth’s core is larger than expected for a body of its size. Collision simulations support the idea that the large low-shear velocity provinces in the lower mantle could be remnants of Theia. Theia is thought to have been roughly the size of Mars and possibly contributed a significant amount of Earth’s water. Her name aligns with her mythological role as the mother of the moon goddess Selene.
In summary, Theia was a significant Titaness in Greek mythology associated with light and sight. She was the mother of the celestial luminaries and potentially the catalyst for the Moon’s formation through a colossal collision with Earth.
Themis
Titaness of divine law and order, associated with justice.
Painting of Themis with scales and sword by Marcello Bacciarelli.
In Greek mythology, Themis is one of the Titans, pre-Olympian deities who were the children of Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth). Themis is often associated with divine order, law, and custom. She represents the concepts of natural law and justice. As the personification of order and justice, Themis was considered the divine counselor, mediator, and embodiment of fairness.
She is typically portrayed as the daughter of Uranus and Gaia, making her a sibling to other Titans like Cronus and Rhea.
Themis was married to her brother, the Titan of time, Cronus. Together, they had several children, including the three Horae (seasons) and the three Moirai (fates), emphasizing her connection to natural cycles and destiny. In some traditions, Themis was associated with the Oracle at Delphi before it became associated with Apollo. She was believed to provide prophecies and guidance.
After the Titanomachy, the war between the Titans and the Olympian gods, Themis continued to play a role in the new order. She was often depicted attending the gatherings of the gods on Mount Olympus. Themis is often depicted holding scales, symbolizing the balance of justice, and a cornucopia, symbolizing abundance. Her representations emphasize the importance of maintaining order and balance in both natural and human affairs.
Crius (Krios)
Titan of constellations, celestial bodies, and heavenly constellations.
Crius is often associated with the concept of mastery or leadership, although his specific role and characteristics are not as extensively detailed as some other Titans. He is sometimes referred to as the Titan of Constellations or Starry Heaven, linking him to celestial realms.
Crius is the son of Uranus and Gaia, making him a sibling to Titans such as Cronus, Rhea, Oceanus, and Themis. He is typically portrayed as the husband of his sister Eurybia, with whom he had several children, including Astraeus (associated with astrology and the dusk), Pallas (associated with war), and Perses (associated with destruction).
Like other Titans, Crius took part in the titanomachy, the epic conflict between the Titans and the Olympian gods under Zeus’ leadership. The Titans were defeated, leading to the establishment of the Olympian order. After the Titanomachy, Crius and his fellow defeated Titans were cast into Tartarus, the deepest part of the Underworld, as a punishment for their rebellion against the Olympians.
Compared to some other Titans, Crius does not appear as frequently in mythology, and as a result, Cronus, Zeus, and Prometheus frequently take on a larger role and exhibit characteristics that are more prominent.
While Crius may not have a highly detailed mythological narrative, his association with celestial elements and his role as a Titan contribute to a broader understanding of Greek cosmogony and the transition from the rule of the Titans to that of the Olympian gods.
Coeus (Koios)
Titan of intelligence and farsight. While he’s not as extensively mentioned in myths as some other Titans, he is often associated with wisdom and the inquisitive mind.
Coeus is one of the Titans in Greek mythology, a generation of deities that preceded the Olympian gods. Coeus is the Titan of intelligence and is often referred to as the “Pillar of the North.” He is the son of Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth).
Coeus is one of the twelve Titans, and his siblings include Cronus, Rhea, Oceanus, Hyperion, Theia, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys, and Crius. Coeus married his sister Phoebe, and together they had two notable children: Leto and Asteria.
Coeus doesn’t play as prominent a role in mythology as some other Titans. His name, which means “query” or “questioning,” suggests a connection to intellect and knowledge. While he doesn’t have many myths centered around him, his descendants, particularly Leto and Asteria, played significant roles.
Leto became the mother of Apollo and Artemis, major Olympian deities. Asteria, another daughter of Coeus and Phoebe, transformed into the island of Delos to escape the advances of Zeus
Coeus, like other Titans, participated in the Titanomachy, the war between the Titans and the Olympian gods. In the end, Zeus-led Olympians defeated the Titans. After the Titanomachy, Coeus, along with many other Titans, was cast into Tartarus, a deep abyss in the underworld.
Coeus, while not as prominently featured in myths as some other Titans, represents an aspect of cosmic order and knowledge in Greek mythology. His lineage, particularly through Leto, connects him to the Olympian pantheon and the subsequent narratives of classical Greek mythology.
Tethys
Titaness of freshwater and the mother of the river gods.
Tethys, a Titaness in Greek mythology, holds a prominent role associated primarily with water and motherhood. Born as the daughter of Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth), Tethys stands among the Titans, alongside siblings such as Cronus, Oceanus, and Themis.
She entered matrimony with her brother, Oceanus, jointly reigning over freshwater sources, including rivers, streams, and subterranean waters. Together, they are recognized as the progenitors of numerous river gods (Potamoi) and ocean nymphs (Oceanids).
Tethys embodies a nurturing and maternal archetype, symbolizing the life-sustaining properties inherent in water. Her significance extends to the rulership of freshwater sources, underscoring their vital role in the natural world.
The union of Tethys and Oceanus bore fruit in the form of vast offspring, including the 3,000 Oceanids and the Potamoi. The Oceanids, nymphs linked to diverse water bodies, coexisted with the Potamoi, river gods.
While Tethys does not occupy a central role in major Greek myths, her presence is recurrent in genealogies and lists of Titans.
Unlike certain Titans, Tethys and Oceanus refrained from direct involvement in the Titanomachy, the clash between Titans and Olympian gods. Consequently, they endured through the Olympian rule, albeit with diminished significance.
References to Tethys surface in various ancient Greek texts, notably Hesiod’s “Theogony,” spotlighting her as a Titaness associated with water and maternal attributes. Although Tethys may not enjoy the same widespread recognition as some Titans, her importance emanates from her connection to the vital forces of water and her role as a maternal figure within the divine genealogy of Greek mythology.
Phoebe
Titaness associated with the moon and intellect, grandmother of Apollo and Artemis.
In Greek mythology, Phoebe, a Titaness, is renowned for her connection with the moon and oracles. Daughter to Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth), she stands among siblings such as Cronus, Iapetus, and Themis.
Phoebe is often acknowledged as the consort of her brother, Coeus, and together, they parented Leto (Latona) and Asteria. Notably, Leto became the mother of the twin gods Apollo and Artemis.
Active in the Titanomachy, the conflict between Titans and Olympian gods, Phoebe, like her peers, faced defeat and subsequent allocation to various roles or domains. While Phoebe is sometimes linked to the moon, her name, signifying “bright” or “pure,” distinguishes her from the more prominent moon goddess Selene.
Her connection to the Oracle at Delphi is noteworthy. Some traditions suggest that she passed on the Oracle to her grandson Apollo after he defeated the Python, a monstrous serpent associated with the Oracle.
References to Phoebe can be found in various ancient Greek texts, including Hesiod’s “Theogony” and Aeschylus’ “Prometheus Bound.” William Shakespeare also incorporated Phoebe’s name into one of the characters in his play “As You Like It.” Phoebe’s significance lies in her familial ties, association with the moon, and her role in the genealogy leading to key figures such as Apollo and Artemis.
Iapetus
Titan associated with mortality and father of Prometheus, Epimetheus, Atlas, and Menoetius.
Iapetus is a Titan in Greek mythology, known for his role as a primordial deity and his lineage. Iapetus is one of the Titans, the offspring of Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth), making him a sibling to Cronus, Rhea, Themis, and others. He married his sister Clymene, and together they had several children, including Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Menoetius.
Atlas is the most famous of Iapetus’ sons. He was condemned to hold up the sky on his shoulders as a punishment for his role in the Titanomachy, the war between the Titans and the Olympian gods. Prometheus, another son of Iapetus, is renowned for creating humanity and later stealing fire from the gods to benefit humans.
The name “Iapetus” is often associated with the meaning “the piercer” or “the one who wounds.” This etymology is linked to his connection with mortality and his role in the Titanomachy. Iapetus fought against the Olympian gods in the Titanomachy. After their defeat, he was cast into Tartarus along with other Titans who rebelled against the Olympians.
After the Titanomachy, Iapetus and his fellow Titans faced imprisonment in Tartarus. Zeus later released the Titans to take control of the Underworld. Iapetus is referenced in various ancient Greek texts, including Hesiod’s “Theogony” and Aeschylus’ “Prometheus Bound.” His name and legacy are woven into the rich tapestry of Greek mythology, symbolizing aspects of creation, rebellion, and divine punishment.
Mammoths symbolize the underworld and appear in Siberian and Asian folklore.
They cause earthquakes and form rivers in Siberian mythologies.
Feared and revered, mammoths embody various creation myths.
The mammoth is a legendary creature that appears in the folklore of Siberian and Asian cultures. In many stories, it lives in the depths of the earth or at the bottom of lakes and rivers, where it towers over other creatures. It is said to build riverbeds and cause earthquakes by digging a tiny tunnel into the ground with its horns. A prominent mythical creature in Siberian myths, sometimes depicted as a chimera, a hybrid monster, it represents an important creature of the underworld.
The History of the Mammoth Legends
Northerners often uncovered mammoth skeletons in riverbed deposits. Items such as bone handles and pipes were made from these mammoth bones. Thus, the name of a legendary creature was likely associated with the actual mammoth itself due to its enormous bones.
Representations of mammoths are common in art from northern Eurasia, China, and other nearby countries, and they may be used to recreate the mythopoetic picture. The earliest of these images was discovered in the La-Madelaine cave in France. Myths, folklore, folktales, beliefs, omens, and anything else passed down from generation to generation in these areas all play a role in piecing together the mythopoetic picture.
Evenki tales of the mammoth creating snakes and the earth, shamanic tales of mammoths entering the water and churning sand, earth, and stones with their tusks, the belief in a mammoth standing in the cosmic ocean and supporting the world, etc., all belong to the category of creation myths. Other types of mammoth stories include etiological tales that explain geographical features or the origin of a particular tradition; and metamorphosis myths (where the mammoth is a “transformed” animal).
Legendary Mammoths in Many Cultures
The mammoth, in the minds of many Siberians and Far Easterners, is a terrifying and mysterious beast, the biggest known animal (the weight of five or six elks). It avoids the light of day and instead makes its home in dark places, such as the sediment of lakes and rivers. The Nenets think it creates a short passageway underground with its horns and may be heard roaring from below the ground. The mammoth has the potential to trigger earthquakes, riverbed formation, riverbank collapse during floods, terrible cracking sounds when ice breaks during ice drifts, and more. It can run fast and survive on a diet of plants and dirt.
The mammoth was present in the prehistoric era in the origin myths of the Komi (called the “earthly deer”), Nenets, and Ob Ugrians. Because of its weight, it dug itself a hole in its breast. Riverbeds and streams were shaped by its actions. The land was completely submerged in water after a while. The Komi, who are acquainted with the story of Noah and the deluge from the Bible, say that the mammoth sought to take shelter in Noah’s ark but was too big. The beast then attempted to swim in the sea but was ultimately doomed when birds perched on its horns. Mu Kul, a subterranean imp from whose huge fossils are stored underground, is mentioned in the legends of the Syktyvkar Komi gold prospectors. Narts, constructed from mammoth bones, are mentioned in the Komi epic.
The Nenets believed that the subterranean anthropomorphic creatures known as Sihirtia kept herds of mammoths (which they called “earthly deer”).
The mammoth is not seen as a unique creature, but rather as a metamorphosis of several species that occurs over time in certain mythologies.
For example, the Ob Ugrians of the Vasjugan area believed that the mammoth was a terrible underground monster that looked like an elk when young, but lost its fangs and horns as it aged and retreated under or under the river.
During this time, fresh, upright tusks sprouted. The Narym Selkup recognized two different types of mammoths: the amphibious surp-kozar (or “beast mammoth”) and the pike-like kwoli-kozar (or “fish mammoth”). This mammoth may have lived for a thousand years, at which time it would have swelled to enormous proportions and submerged itself in a lake.
Koshar Pitchi (or “Mammoth Pike”) is a legendary fish that the Selkup believe lives in the “Devil’s Lakes”. It can eat a human, becomes covered in moss as it ages, and snatches fish from traps. Sometimes the otter shares a nickname with the mammoth because it is a shaman’s spirit animal. The otter symbol on a shaman’s breastplate has the same name. The Ket had some familiarity with qot-tel’ (“mammoth pike”), “the animal the shamans sang about. Its common name, however, is “crocodile. Hybrid monsters such as the mammoth pike or mammoth fish are well known to the Salym Khanty, Mansi, and other groups of people.
As Practiced in Altai Culture and Beyond
The kar-balyk (or “mammoth fish”) is a cultural phenomenon with deep roots in Altai mythology. Its appearance has been compared by some scientists to that of a whale. The Teleuts tell a story in which the mammoth fish plays a role as a “fish head with its mouth cut off,” the patron of the shaman, and the son of the Sea King. Shamanic drums often contain representations of this monster. In addition, the mammoth fish has a role in the birth of the universe. There are a number of mammoth-related hybrid creatures in Altai mythology, including the nine-headed mammoth serpent, a mythological monster with a mouth that touches both the sky and the ground, and the giant bird Kar-gush, which kidnaps children.
The Kazym Khanty believed that the mammoth was the result of an underground metamorphosis of an ancient elk, bear or pike. As a result, many species of mammoth were identified. The Pribytkal Evenki tribe in the north associated the mammoth with a big-horned sea fish. The mammoth was often depicted as a fish-like monster with human legs and a moose skull. The Evenki word for mammoth, seli or heli, is the same as the Evenki word for lizard, ekhele, the shaman’s primary spirit guide. The Evenki provided the name for the mammoth used by the Yakuts, who portrayed the mammoth as a dangerous subterranean dweller of the Arctic. Trails and lakes were left on the site. According to Yakut mythology, the mammoth (or “water bull”) is the spirit lord of water and can shatter ice with its horns.
The Paleo-Asiatic peoples of northern Asia use more realistic descriptions and fewer depictions of hybrid mammoths. The mammoth is more prominent in the mythology of these cultures. The image of the mammoth is more consistently associated with ceremonies in these societies. In one Chukchi legend, a group of people discover mammoth tusks sticking out of the ground. They gather around them while beating a drum and chanting incantations. These actions culminate in the mammoth’s bones being covered with flesh, which is later consumed by humans as food. The Eskimo etiological story says that the huge reindeer that came from the east and were wiped out by a great sorcerer were the source of the mammoth tusks.
The Manchu and Chinese mythologies also include the mammoth, an image derived from their northern neighbors.
However, it has been modified according to local customs. The mammoth is compared to a giant rodent or mouse that lives in the Arctic ice.
Mythological Mammoth
In many traditions, the mammoth symbolizes the afterlife, the land of the dead, the underworld, or even water. The Selkup believe that the horned mammoth guards the gate to the underworld, which they call “the land of the dead. The kalir-kelur, an aquatic mammoth or monster in Evenki mythology, lives on a great river in the Land of the Dead, either in the northern or central region of the lower shamanic world.
The mammoth serves as the main antagonist in the Ket myth of the Nest Destroyer, and is probably the master of the underworld as opposed to the eagle of the overworld. The Altai kar-balyk (“mammoth fish”) is said to be the shaman’s most trusted friend. However, in certain Siberian folktales and legends, the mammoth is also said to have connections to the middle and higher realms, and perhaps all three.
Toporov claims that the mythopoetic creation of hybrid mammoth forms was driven by this relationship and the general ambiguity of their appearance. Among the Ob-Ugric peoples, the Selkups and the Evenki, the mammoth could be described as a giant bird. Its image was intertwined with other zoomorphic classifiers of the underworld (fish, snake, lizard), as well as symbols of the middle world (moose, deer, horse-like indrik, bear) and the upper world (bird).
The mammoth Seli appears in Evenki mythology as the Creator’s partner in shaping the world with the serpent Dyabdar. Stories of mammoth hunting exist in Evenki mythology. Scholars have documented a mythical tradition from the 1980s about hunting mammoths with a spear by piercing the mammoth’s jugular vein, causing the mammoth to bleed to death. The mammoth is the most powerful spirit in Evenki shamanism, guarding the realm of the living.
Links in Mammoth and Indrik Mythology
The image of the legendary beast Indrik probably reflects ideas about the fabled mammoth. The Indrik (also spelled Indrok, inorog, unicorn, etc.) is a horned monster with a hybrid nature (the head and tail of a horse and the body of a fish) and can be found in “Physiologus” and “Abecedarium”. Both Russian and Estonian rural folklore say that the mammoth lives underground, which is consistent with the location of the Indrik beast described in the Russian “Golubinaya Kniga”: “The beast lives beyond the sea.” With the help of its horn, the beast can travel through tunnels at the speed of the sun.
It crosses rivers and cold wells and winds through the mountains of white stone. All earthly creatures bow to it; it gives triumph to none, while it swings its horn like clouds in the sky. V.N. Toporov hypothesized that the name “Indrik” probably derives from the widespread Siberian name for mammoth, such as the Nenets jea (jar) hora, meaning “earth bull,” which could easily have given rise to forms similar to jen-r-, *jindr-, and *jindor-, close to the Russian names for Indrik. Compare this with the Khanty Kazym name muv-khor, meaning “male earth deer,” and the Mansi name ma-khar, meaning “female earth deer.
Analogous Pictures
The mammoth’s likeness can sometimes be seen in sequences of other zoomorphic images of politerions with the same symbolic meaning, such as the Indian Makara, the Russian Indrik, the “composite” creatures on the seals of the Indus Valley civilization, griffins, and others.
Based on reports of the mythical mammoth from people in Siberia, the Far East, and other places, zoologist and one of the pioneers of cryptozoology Bernard Heuvelmans suggested that the real mammoth could have lived to this day.
The Mushussu is a mythological snake-dragon from Mesopotamian mythology.
It has the body of a lion, the tail of a snake, and a long neck.
Mushussu was worshiped as a symbol of protection and associated with various deities.
Known chiefly from its portrayal on the procession route leading to the Gate of Ishtar in Babylon, the Mushussu (Akkadian: Mušḫuššu, catfish; Sumerian: Muš.HUŠ) is a mythological snake-dragon from Mesopotamian mythology and a holy animal of many gods. The snake-dragon may have first been mentioned during the Early Dynastic era (about 2800–2350 BCE). The Hellenistic era marks the last documentation of Mushussu.
What Does Mushussu Mean?
Depiction of Mushussu.
The Sumerian word MUŠ is the source of the Akkadian term Mushussu (MUŠ (‘snake’) + HUŠ (‘furious’). The meaning of Mushussu as “furious snake” has been widely recognized for a long time.
The name was once misread as Sirrusu because of the ambiguity of cuneiform writing, but this reading is now considered incorrect.
The second part might be interpreted as RUŠ, which meant ‘red’ in the Sumerian language, lending credence to the alternative meaning of “red snake.” Because the HUŠ symbol means “furious” or “reddish,” depending on context.
How Did Mushussu Look Like?
It has the body of a lion but the tail of a snake and a very long neck.
The creature’s appearance has evolved greatly over the ages. The Old Akkadian era (2350–2210 BCE) is the source of Mushussu’s classical form. However, the Early Dynastic era has one of the oldest representations of this mythical serpent-dragon.
It has the body of a lion but the tail of a snake and a very long neck. Even though the snake-dragon on an ancient Eshnunna (a Sumerian city-state) relief has a dragon’s head and horns, its hind feet are still those of a lion.
A winged version of the snake-dragon, complete with a scorpion’s sting, gained popularity in Lagash, an ancient city-state in Iraq, under the reign of Gudea (r. 2144–2124 BC). It is shown as a winged hybrid with the lion’s forepaws and the clawed feet of a hyena on Gudea’s Vase, which dates back to circa 2100 BCE. It has two horns on its head and many strands of hair that surround it.
Its First Known Depiction
Deity Marduk adopted the Mushussu as his personal mount.
The lion symbols gradually gave way to the snake ones. The first known depictions of Mushussu on kudurru (a type of Babylonian stele) date to the Middle Babylonian era (ca. 1595–1155 BCE). The snake-dragon already has the long neck, serpent’s head, and forked reptile tongue seen in subsequent depictions.
During the Middle Babylonian era, the deity Marduk adopted the Mushussu as his personal mount. A stele of King Meli-Shipak from this time period depicts the snake-dragon in its distinctive position at the foot of the god. Later, during the reign of King Marduk-zakir-shumi I (c. 9th century BCE), the same design was utilized on a lapis lazuli cylinder seal.
During the Neo-Assyrian era (934–610 BCE), Mushussu (or Mushkhushshu) was often represented without horns or with a feathered tail.
The image of Mushussu is most associated with the Ishtar Gate. Archaeologist Robert Koldewey first identified the connection between the ruins and the Ishtar Gate between 1902 and 1914. He matched the newly unearthed pictures to the king’s inscription, which depicted the bull and dragon reliefs that adorned the Ishtar Gate.
The Myth of Mushussu
Mushussu was never seen among the pantheon of gods or devils. The “DINGIR” determinative, a Sumerian word to denote a divine being, is not actually prefixed to the name of this entity in literature.
The only time this term comes before Mushussu is when talking about the constellation of the same name. On the one hand, it is shown as a creature having ties to several deities in Mesopotamian mythology. On the other hand, Mushussu is just a protecting entity with no particular divine ties.
The god Mushussu represented the element of water, and it is often considered a gender-neutral entity. Tiamat, the sea goddess, fashioned the serpent-dragon as one of the creatures she sent against Marduk. In the ancient texts, it is called “the monster of Lahamu.”
Mushussu is included among the group of supernatural entities called ina libbi (Akkadian for “inside”) in the Babylonian Map of the World, suggesting that it is located in the ocean.
Historically, the snake-dragon was worshiped as a symbol of Eshnunna’s protector deities, the chthonic deity Ninazu, and his son Ningishzida.
Tishpak, the new ruler of Mushussu, took over as city guard at the end of the Early Dynastic era. Tishpak is seen riding the snake-dragon in the newly found Old Akkadian-era artwork at Eshnunna. The snake-dragon’s apparent status as a messenger of chthonic deities suggests that its venomous attacks were seen as an act of obedience to divine order. Elamites also had an impact on the city-state Eshnunna (which was situated in the Trans-Tigris area), hence the deities worshiped there had snake characteristics.
Origin of Mushussu Worshipping
Ningishzida in the middle winding around the world pillar flanked by the dragon Munhussu.
It’s unclear why or when the monster Mushussu started being worshiped by the Babylonians. This probably happened soon after Hammurabi conquered Ennunna and instituted the worship of Tiapak.
In an inscription by Kassite king Agum II, Mushussu is said to have been connected to Marduk for the first time; however, the reliability of this source is in dispute.
Mushussu is seen in art with Marduk and his son Nabu during the Kassite era (the Middle Babylonian era). The snake-dragon is often shown next to other icons of these deities, such as spades and scepters. Following Assyria’s ultimate conquest of Babylon in 689 BCE, the deity Ashur was associated with the figure of Mushussu.
Monsters like the “venomous snake,” basmu (bashmu), were sometimes represented alongside gods linked with Mushussu. During the Kassite era, basmu replaced Mushussu as Tishpak’s emblem in written sources.
Mushussu may have been part of the Urukian zodiac calendar created under the Seleucid dynasty. It shows a hero facing off against a mysterious beast that, to some scholars’ eyes, seems like a snake. Although the identity of the pictured dragon remains a mystery, there is some speculation that the beast is not a literal dragon at all but rather a metaphor for disorder.
Function of Worshipping Mushussu
Mushussu terracotta plaque. It was supposed to protect people and houses against evil. From Southern Iraq, Neo-Babylonian period (c. 800-500 BC). (Zunkir, cc by sa 4.0, enhanced)
Mushussu statues have been used as “guardians” of houses’ front doors since the late 3rd century BCE. The earliest known example was discovered at the Ninurta temple in Girsu, an ancient Sumerian city. Clay plaques with its likeness began appearing in the Old Babylonian era to serve as amulets for individual residences.
Mushussu images on the Ishtar Gate serve a similar purpose. The purpose of these sculpted snake-dragons was to poison the enemies of the Sumerians. This is literally from a discovered inscription from the reign of King Neriglissar (560–556 BCE).
Miniature apotropaic figures of Mushussu dating back to the Neo-Assyrian era have also been discovered.
Constellation
The constellation Hydra.
During the time of the Old Babylonians, a trio of stars was given the same name as the serpent-dragon: MULMUŠ or MUŠL dMUŠ. In late Babylonian astrological literature, chthonic deities like Ereshkigal and Ningishzida were linked to the constellation Hydra, which has a parallel in Greek astrology. The Uruk zodiacal calendar from the Seleucid era has a picture of this constellation.
Mushussu in Christianity
The Mesopotamian Mushussu may have had an influence on the writers of the Bible. The story of Marduk’s conflict with Tiamat and her army of monsters is similar to what is told in the Book of Ezekiel (32:2–8). The religion of a giant snake is mentioned by Daniel (14:23–28) in the Book of Daniel.
The Mesopotamian Mushussu may have served as inspiration for various passages in the Bible. A story from the Enuma Elis, in which Marduk faces off against Tiamat and an army of monsters she has produced, is echoed in Ezekiel (32:2–8). However, the worship of a giant snake is mentioned in Daniel 41:14–23, which describes the religion of the Babylonians.
George Smith, a regular visitor to the British Museum in London, made a remarkable discovery in November 1872 while poring over a piece of a clay tablet inscribed in cuneiform. Smith allegedly leaped up in excitement and stripped down to his underwear. It’s debatable if this really occurred. Without a shadow of a doubt, the 32-year-old had just discovered the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the greatest literary masterpieces ever written and thought to have been lost for nearly 2,000 years.
Despite his lack of any scientific training, Smith had a lifelong fascination with the history of bygone civilizations. Smith, who was born in 1840 to a working-class family in London, trained himself to read cuneiform. After serving his apprenticeship as a printer, he decided to try his hand at banknote engraving, but the task did not satisfy him. He liked to spend as much time as possible perusing the British Museum’s treasures during his lunch break, so he commuted there daily.
The earliest piece of literature was unearthed and translated by George Smith (1840-1876), an English Assyriologist.
Henry Rawlinson, a key figure in the decipherment of the cuneiform writing in the 1850s, noticed him there almost immediately. Rawlinson thought the young guy was promising and suggested that the museum hire him. The autodidact would now be responsible for reassembling the shattered clay tablets in the museum.
Throughout the 19th century, scholars gained a deeper familiarity with the cuneiform script. Smith uncovered what is perhaps the most crucial text in this cryptic writing.
A massive collection of cuneiform texts
These clay tablets were mostly sourced from modern-day Mosul in northern Iraq, on the site of the ancient city of Nineveh. Historically, it was the capital of the Assyrian Empire. Around 650 BC, King Ashurbanipal commissioned the construction of an exceptional library. The collection was based on copies or confiscations of as many texts as feasible. However, in 612 BC, the palace and its library were completely destroyed in a fire. Broken into several pieces, the clay tablets were eventually lost for generations.
Smith, more than two thousand years after the clay tablets were first created, had the monumental chore of going through them. A considerable portion of the texts in the biggest collection of cuneiform writings dealt with administrative topics, such as invoices and receipts.
But Smith was looking for books in a methodical way.The first known literary work, the Epic of Gilgamesh, was found and translated by George Smith.
That day in November 1872, he finally located his prize. The piece he was reading mentioned a powerful tide, a ship, and a lost bird on the lookout for land. Smith was instantly conscious of the feeling, and he realized that he was experiencing a reenactment of the Flood from the Old Testament. But the clay tablet was written so much earlier than the Bible.
Smith unearthed a piece of a tablet containing the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the first works of literature ever written. Gilgamesh, ruler of Uruk (where cuneiform writing was developed in the 4th millennium BC), oppressed his people, so the gods created Enkidu to fight against him.
Enkidu and Gilgamesh became friends, and the two went on many adventures together until it was obvious that Enkidu must die.
In a conference, the gods reached a conclusion, and Gilgamesh was now on a mission to live forever. Once he reached Utnapishtim at the edge of the world, he learned about the Flood from him. Gilgamesh finally went back to his home city of Uruk.
In all, there are 12 panels making up the Epic of Gilgamesh. Currently, just 38% of the original text’s 3033 lines have been preserved in their entirety. The Library of Ashurbanipal provided the majority of the textual remains.
Smith conducted excavations in Mesopotamia to locate the missing pieces
Throughout the 19th century, scholars gained a deeper familiarity with the cuneiform script. Smith uncovered what is perhaps the most crucial text in this cryptic writing.
Due to his limited knowledge of the Mesopotamian Flood narrative, Smith in 1872 was unaware of this. So, he prepared for his own excavation at Nineveh. Except that the British Museum wasn’t prepared to foot the bill for an expedition, thus money was needed. The Daily Telegraph provided financial support, and in 1873 Smith traveled to the Ottoman Empire in search of further information on the Flood in the remains of Nineveh.
On May 7, 1873, excavations started, and one week later, the buzz was at its peak: Smith had found a real discovery. He sent a hasty telegram to London, which was a huge blunder. Because the Daily Telegraph immediately asked Smith to return to London. Smith went home in dismay and resolved to go back as quickly as he could. A lot happened very quickly; he began the second dig in 1873 and returned to London in the summer of 1874 with a lot more fragments.
Finally, he was able to piece together the details of the Flood and other tablets from the Epic of Gilgamesh.
The pace he set was astounding. By the end of 1874, he had published translations of all the literary writings he had unearthed, and the following year, he penned no less than four volumes. He acted as though he knew his time was running out.
Finally, at the end of 1875, he set out for Mesopotamia once more with the backing of the British Museum, but this time it was a tragic expedition. After first being denied access to the dig site, his travel partner later succumbed to cholera while they were still close to Baghdad. Smith was granted permission to excavate in Nineveh, but the extreme summer heat made the task hard.
When Smith got dysentery in Syria, he realized he couldn’t just go back to London without having accomplished anything. George Smith, a career switcher and self-taught scientist who paved the way for contemporary Assyriology, passed away in Aleppo on August 19, 1876. He was 36 years old.
The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli is one of the most iconic works of the Italian Renaissance and continues to captivate viewers today. Learn the truth behind the legend that has surrounded the masterpiece. Venus, the goddess of love, is shown here as a lady with translucent skin who is gently perched on a shell and is surrounded by people who are all facing her. For this piece, the Italian artist paid homage to the creative sophistication of his day by depicting a pagan topic.
What are the characteristics of this painting?
The painting “The Birth of Venus” is a tempera on canvas.
To get this effect, the artist likely mixed ground pigments with egg white or fig milk. This colossal work, measuring in at 67.9 x 109.6 inches (172.5 x 278.5 cm), required the sewing together of two canvases.
This picture, which is now housed in Florence, Italy’s Uffizi Gallery, was either commissioned by or created for a Medici family member. It was painted in 1485, at the time of Lorenzo de’ Medici (Lorenzo the Magnificent). Sandro Botticelli aimed to pay homage to the most valuable qualities of nature through the people, scenery, and arrangement.
The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli, 1485.
How is the work composed?
In this seafaring tale, three distinct groups of people emerge. The shoreline in this artwork is quite steep, and the waves are crashing ever lower. Roses, conceived by Venus, rain down from the heavens. All four classical elements are here: air (represented by the deity of the winds, Zephyr), water from the sea, earth (the coastline can be seen to the right), and fire (that of love).
A melancholy Venus perched on a shell occupies the focal point. This primary figure is nearly life size, and on each side of her are two smaller figures: a young lady (the goddess of spring) and the wind deity Zephyr, who is joined by his wife, the nymph Chloris (a symbol of physical love). The triangle arrangement focuses attention on the lovely goddess’s face.
Who are the different characters?
Venus (Aphrodite for the Greeks), the goddess of beauty, stands front and center on an open conch. Her curves convey sensuality, and her nakedness represents innocence. The shell represents the female sex, hence, it is seen as a symbol of fertility.
With a subtle motion of her hand, she covers her breasts, and her long blond hair also helps. Her subtle wiggle, reminiscent of ancient statues, gives the impression that she is in motion. Her eyes have a melancholy beauty about them.
Zephyr, the god of the winds, and his wife are seen entwined in the air to the left of the artwork. His puffy cheeks show that he is blowing on Venus to force her toward the beach. The springtime goddess Flora (one of the “Horae”) appears on the right.
She stands on the coast, holding out a purple fabric with flowers on it as a welcome mat for Venus. The cornflowers on her outfit are a nod to the romantic springtime.
What mythological episode does this painting depict?
This artwork shows Venus’s first trip to Cyprus after she was born. According to Hesiod, a Greek poet, Venus was conceived in the genitalia of her father Ouranos (Uranus), the god of the sky, who concealed his offspring under the surface of the Earth. Chronos, his disobedient son, removed his father’s internal organs and hurled them into the ocean.
When they hit the ocean, a foam arose, and from it sprang Venus, also known as Aphrodite, the goddess of love. Then Zephyr blew her to Cyprus, where the daughters of Zeus and Themis, the Horae, greeted her and whisked her away to Olympus.
