Tag: space

Apollo 8: The first flight to the Moon
50 years ago, in December 1968, mankind made history by going outside of Earth’s low orbit for the first time and reach an extraterrestrial body. The Apollo 8 crew became the first humans to orbit the Moon, allowing them to glimpse Earthrise over the lunar terrain and see the far side of our satellite for the first time. NASA began a historic and exceedingly risky mission on December 21, 1968. Astronauts left the protective confines of Earth’s orbit for the first time and explored the immensity of space. And the first Moon landing in July of 1969 was made possible by the Apollo 8 mission to the Moon.
Fifty years after its completion, the Apollo 8 mission remains a thrilling chapter in the human exploration of space.
Competition: Moon
Bankruptcies, bad luck, and unfortunate events
At first, NASA intended Apollo 8 to be a pretty routine test trip in Earth orbit, during which they would put the new lunar module through its paces. After all, this was the deciding factor in whether or not a lunar landing would be possible.
Accidents keep piling up
The Apollo lunar module during a test in Earth’s orbit – it was not ready in time for Apollo 8. Credit: NASA.
However, in the summer of 1968, everything changed. The Grumman Corporation’s design for NASA’s landing module was incomplete at first, and then problems started piling up: cables were connected improperly or caused short circuits, components were broken, and the nozzles that were meant to lift the module off the lunar surface didn’t work. In a short amount of time, it became apparent that the module would not be completed in time for the December launch of Apollo 8.
The Saturn V’s progress has been discouraging as well; it’s the only rocket capable of lifting the lunar module, the command capsule, and three astronauts into orbit. In April of 1968, during a second unmanned test, the rocket began vibrating so strongly that it ruptured several of the cables. Consequently, two of the rocket’s five engines go out prematurely, and the craft just barely reaches orbit. Then, the failure occurs during the third and final firing stage of the lunar mission. The signs for Saturn V’s human missions are not good.
Take on the Soviets in a race
U.S. space officials are also concerned that the Soviet Union is close to launching the country’s first human mission to the Moon. In September of 1968, the unmanned spacecraft Zond 5 completed its first orbit of the Moon. Soviet engineers have begun designing and testing a rocket designed for human trips called the Soyuz. There are hints that a cosmonaut may be doing a test journey toward the Moon soon.
NASA is now under significant time constraints. As far as we can tell, the Soviet Union is much ahead of the United States in the space race. They sent the first satellite into orbit with Sputnik, and cosmonaut Yuri Gargarin went into space before any American astronaut. This is a humiliating setback for the United States, which likes to see itself as the leader of the free world. Consequently, the race to the Moon must be won at whatever cost.
Is Kennedy’s programme tipping?
US President John F. Kennedy at Rice University Stadium in Houston during his famous “Moon Speech”.
It is also crucial to fulfilling John F. Kennedy’s pledge. In a speech delivered in Texas in September 1962, Kennedy said that a human would walk on the Moon before the end of the decade. “We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard.” Since then, NASA and its subcontractors have devoted massive resources to meeting this deadline, creating space capsules, docking methods, and rockets at breakneck speed and putting them through their paces in both human and unmanned trips around Earth.
However, by the summer of 1968, the whole Apollo program was in danger of being delayed. Despite all this, would the Soviets end up being ahead of the Americans?
How Apollo 8 became a lunar mission
Originally planned for Apollo 9, but then preferred to Apollo 8: James Lovell, William Anders and Frank Borman.
Time to make a decision
On this day in 1968, Apollo 9’s soon-to-be commander, Frank Borman, is in California running the ship’s Command Module through its last testing. This former Air Force pilot is no stranger to space travel; in 1965, he and James Lovell spent two weeks in a Gemini spacecraft orbiting the Earth. They plan to return to Earth orbit in early 1969 with a third guy, space rookie William Anders.
An insane scheme
The problem is that NASA officials in Houston have just canceled Borman’s scheduled trip, and he has no idea about it. Since the lunar module will not be completed in time for the December trip, a choice must be made. The Americans asked “Should we risk having the Soviets beat us to the Moon and missing Kennedy’s objective by delaying Apollo 8 and all following flights?” Or do you take an unusual risk even for the still young NASA?
As a NASA engineer, George Low has a seemingly insane plan: Apollo 8 should be launched without the landing module, bypassing Earth orbit entirely and heading straight for the Moon. The spaceship would next enter a lunar orbit and begin circling the Moon. The rationale for this is that while waiting for the lunar module, the crew could practice the required flying maneuvers. These are still simply conceptual at this point, existing solely on paper and in the thoughts of engineers. It’s also uncharted terrain for space travelers to establish contact with one another across such vast distances. A lunar orbit with Apollo 8 would offer the chance to test all this – and to beat the Soviets.
“Have you gone mad?”
Credit: NASA
But are astronauts and technology up to the task? Low keeps NASA Director James Webb in the dark about the Apollo team’s preparations for launch by having them surreptitiously figure out the required course adjustments and maneuvers and inspect the state of the rocket and space capsules. They conclude that by December 1968, the Apollo 8 spacecraft would have had advanced enough technology to make a trip to the Moon and even a spin into lunar orbit.
Now, all that remains is to persuade NASA’s upper management to go along with this strategy. As for Low’s relationship with Thomas Paine, the deputy director, there are no major issues. James Webb, who is now in Europe for a conference, may be an exception. Those that answer Paine’s appeal are less than enthusiastic. According to Andrew Chaikin’s “A Man on the Moon,” “Webb shouted down the transatlantic telephone line: ‘Have you gone mad?’”
To be fair, Webb is not completely incorrect. The strategy makes sense and is technically possible, but it’s also very dangerous. In the event of a problem with the command module, the astronauts would be stranded in space without the Lunar Module to rescue them. And not a single Apollo module had ever been crew-tested; suddenly they were all set to go for the Moon.
This makes it official
In spite of these worries, a middle ground was found: In a news conference held on August 19, 1968, NASA revealed that the Apollo 8 mission would proceed without the lunar module and with a new crew consisting of Borman, Lovell, and Anders. It seems highly probable that the two veteran Gemini astronauts will be able to complete this challenging first voyage.
Where the flight will go, however, NASA initially leaves in the dark. After all, the Soviet Union must not be given advance notice. The first human flight of an Apollo shuttle, Apollo 7, took place in October 1968, and it was then, the mission profile of Apollo 8 was finally decided. The test flight of Apollo 7 was a success, with the Saturn 1B rocket successfully lifting the command capsule into orbit and the propulsion nozzles on the capsule working as expected.
It’s finally time for Apollo 8, the first manned mission to the Moon.
First humans to orbit Moon
Goodbye, planet Earth
It’s the morning of the Apollo 8 launch, December 21, 1968. The Saturn V rocket, assembled on Launch Pad 39A at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center, soars into the sky. This 110-meter-tall monster is the most powerful rocket ever constructed. This, however, is the day when the Saturn V is put to the ultimate test, as astronauts will be placing their lives in the rocket’s hands for the first time.
The launch
Saturn V, Apollo 8 launch.
The Saturn V’s fuel tanks were refilled with liquid oxygen, kerosene, and liquid hydrogen for many hours the night before. Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders, all astronauts, entered the spaceship at roughly five o’clock that morning. The astronauts must now put their faith in the rocket and the Apollo capsule’s onboard computer, both of which are quite rudimentary in comparison to what we have today.
The Saturn V’s engines start roaring to life at 7:51 a.m. local time. Even at a distance of 10 kilometers, the launch’s noise and vibrations are powerful enough to break the glass. The first combustion stage consumes 20 tons of fuel per second, or over two million liters, in only 2.5 minutes of operation as the rocket slowly, almost reluctantly, lifts off the ground.
However, the rocket’s force can only lift the space capsule 65 kilometers into the air. Then the five engines of the rocket’s second stage take over, followed by the third stage’s thrusters. The latter is what propels the Apollo spacecraft (composed of a command capsule and a service module) into low Earth orbit, at an altitude of around 190 kilometers.
Destination: the Moon
Since Apollo 7 and numerous Gemini flights have already reached Earth orbit, the three Apollo astronauts have not yet mapped out any new terrain. It takes Borman, Lovell, and Anders two orbits around the planet to double-check everything. The next step is to relight the third rocket stage, which will propel the spacecraft out of Earth’s orbit and onto the Moon.
It’s a critical time; if the burn stage’s ignition fails now, the lunar mission will be a failure, and the astronauts will stay in orbit. A mistimed or delayed ignition may throw a spaceship off track. But all goes according to plan, and two hours, 47 minutes, and 37 seconds after liftoff, the Apollo capsule is propelled by its engines and begins a steady, gradual acceleration away from the gravitational pull of Earth. The engines were turned off for the last time at 5 minutes and 18 seconds, putting Apollo 8 on a direct track to the Moon.
Approaching to the Moon
The historical moment
One of the first images of the Earth from outside the Earth’s orbit taken from Apollo 8.
It’s a big deal: Apollo astronauts Borman, Lovell, and Anders became the first people to ever gaze upon Earth from space. As their ship speeds away from the planet, Earth becomes a tiny blue dot on the command module’s display.
In one of the first space TV broadcasts, astronauts attempt to describe this incredible scene to viewers on Earth. The clouds that float above the Earth and are described by them as white bands and swirls also seem to be the color scheme they use to represent the planet itself. Jim Lovell told Anders, “Mike, here’s what I can’t stop imagining: I’m a lone space traveler from another planet, looking down at Earth for the first time. Whether or not I would assume there were people living there.”
Drawn to the Moon by its gravity
View over Mare Tranquillitatis, taken from Apollo 8.
A few times later, the astronauts pass another significant milestone as their spaceship exits the gravitational pull of Earth and enters the Moon’s gravitational field. It’s the first time that humans have made it this far. At this point, 326,400 km from Earth and 62,000 km from the Moon, the astronauts, and their spaceship are being drawn toward it. Therefore, Apollo 8’s speed in flight keeps increasing.
On their way to the Moon, the astronauts won’t be able to view it since the Moon would be right in front of them and the command module’s side windows are too tiny. Since they have no way of knowing whether or not the path is true or whether or not their flight is being tracked by the ground station, they have no choice but to trust on faith alone. The United States, Canada, Mexico, Australia, and a number of ships in the Indian and Pacific Oceans all contribute to this effort.
Here, on the Moon’s dark side
Apollo 8, Frank Borman, during an orbit around the Moon.
The Apollo 8 crew reached the Moon early on December 24, 1968. But now they must do a tricky maneuver: they must slow down Apollo’s trajectory and swing it into lunar orbit. To slow down enough, they run the engines in reverse for around four minutes.
The challenge is that this ignition has to occur on the far side of the Moon when radio communication with Earth is down. At this point, not even NASA’s ground personnel can assist the astronauts. As an added safety measure, the spacecraft stays on the dark side of Earth’s satellite until just before the last braking maneuver. As a result, the astronauts are essentially flying blind. However, everything goes well, and Apollo 8’s engines bring its speed to slightly under 6,000 kilometers per hour. With its current velocity, the spacecraft can be captured by the Moon’s gravity and guided into orbit.
After a long and perilous journey, the three Apollo astronauts arrived…
Earthrise
With Apollo 8, humans left Earth’s orbit for the first time – and saw the rise of the Earth. © NASA
Borman, Lovell, and Anders’ primary focus now that they are in lunar orbit is to observe and photographically map the lunar surface. They are the first people to observe the Moon’s dark side and the closest humans have ever been to the Moon’s surface, at a distance of around 100 kilometers.
Like gray sand on the seashore…
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At first, Jim Lovell tries to relay his thoughts about the lunar surface to mission control: “Almost entirely devoid of hue, the Moon is a uniform gray. It resembles plaster or slightly grey beach sand. There is a great deal of specificity in view. All of the craters are circular in shape. Numerous examples exist, including some that occurred quite recently. It seems that meteorites or other projectiles may have damaged several of them, particularly the spherical ones.”
Unfortunately, Earth’s satellite is, on the whole, a very underwhelming sight. The landscape is flat and gloomy, with no striking landmarks such as mountains or canyons. Quite differently from how Stanley Kubrick’s soon-to-be-released film, “2001: A Space Odyssey,” portrayed it.
Making of a legendary photograph
Anders peered out the window during the third orbit and beheld a scene that has never been seen before: Earth rising over the drab lunar surface, bathed in blue light. “Oh my God, look at that sight, too!” he cries. Borman, who is busily rotating the Apollo spacecraft, gasps in surprise. The Earth is rising!” exclaims Anders.
Anders quickly swaps the black-and-white film in his camera for color so he may record the majesty of the Earth as it rises. Yes, it does work. Apollo 8’s “Earthrise” remains one of the world’s most iconic photographs. Anders later reflects, “It was the most gorgeous one I had ever seen — and absolutely unexpected.” While in lunar orbit, I had a revelation: “The most fascinating part of the voyage was viewing Earth from the Moon.”
Inspirational Christmas message
In the Christmas Eve live TV broadcast the astronauts transmit to Earth, Jim Lovell gives a similar account: “It’s terrible to be so far from civilization on the Moon’s surface. A sense of gratitude for Earth and everything we have here is sparked. From this vantage point, Earth seems like a magnificent paradise in the middle of empty space.” In the minutes that follow, the astronauts elaborate more on their first reactions to the lunar surface and the way that sunlight and shadows interact with the otherwise featureless landscape.

The three men on board the Apollo spacecraft then begin the ritualistic end to their live broadcast as they near the day-night limit of Earth’s satellite “The Moon dawn is rapidly coming. Finally, the Apollo 8 crew would want to relay a message to everyone back on Earth,” Anders says. Then he jumps into the opening of the biblical account of creation: “God created the universe and everything in it in the beginning. And all the land was barren and empty, and there was night over all the oceans. When God commanded, “Let there be light,” the Holy Spirit dove into the ocean. And finally, the Sun came out. Then God decided the light was good and built a barrier between it and the darkness.”
The reading from the account of creation is then continued by Lovell and Borman. And from the crew of Apollo 8: “We finish now with a good night, good luck, Merry Christmas, and God bless you all — all of you on the good Earth,” Borman says at the end of the 29-minute transmission. From the orbit of an extraterrestrial celestial body, a billion people across the planet may see and hear this Christmas greeting.
Let’s go down to Earth
Tension-filled seconds after the Moon
The crew of Apollo 8 gets ready to return to Earth while the rest of humanity sleeps in on Christmas Day, 1968. As the spacecraft completes its tenth and last lunar orbit, another critical maneuver—the spacecraft’s acceleration—is quickly approaching.
As we bid farewell to Earth’s satellite
View into the control center of the Apollo missions – here at Apollo 9.
This move must likewise be carried out on the far side of the Moon, away from Earth, leaving Borman, Lovell, and Anders to fend for themselves once again. Apollo 8’s engines fired just after midnight on December 25. After roughly three minutes, the spacecraft had gained enough speed to break free of the Moon’s gravitational influence.
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Meanwhile, down at NASA’s Houston control center, everyone is on edge as they wait for Apollo’s first sign of life after the radio silence. In order for Apollo 8 to successfully return to Earth, radio contact must be established at the precise moment planned in advance.
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And it works: Lovell, to the delight of the ground crew, declares, “This is Apollo 8 calling Houston. Bear in mind, there is a Santa Claus.”
Re-entry
Apollo 8 re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere.
No big problems arise on the trip back to Earth.
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After departing lunar orbit, the astronauts return to Earth’s protective zone eleven hours later. Their ship is suddenly being drawn to Earth at a frantic rate. The crew and spacecraft won’t face their next challenge until they re-enter Earth’s atmosphere.
The Apollo astronauts had already jettisoned the service module, at a distance of fewer than 3,000 kilometers from Earth’s surface, not long before. The control capsule is the only one still heading home. If the capsule malfunctions and crashes into Earth’s atmosphere, for example, all three astronauts would be killed. The oxygen and power in the capsule will run out just before the touchdown.
The Apollo spacecraft slows down as it hits the gas shell of Earth’s upper atmosphere at a height of 122 kilometers. When the capsule’s heat shield reaches 2,800 degrees Fahrenheit, it generates an ionized plasma. From outside, the astronauts notice a dazzling light that they initially think to be dawn.
Apollo 8 lands back on Earth
After landing on December 27, 1968: Apollo capsule aboard the USS Yorktown.
Forces of up to six grams are exerted on Borman, Lovell, and Anders as the Apollo spacecraft flies through the atmosphere, its bright heat shield illuminating the night sky. They say that after almost a week in zero gravity, they feel like an elephant is resting on their chest.
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Fortunately, this stress doesn’t endure forever; the braking parachutes deploy and the capsule slows to subsonic speeds before long. Once the final few kilometers are reached, the Apollo spacecraft touches down on the ocean’s surface.
As of 5:51 a.m. EST on December 27 (13:51 GMT), the Apollo astronauts have safely returned to Earth. Their spacecraft crashes into the Pacific Ocean, but it is upside down when it first makes contact with the water. The three of them are being thrashed about by the powerful surf while hanging upside down in their harnesses. However, the capsule righted itself after a few minutes, and the hatch was opened by American combat swimmers. The three Moon explorers return to Earth and take their first deep breaths of sea air after a week of breathing “canned air.”
What Apollo 8 left behind
The Apollo 8 crew not only became the first humans to reach the Moon but also changed the course of space travel forever. Approximately six months after their mission, Apollo 11 successfully landed on the Moon for the first time. The path paved by Borman, Lovell, and Anders was eventually followed by Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins. The three men on Apollo 8 captured the first photographs of the lunar surface from such a close range. Therefore, NASA was able to choose an appropriate landing location for Apollo 11.
Apollo 8 was an important stride for humanity since it was the first time humans ventured into deep space, even though it is generally eclipsed and replaced by Apollo 11 nowadays. In addition, the first lunar landing in July 1969 would not have been feasible without Apollo 8.
October 11, 2022
Colonization of the Moon: How Are We Going Achieve It?
It’s been decades since humans last visited the Moon, but that could change soon. That’s because several space organizations have recently announced plans to send humans to the Moon, and unlike previous trips, they want to really settle there. The plan is to set up bases on the Moon’s surface and in orbit around it. However, what may these lunar outposts really resemble? Where will they acquire the supplies they need?
Apollo 11‘s first lunar landing was 50 years ago, marking a major milestone in human spaceflight. The next logical step would be to begin lunar colonization. Due to the fact that the Moon still contains valuable resources like helium-3 and rare metals, it also serves as a crucial staging area for missions to Mars and beyond.
Thus, there has been a resurgence in the Moon Race. This time around, material economic and geopolitical objectives are at the forefront, rather than political considerations. Major space powers and private enterprises are developing ideas and technology for future lunar orbits and surface stations.
The long-fictionalized “Moon Base Alpha” is therefore taking on more concrete shape, and may become a reality within the next 20 to 30 years.
Why do we want to go back to the Moon?
Eugene Cernan, Apollo 17 astronaut, with lunar rover – he and Harrison Schmitt were the last men on the Moon in 1972.
New beginnings on the Moon
Humans have only ever stepped foot on the Moon, yet it is the first and only extraterrestrial celestial body we have ever explored. When Apollo 11 landed on the Moon for the first time in July 1969, people all across the globe applauded in response. At the time, many people thought that we would soon have outposts on the Moon and possibly colonies on Mars.
The Moon takes a back seat
But the excitement didn’t last long, and in 1972 the United States government abruptly scrapped the Apollo program once again, after only six landings and a total of twelve astronauts. All three remaining missions were scrapped. After the United States and the Soviet Union won the historic and politically significant race to the Moon, many American leaders, including President Richard Nixon, decided that further space exploration was no longer a priority.
The Moon and its exploration have been put on the back burner since then. Few orbiter probes remain in Earth’s satellite orbit, but the information they provide from afar is invaluable. However, landings have not occurred for decades, not even with unmanned probes. That all changed in 2013 when the Chinese spacecraft Chang’e 3 and the lunar rover Hutu touched down on the Moon for the first time in four decades. The first two unmanned missions to the far side of the Moon—Chang’e 4 and Hutu 2—landed in January 2019. Even still, no one has set foot on the Moon since 1972.
Alluring raw materials
However, in the meanwhile, there is activity once again in terms of lunar missions, as many space agencies and commercial organizations have revealed plans to send people to the Moon in the near future. However, the current objective is a lengthier, and probably even permanent, human presence aboard Earth’s satellite, in contrast to the flying visits of the Apollo missions.
Another deviation from the Apollo period is that the stakes are now material, economic, and technological benefits rather than a race of political systems. One reason to go to the Moon is all the precious metals and minerals it contains, including iridium. Due mostly to meteorite impacts, they have collected in the lunar regolith. Desire may also be sparked by helium-3, an exceptionally uncommon isotope of the noble gas helium. We’ll need it for things like coolants, measuring devices, and potential fusion reactor coolants, and the Moon has just what we need. Several corporations have declared their future plans for “Moon mining.”
The significance of Moon
In addition, the Moon’s strategic value lies in the fact that it might be used as a launching pad for human trips to Mars and beyond due to the much reduced rocket fuel needs afforded by the Moon’s low gravity. Telescopes and other observatories might potentially help boost space exploration efforts from the Moon. This is because, in particular, the far side of the Moon provides complete protection from any terrestrial disturbance.
Finally, the potential for profit from well-heeled space travelers is exciting. Elon Musk, the creator of SpaceX, revealed his company’s first lunar tourist in 2018: Japanese tycoon Yusaku Maezawa, who paid millions of dollars for passage for himself and a large group of friends on SpaceX’s first voyage to the Moon in 2017. In 2023, we want to achieve lunar orbit.
Thus, the Moon is now again a very appealing vacation spot.
Moon Village and Lunar Gateway
The European Space Agency (ESA) is preparing to build a full-scale lunar village that will serve as a research and business hub. Image: ESA
New Moon missions are in the works
When will the world learn the truth about the space countries’ bold new Moon programs? It seemed to be getting serious after 10 years of lofty intentions that never materialized. The United States, the European Union, China, and Russia are all planning missions over the next several years to be ready for the eventual return of humans to the Moon and the eventual establishment of a lunar outpost.
Everyone living in their own “Moon Village”
Jan Wörner, the head of the European Space Agency, proposed the idea of a Moon Village in 2016. This would be a multi-national outpost on Earth’s satellite, available for any and all uses. Her goal is to set up shop on the Moon permanently. Science and fundamental research, economic operations like raw material extraction, and even tourism might all be conducted by participants at this permanent lunar outpost.
Robots and autonomous rovers might launch the first phases of construction for this lunar outpost, with human astronauts joining in later. One major benefit of this plan is that it may be launched with very few resources. A number of nations are currently making preparations to send modest land missions, so that’s where we can begin. Afterwards, bigger initiatives might be built upon that foundation and include worldwide collaboration. As such, the lunar town has the potential to serve as the ISS’s successor, although one that is located on the Moon rather than in Earth’s orbit.
America: We’re here to stay this time
In December 2017, the United States issued a directive making a trip back to the Moon and subsequent trips to Mars a top priority for the American space program. Rather than just leaving our mark this time, we want to lay the groundwork for future exploration of Mars and beyond.
We are taking cutting-edge technology and systems to the Moon in order to study previously inaccessible regions, said NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine. We want to settle on the Moon this time, unlike Apollo. Our next giant step into space will be taken after that.
Lunar Gateway
In the 2020s, NASA hopes to realize its goal of constructing a lunar “gateway,” or space station in lunar orbit. Because of this gateway, we will be able to establish a strong foothold in cislunar space and more effectively investigate the Moon and its potential benefits. From there, we want to launch manned missions to the lunar surface.
In the same way that the ISS was built in increments, this next orbiting outpost will also be composed of modular components. The parts will be sent into orbit by NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS) and carried there aboard the Orion spacecraft. The core propulsion and supply portion of the station might be placed in lunar orbit really soon. In 2024, astronauts will have access to the first module that doubles as a home and lab. Once that happens, personnel may stay at the station for 30 or 60 days at a time to do their jobs.
Assisted landing by a private party
NASA is hoping to recruit commercial enterprises to help with the trip from the ISS to the Moon’s surface. Six businesses are competing in a tender announced at the end of 2018 under the NextSTEP initiative. The objective is to design a method that can transport, land, and return to the space station from the lunar surface.
In terms of requirements for future landing modules, durability and reusability are high on the list. In contrast to the Apollo lander modules, whose whole underpinnings were left on the Moon and are still there today, future landers will be entirely reusable. After that, they’ll be refueled either on the ground or in space. According to NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, we aim to return humans to the lunar surface within the next decade, but this time we want to do it sustainably.
How would a Moon base look like?
The European Space Agency’s (ESA) vision for a Moon base.
Lunar selters made of lava rock and regolith igloos
Those who choose to settle on the Moon in the future will be met with a harsh and perhaps lethal environment. As a matter of fact, the Moon is not exactly a warm and fuzzy location to spend some time. There is no magnetic field, no atmosphere to shield you from the elements, and no oxygen. Those who choose to remain on Earth’s surface are unprotected from the Sun’s radiation, the solar wind, and the meteorite showers. Simultaneously, there are dramatic shifts in temperature: If the Sun is out, everything will get to be around 120 degrees. Temperatures, on the other hand, dip to a chilly minus 170 degrees in the shadow and on starry evenings.
Therefore, the primary function of a lunar base is to offer shelter from these dangerous conditions. I mean, how? Obviously, an inflatable dome like the one seen in “The Martian,” a science fiction novel and film, would not be sufficient for a lunar outpost. A shield from radiation or meteors could not be created with this. Astronauts need sturdy walls in their lunar habitat if they are going to be able to stay there for an extended period of time.
Living and working in lunar lava caves
Lava caverns, which are found naturally on the Moon, might be used as a safe haven. Underground craters and tubes were formed by the Moon’s early volcanic activity. In 2017, scientists found a massive lava tunnel in the lunar Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum). It stretches for 31 miles (50 km) and is up to 3300 feet in height and width, providing enough room for an entire lunar metropolis. A hole with a diameter of around 165 feet (50 m) provides access to the surface.
Lava caverns near the Moon’s polar area, though, might be an even better fit. This is due to the presence of water ice, which may be used to provide both potable water and fuel for the astronauts. Philolaus crater, an impact crater of 44 miles (70 km) in size at 72 degrees north latitude, has been mapped and explored by scientists, and many spots inside it have been identified as promising candidates. Multiple shadowy crevices on the crater floor suggest the presence of lava caverns.
Moon bricks from the solar oven
We may also use Moon dust to construct the requisite defensive fortifications. DLR (German Aerospace Center) scientists in Cologne are already hard at work on a plan to fire regolith into a Moon block. They are focusing sunlight into a powerful beam using curved mirrors. The thin layer of volcanic grains used as a regolith mimic is heated to temperatures of over 1,000 degrees using this method.
Extreme heat causes the material to sinter, which means the granules adhere together and create a solid layer. Layer by layer, like a 3D printer, solid components may be created from regolith. Already, with today’s technology, we have access to a substance approximately as stable as gypsum. However, with more improvement, lunar regolith might be made into a construction material with the strength of concrete.
However, even with their solar 3D printer, it still takes the team around five hours to manufacture a single regolith building block. It would take around 10,000 of these bricks to create a protective shell around a lunar igloo. Months would pass before it could be accomplished. However, if many sintering plants were to be run in parallel on the lunar surface, the process may be sped up.
3D printing with regolith sludge
Together with the British firm Monolite, ESA researchers are researching an alternative method. First, a slurry is made by combining the regolith mimic with a magnesium oxide solution. This allows the document to be printed out. The business uses a binding salt to turn the substance into a stone-like solid, turning it from a liquid into “ink” for solid creations.
With this technique, the team can print and complete 6.5 feet (2 m) of material in an hour. If the next-generation design can achieve 11.5 feet (3.50 m) per hour, a whole skyscraper might be constructed in one week. Regolith material is used to make each block, which results in each one weighing 1.5 metric tons and featuring many holes throughout. It has not yet been determined, however, whether the building method would hold up in the lunar vacuum and dramatic temperature swings.
Catenary arch igloo design
A plan for the next ESA lunar outpost already exists, even though the building material has not been agreed upon. British superstar architect Norman Foster and his team designed it. The mathematical-physical theory of the catenary arch was adhered to in order to make the lunar dwellings as stable as possible. Arches are very stable because their shape, a parabola, takes the route of least energy.
In this way, the homes on the Moon seem more like igloos than like regular residences. They too are a hybrid of tube and dome shapes. The inflated inner shell serves as the structural base for these Moon igloos. This is the outline, which the robots are currently covering with regolith bricks from the outside. Each habitation module on the Moon will have enough room for four people and shield them from cosmic rays, meteorites, and temperature swings.
Water and oxygen
Both the Moon’s South Pole (left) and North Pole (right) have ice deposits (turquoise) in craters. Credit: NASA
Raw material sources: crater ice and regolith
Assuming the lunar base is complete and ready for its first residents. Then, at the very least, there’s the issue of getting fuel, water, oxygen, and food to the astronauts. It would be impractical and prohibitively costly to transport all of these materials from the Earth. Therefore, it is evident that a lunar colony, in order to exist, must make use of on-site resources.
Ice from the lunar craters
The most straightforward answer concerns the provision of water: if future lunar outposts are constructed in the polar regions of Earth’s satellite, sufficient water ice will be found there. In 2010, data from India’s Chandrayaan-1 lunar spacecraft indicated that there are ice layers a 3.2 ft (1 m) deep in the craters near the lunar north pole. Present evidence suggests there may be roughly 10 billion metric tons of water at each pole.
However, the exact amount and composition of the ice found in the lunar dust have not been determined. To this end, the possibility of obtaining potable water from ice remains open. In the next several years, this will be answered by a number of robotic lunar missions. To be fair, the needs of a lunar outpost wouldn’t be very high at first: NASA suggests that a crew of four may get by on just a few dozens of metric tons of water each year.
Water from the crater ice might be collected using solar energy. Using parabolic reflectors, the radiation may be focused and directed to evaporate the ice only in the parts that were shielded by the foil. In the event that this water vapor is dispersed and cooled once again, it condenses into potable water. Alternatively, robotic excavators may harvest ice, which could subsequently be melted or evaporated in stationary solar furnaces.
Regolith as a raw material supplier
Water could be retrieved from the regolith on the Moon even if there were no ice formations. This is because, as was recently discovered by spectrometer data from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, water is bonded to the rock as hydroxyl (OH) practically everywhere on the lunar surface. This trapped water is also located away from the lunar poles, making it a more accommodating site for a lunar outpost than the polar craters.
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center scientist William Farrell says that after being blasted by the solar wind, every rock on the Moon has the potential to generate water. According to the findings of his group, this bound water is produced by a chemical process in the regolith. Oxygen-containing minerals in lunar rock have their connections broken by the solar wind’s intense energy. Since reactive oxygen radicals are created, they may “grab” hydrogen from their surroundings to form hydroxyl.
Oxygen and water from the lunar soil
How, therefore, might this potentially hydrous rock be mined for potable water? Again, researchers showed that solar heat was crucial on a mock journey to Hawaii. At temperatures of around 900 degrees Fahrenheit, the regolith-like volcanic dust began to shine. Furthermore, passing hydrogen or methane across it causes it to react with the oxygen in the regolith to produce water. NASA estimates that 119 grams of water may be recovered from one kilogram of the most abundant lunar mineral, ilmenite (FeTiO3).
As a useful byproduct, the astronauts’ breathing air’s oxygen may be extracted from the regolith using this method. When water vapor is produced during heating, it must be separated back into its original hydrogen and oxygen components. One kilogram of ilmenite could provide enough oxygen for 106 grams of breathing space, at least in principle. However, studies are currently being conducted to ascertain which approach is most appropriate and how oxygen and water may be created using the fewest resources and the least amount of energy.
Electricity and fuel
The Moon’s 14 days long nights might hamper solar power generation. Credit: NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio.
Generating power on the Moon
A lunar outpost needs its own power plant if its inhabitants are to survive. Electricity is essential for astronauts because it powers their heaters, lights, and other electronic gear. They should be able to use local resources to produce fuel for the landing shuttles and lunar vehicles.
Electricity from the Sun
Sunlight is a simple and effective way to get energy. Photovoltaic systems have a long history of usage in space exploration, and the Moon is a suitable location for them. The catch is, however: Since one lunar day is equivalent to 29 Earth days, the Moon is always in the dark for two weeks when the Sun isn’t available to provide energy. Aside from that, the Earth sometimes shuts out the Sun for a few hours during solar eclipses, which happen several times a year.
Scientists, however, have come up with answers for this as well: Aidan Cowley of the European Space Agency says that throughout the day, there is sufficient solar energy to split water into its component parts of hydrogen and oxygen. We could convert these gases back into water and use them to generate energy when the Moon was asleep. In theory, this might work by having fuel cells soak up sunlight throughout the day and then churn out power after the Sun goes down.
In a perfect world, hydrogen, oxygen, and the resultant water would all be recycled indefinitely inside this system, forming a closed cycle. The only other component needed is sunshine. According to David Bents of the Glenn Research Center, who studied these regenerative fuel cells for NASA a few years ago, if nothing breaks or wears out, this may operate indefinitely without having to be recharged.
Moon as a gas station
Among the many resources needed for space flight, fuel is one of the heaviest and most vital. As of now, it constitutes the vast majority of the total launch mass of a rocket, and thus, a significant proportion of the associated launch expenses. A lunar outpost would have to generate its own fuel to be cost-effective.
In addition, a lunar outpost is seen as crucial by space organizations as preparation for Mars and beyond. For this reason, NASA’s lunar orbiting station Lunar Gateway will, in the long run, serve as a refueling station for space trips. After all, space probes won’t have to struggle against Earth’s gravity to lift their entire fuel load into space if they only do it in lunar orbit. Concepts for such “refueling stations” in lunar orbit are already being developed by a number of academic organizations and businesses.
Even if these filling stations are built, the issue of where to get gasoline for them remains. Once again, the regolith of the Moon is being seen as the best option. It contains the ingredients for a standard rocket fuel, hydrogen, and oxygen, and can be extracted using the Sun’s heat. The upper burn stage of the Saturn V, the Atlas 5, and the engines of the space shuttles have all employed liquid oxygen and hydrogen. However, this fuel combination is also used by cutting-edge rockets like the European Ariane 5 rocket.
What is the source of the food on the Moon?
A Mars greenhouse is seen in this artist concept. Using a hydroponic method, plants are being grown with the aid of red, blue, and green LED light strips. Image credit: SAIC
Plants grown in the Moon
That remains the issue of sustenance for the lunar colonists of the future. For a long time, astronauts (including those living on the ISS) have needed to rely on supplies sent all the way from Earth. But the logistics and prices of a lunar colony would not allow for something that is currently difficult and costly in Earth orbit. Because of this, it is essential that the lunar station’s personnel generate as much as possible inside the facility itself.
Vegetables cultivated on lunar soil
Vegetables and fruits, at least, could make this simpler than previously believed. Plants were successfully grown by Dutch researchers in 2016 using lunar and Martian soil replicas. The difficulty is that the regolith has almost no nutrition since it lacks organic components due to the absence of life on the Moon. However, the astronauts’ own waste products, like urine or leftover food, might make up for the lack of these organic ingredients.
To secure the success of their culture experiment, Wieger Wamelink and his colleagues sent in soil microorganisms from Earth to further enrich their synthetic lunar regolith with such organic material. They then planted a variety of vegetables and grains including tomatoes, peas, rye, radishes, leeks, spinach, lettuce, cress, quinoa, and chives. The end result was that plant life flourished in the artificial lunar soil. About half as much biomass was created as on Earth, but there was still plenty to harvest.
Orbit and Antarctica are being used for test crops
On the International Space Station, astronauts are attempting a new approach. Since 2015, the station has included a miniature greenhouse. Plants are nourished by a nutrient solution and grown in a calcareous mineral mass. Bright red, blue, and green LEDs light up the entire object. The ISS crew has already gotten their hands on fresh lettuce thanks to this “veggie” technology. A completely autonomous automated plant-growing system is the next step. More than 180 sensors monitor the soil, air, and water supplies separately and adjust the flow as needed.
Plant growth on the Moon is being tested again in the Antarctic. The EDEN-ISS greenhouse container has been stationed in the Antarctic since the beginning of 2018, around 1300 feet (400 m) from the German Neumayer III research station. Plants like lettuce, radishes, and cucumbers thrive here because the system is comparable to the one used on the space station. Scientists working in the Arctic have already harvested their first crop, which they have consumed with great gusto.
Gioia Massa, a NASA researcher, notes that the farther and longer people go from Earth, the more important it is to be able to produce plants for food, for processing the atmosphere, and for psychology. So, plant life is crucial to any future extended space missions.
It’s a matter of compromises
The people of the future lunar outpost, however, will need more than just lettuce and cucumbers to sustain themselves. Unfortunately, supplies of food will still need to be sent in from Earth. Therefore, a trip back to the Moon and the construction of a lunar station will not be a cheap luxury. What ultimately matters is whether or not the benefits and insights acquired are worth these expenses.
October 10, 2022
Europa: Jupiter’s Icy Moon With Underwater Ocean
Because Europa, Jupiter’s moon, is thought to conceal an ocean of liquid water under its icy cover, it may be home to intelligent life from outside our solar system. Europa is perhaps more intriguing than any other moon in the galaxy. The frigid moon may be more habitable than previously believed. Europa, the ice moon, seems frigid and frightening at first view. However, it is misleading. Because there is a massive ocean of liquid water under its crust, providing possible conditions for life. Scientists have been slowly digging into the question of whether or not life exists on Europa in recent years. The outcome of which might be unexpected.
Ocean below Europa’s ice
This might be what it looks like when water vapor and water shoot out from the ice and form springs on Europa. (K. Retherford/SWRI/NASA/ESA)
Jovian satellite Europa is strangely beautiful, with a network of furrows that stretch for miles over its icy surface. These furrows resemble the cracks in a painting. However, this stunning scenery comes at a high cost, since no form of life could survive the -240°F (-150°C) temperatures, solid ice crust, and complete absence of air.
A secret habitat
According to the results, Europa likely has lakes underneath its frozen surface. (NASA/JPL/University of Arizona)
However, at depths of 6 to 9 miles (10 to 15 km), a whole other universe opens up. Here lies a vast ocean of salt water that wraps around Europa and is likely to be at least 60 miles (100 km) deep. This ocean may hold twice as much water as all the seas on Earth combined.
Again, details about this watery supermassive planet were gleaned through Galileo probe magnetic field data. Because it also picked up telltale abnormalities in Jupiter’s magnetic field surrounding Europa, the kind of disturbances usually caused by motions of conductive fluid. A magma ocean is unlikely on Europa since the moon is entirely covered in ice and, unlike Io, has no solid crust to keep the heat in. A subglacial sea of liquid salt water, on the other hand, would be conductive but also allow ice crusts to exist.
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Overwhelming tidal forces by Jupiter
Since Europa is Jupiter’s second-most inner moon, powerful tidal forces are at play there. (NASA)
The key question, though, is: what exactly is it that keeps the water liquid under the ice in Europa? Tidal forces from Jupiter are a likely cause. Europa’s orbit is very elliptical and somewhat eccentric around its host planet. Because of this, the strength of Jupiter’s gravitational attraction varies throughout the orbit. Thus, the interior of Europa varies according to how squeezed it is by Jupiter at a given moment.
There is a little elliptical deformation of the whole moon when Jupiter is near enough to cause the ice, water, and rock on the side facing it to rise. However, when Europa migrates away from Jupiter, its form once again becomes roughly spherical. These continuous motions produce heat through subsurface friction, which may be sufficient to maintain a liquid water layer under the ice of Europa.
Europa’s cracks and their meaning
When did the cracks start taking on such a peculiar form?
This colorized Galileo satellite picture shows that the ice crust is fractured along many directions. (NASA/JPL/University of Arizona)
Europa’s ice crust is so stiff that it cannot adapt to the movement and fissures caused by the subglacial ocean’s continual ups and downs. Images taken by the Galileo spacecraft reveal a fascinating pattern of elongated trenches and furrows formed by these fissures. Water from the ocean rises to the surface at these fissures regularly and solidifies, thus, causing the darker hue of the lines.
Mysterious directional shifts in the fractures
But there’s something off about these lines. It’s unclear why these fractures have changed direction over time. Since Jupiter’s moon rotates in a tidal lock with the planet, the tidal pressures are always exerted in the same direction. Then why are the cracks not constantly forming in the same direction?
There are theoretically three potential causes: To begin, Europa’s icy crust may revolve a little faster than the rest of the moon. As a result, Jupiter’s tidal forces would gradually shift the crust’s orientation relative to the planet over time. Another idea is that, like Earth’s axis of rotation, Europa’s is somewhat inclined relative to its orbital motion. As a result, Europa would wobble more over time, and its crustal areas would alternately begin to draw closer to Jupiter.
A third prospect is that the fractures are scattered at random and that their direction is not related to lunar activities but could be related to local weak points in the ice sheet.
Europa’s wobbling axis
But this crust hypothesis came up on the losing end, with the models based on this scenario consistently failing to reproduce Europa’s usual cracking pattern. However, if the simulations were modified in a way that Europa’s axis swung back and forth by around 1 degree over time, the results would get quite similar to the fracture pattern seen in the ice crust, suggesting that the wobbling axis is more likely the reason for the directional changes in Europa’s fractures and ridges. Even a little axial tilt (or obliquity) accounts for a lot of this current phenomenon on Europa.
Liquid water under Europa’s ice sheet
What maintains the ocean’s fluidity on Europa? Sloshing water, or even subsea volcanoes. It’s from NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
The usual breaking pattern of the ice crust may have been caused by Europa’s mild tumbling, which may also have led to the creation of a subglacial ocean. That’s because the heating impact of tidal forces can be amplified even by tiny variations in Europa’s orientation with regard to Jupiter.
Some scientists think that the subglacial ocean in Europa is continually sloshing back and forth under the unyielding crust due to the ice moon’s wobbling. Instead of being relatively motionless, the water would be marked by powerful currents. Also, the energy released by the motion of the water might be enough to keep Europa’s ocean liquid. Thus, the liquid water on Europa could be heated by the ocean itself, not by the surface or the subsurface. But, this is still only a theory at this point.
The possibility of life on Europa
Organisms under the ice
If water exists as a liquid on Europa, then there might be life on this icy moon of Jupiter. But there is more to it when it comes to subglacial lakes or seas. For thriving and reproducing, most organisms need either light or air, or at least certain gases. That’s why, for a long time, it was believed that the subterranean lakes of Antarctica were fairly unfriendly to life. But that didn’t turn out to be true.
Proof of life on Lake Vostok
A perspective image of the ice surface of Lake Vostok. (Michael Studinger / Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory)
Lake Vostok, the biggest subglacial lake in the Antarctic on Earth has always been frozen solid. Having been covered by ice almost 2 miles (3 km) thick for the last 15 million years, its waters have been cut off from the surface. No light can make it through this ice sheet, the air pressure is very high, and food is probably in short supply. It’s undeniable that species on Earth that call Lake Vostok home must thrive under very harsh circumstances.
No samples of the lake’s liquid had been obtained due to concerns about contamination, so it was unclear whether or not there were organisms living in the waters of Vostok. However, in recent years, scientists have drilled just above the water level, collecting the first samples of frozen lake water from the boundary layer. This layer forms when the lake water freezes at the points of contact with the glacier ice and then collects on the underside of that glacier ice.
Incredible variety
The samples at depths of around 11,700 to 11,900 ft (3,550 to 3,600 m) came from the ice formed by the lake water and when the samples were studied, the scientists deciphered the DNA and RNA sequences frozen in the ice to discover the kind of species living in the Lake Vostok.
What they uncovered instead of an area devoid of diversity was the DNA of thousands of species living in impossible conditions. 94% of the species were bacteria, while the remaining 6% were either fungus or archaea, a unique class of single-celled creatures. This finding has forever changed our view of what is and isn’t deemed liveable.
Evidence of higher life
Future autonomous diving robots may help us learn more about the ecosystem of Lake Vostok, and potentially Europa as well. (NASA / JPL-Caltech)
What’s more, the investigations also uncovered the fact that many of the bacterial species detected in the ice are generally found in close connection with multicellular creatures. They are parasites and commensals that inhabit fish and other marine organisms such as crabs and worms. Some of the DNA samples could have even originated from these higher species.
This leads to the conclusion that there may be some complex organisms than single cells living in Lake Vostok which also suggests that life may exist on Europa’s cold surface if terrestrial creatures have colonized such purportedly hostile and severe habitats on Earth.
Europa’s ice crust is vital for possibility of life
Is it blocking life or safeguarding it?
Jupiter’s moon Europa has an ice cover that is 3,300 ft (1 km) thick, and it has a crucial role in the search for life on this icy moon. The ice cover serves as a blanket, protecting the subglacial ocean from the deadly cold of space and the lethal effects of radiation. As an added bonus, the ice crust, together with the rocky core, is likely the primary source of chemical building blocks for life. This is due to the coating of chemical compounds left on the surface of Europa’s ice sheet by meteorite strikes, radiation, and particles from Jupiter and the solar wind.
Does Europa have oxygen?
Those fissures in the ice are a hint that the crust of Europa regularly tears open and becomes permeable. (NASA/JPL)
When this radiation splits the water molecules in the ice, this in theory should release oxygen into Europa’s atmosphere. These gases and liquids can as well reach the ocean below if the ice sheet is thin enough to allow them to escape through its countless fractures. Yet, this thick ice crust can still be detrimental to life. And Europa’s ice crust is not precisely a thin sheet, being at least 6 miles (10 km) in thickness.
Recent models showed that enough oxygen could make its way down to the subglacial water from the glacier surface, and it is simply a matter of how long it would take. This is because tidal pressures on Europa could be causing the ice crust to shift and break apart on a regular basis, sending new, frozen ice to the top while pushing other sections of the surface layer deeper into the underwater ocean.
The upheaval in Europa
Numerous new bulges and seams can be seen all throughout Europa’s surface, proving that similar upheaval processes are still happening right now. In theory, oxygen was once restricted to the atmosphere’s outermost layers in Europa. But the simulations reveal that free oxygen might have been mixed in over the full thickness of the ice crust during the span of around 1 to 2 billion years of irradiation and upheaval.
Meanwhile, similar to the underside of ice floes in our terrestrial (surface) seas, a persistent, quicker interchange of thawing and freezing happens at the boundary layer between water and ice on Europa’s icy crust. In as short as half a million years enough oxygen might have been dissolved in Europa’s ocean water during this exchange at the ice-water interface to provide minimum oxygen saturation for life.
Getting ready for life
This amount of oxygen would support life on Earth for even the smallest crustaceans. In under 12 million years, oxygen levels in Europa’s atmosphere may have risen to match those of our seas, making breathing comfortable for even the biggest aerobic organisms. If Europa had started out without oxygen for 1 or 2 billion years, that may have been the perfect amount of time for life to evolve there since this is similar to the history of Earth.
The chemically hostile oxygen wasn’t there when the original building blocks of life developed on Earth. Circumstances altered and the increasing oxygen content of the atmosphere produced the conditions for the genesis of higher life forms only after the earliest single-celled creatures had existed. The water under Europa to possibly have enough oxygen to allow for the formation of even bigger life forms is, therefore, not inconceivable.
Lakes under Europa’s ice
Chaos Terrain for clues
To what extent the ice on Europa can be penetrated is a key aspect of the survival of any life on Jupiter’s moon. Europa’s icy shell may be more permeable than previously assumed. Images taken by the Galileo probe reveal strange landscapes on Europa such as uneven ridges, cracks, and plains that appear jumbled. This topography is called “Chaos Terrain.” The planets Mars and Mercury, as well as the dwarf planet Pluto, all have Chaos Terrains.
Scientists find the ice sheet mechanisms remarkably similar to those structures. This is because similar processes occur on glaciers and ice shelves that sit above subglacial volcanoes.
Caves under Europa’s ice
It is hypothesized that Europa may have subsurface lakes, like ice-filled caverns that sit about midway between the surface and the ocean. There are many cracks in the rough topography of the Chaos Terrain formations above the lakes, which might enable abundant oxygen and organic substances to infiltrate the waters in these shallow caves in the ice.
However, this may also mean that these subglacial lakes of Europa may support life. As time goes on, these tunnels might eventually burst apart due to massive fractures in the ice, allowing for a passageway to the ocean below. Even though Europa has a strong crust, scientists can now see that it may be home to enormous shallow lakes that facilitate “mixing.” This mechanism of mixing has the potential to improve the habitability of Europa’s ocean.
Connection to the ocean under the ice
Springs of water
Image data from the Hubble Space Telescope revealed that water vapor is coming from Europa’s south pole, sometimes in gigantic springs that reach heights of over 125 miles (200 km), providing more proof of a connection between Europa’s surface and its subglacial ocean.
A blue glow
The map above depicts the area where water vapor was found over the southernmost part of Europa. (Credits: NASA/ESA/L. Roth/SWRI/University of Cologne)
The spectrometer on the Hubble telescope picked up the faint light of excited oxygen and hydrogen atoms near the pole of Europa. In most cases, this is brought on by the disintegration of water molecules in response to a magnetic field. That implies that water vapor is present on Europa but at very low temperatures.
The moon Enceladus of Saturn is reported to experience a similar phenomenon. Geysers that are currently active here also send clouds of steam, ice, and dust hurtling into the void. However, only water vapor was found on Europa; whether the springs also include ice and dust particles is still unknown. Also, the origin of these springs remains unknown.
Connection to a hidden ocean
But do these openings reach the ocean under Europa’s ice crust? Or they might be created in the ice as a result of frictional stress close to the surface. In that case, there would be no need to delve into the subglacial ocean to learn more about its composition.
The water vapor auroras always appear when Jupiter’s moon is at the farthest point in its eccentric orbit. This phenomenon is likely caused by Jupiter’s tremendous gravitational pull and its tidal forces. Scientists believe that the large fractures and fissures on Europa’s ice are stretched farther away from the planet, allowing water vapor to escape. But as Europa returns to its orbit around Jupiter, the planet’s gravity squeezes the moon, causing the fractures to close.
Water vapor escaping near Europa’s south pole reinforces its status as a top contender for life in the Solar System.
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Europa’s subglacial ocean may provide favorable circumstances for the emergence of life, if it were connected to the surface.
Chemical reactions taking place in the ice of Europa
A dynamic surface
There are possibly more than simply an ocean and lakes full of liquid water under Europa’s ice crust: Deep under the ice, the chemical reactions could be occurring at a remarkable rate between the frozen objects. This is thought to be invaluable. For one thing, at -305°F to -225°F (-187°C to -143°C), chemical processes just cannot take place on their own and extra energy would be required for them to happen.
Jupiter as an energy supplier
The areas where chemical substances have altered the ice are highlighted in false color. Acids and salts are seen in red. (NASA/JPL)
In theory, Jupiter provides one such energy supply. There is a steady release of radiation and energetic particles into the atmosphere through its radiation belts. If they were to land on Europa, they would set off chemical reactions. Nonetheless, these particles often only go down a few millimeters into the ice. For this reason, it was widely believed that considerable chemical activity could not have persisted in the depths of Europa’s ice crust.
However, this extra energy is actually still achievable without radiation and particle flow from Jupiter. Scientists conducted experiments in a high-vacuum room cooled to 50 to 100 Kelvin (minus 223° to minus 173°C) by spraying water vapor and sulfur dioxide gas onto mirrors. Instantaneously, the vapors froze into solid ice. Previous satellite observations have confirmed the presence of sulfur in Europa’s ice, most likely from the ice volcanoes on Jupiter’s moon Io but also from Europa’s subglacial ocean. However, what happened to this sulfur thereafter was a mystery.
The -280°F reaction
Do chemical processes take place on Europe’s ice cap? (NASA/JPL)
The scientists then observed the changes in the reaction chamber using infrared spectroscopy. Despite the subzero temperatures, the sulfur dioxide nevertheless managed to react with the water molecules, resulting in the formation of positive and negative ions. This reaction occurred very instantly at a temperature of -225°F (-143°C). After around half a day to a day at -280°F (-173°C), the reaction reached saturation.
A day may not seem like a little amount of time, but now compare it to the age of Europa, 4.5 billion years. After all, the process in the laboratory surprisingly transformed around 30% of the sulfur dioxide. What’s more, the positive and negative ions formed in this reaction readily combined with other molecules, triggering even other reactions.
What if the crust were more dynamic than we realized?
After this, they added carbon dioxide to the mixture to see whether the process would still occur in carbon dioxide ice, simulating the circumstances on Europa. This also froze up instantly on the mirrors while not halting the continuing reaction. If the frozen carbon dioxide had prevented the reaction this whole theory would have failed.
This, however, implies that Europa’s ice, and maybe the ice of other frozen moons like Ganymede and Callisto, may be chemically active. This means the sulfur dioxide under the surface of Europa is possibly interacting and forming chemical compounds, paving the way for the possibility of life.
October 2, 2022
Ancient Quasar Points to the First Stars in the Universe
September 29, 2022
Dart Successfully Crashed Into the Asteroid Dimorphos
Tonight, the DART spacecraft from NASA ended its mission and successfully hit an asteroid. The 540-foot (165-meter) wide asteroid moon Dimorphos was the intended target of the DART probe’s autonomous navigation system. The force of the collision should have been enough to decrease the fragment’s orbital period around Didymos by around 1 percent. As of this moment, only telescope observations can confirm or deny this theory.
This is only a practice run before the big thing: If an asteroid ever threatened Earth, the most promising solution would be a kinetic deflector, which would involve deflecting the asteroid with a massive unmanned space probe. However, it has to strike its target early enough, fast enough, and at the appropriate angle for its impact pulse to send the asteroid far enough out of its orbit for it to miss Earth.
DART’s approach and successful impact
The DART probe collides with the asteroid moon Dimorphos, altering its course.
NASA’s DART mission has now demonstrated that this is possible, even when the asteroid in question is 6.8 million miles (11 million kilometers) from Earth and cannot be seen with ground telescopes. DART arrived Friday night at the 2560-foot (780-meter) asteroid Didymos and its 540-foot (165-meter) moon Dimorphos after a ten-month journey. When the spacecraft was 56,000 miles (90,000 kilometers) from its target, the photos taken by DART’s onboard camera were analyzed by the probe’s autonomous navigation system, which distinguished the two asteroids from each other and headed for the actual target, Dimorphos.
Just after midnight, the moment had come: The DART spacecraft sped at an estimated 14,000 miles (22,500 kilometers) per hour toward its target asteroid and slammed into it. The navigation camera captured the last moments before the DART crashed into Dimorphos, revealing a close-up picture of the asteroid’s surface littered with gritty rubble. NASA scientists now know that they can successfully bring a spacecraft to collide with a rather minor celestial body with precision.
Dimorphos was deflected by how much?
The final photo of the Dimorphos asteroid from the DART camera before the probe collided with the asteroid. (Image: NASA/Johns Hopkins APL)
Even though the DART spacecraft is only around 1,260 pounds (570 kilograms) in weight and the asteroid Dimorphos weighs roughly five billion kilograms, the velocity of the collision and the rebound of the ejected rock should be enough to nudge the asteroid slightly off of its orbit. An asteroid’s course can be drastically altered with even a little increase or decrease in its speed.
Telescopic studies over the next several weeks will indicate whether or not the collision of DART altered the course of the asteroid Dimorphos. The orbital period of Dimorphos can be tracked from Earth by observing the pair’s brightness as Dimorphos passes in front of its bigger parent asteroid. Based on the simulations, the collision between Dimorphos and DART should have shortened its orbit by 1%, which would have shortened its orbital period by 10 minutes.
Compact chunk or porous pile of rubble
The degree to which the rammed asteroid’s trajectory was altered is an important indicator of both the efficacy of kinetic deflection and the composition of the target asteroid. But, the stability and compactness of the target object have a significant impact on the outcome of a deflection operation. Too much porosity allows impact energy to evaporate without an influence, rendering the deflection useless, which would be critical in a crisis situation.
The LICIACube mini-satellite will provide valuable data about the DART-Dimorphos collision. LICIACube is part of the DART mission and positioned itself 15 days before the impact to photograph the crash and its immediate aftermath. This is because the asteroid’s interior may be revealed by factors like the crater’s size and composition and the kind of material that was ejected. However, it will take many weeks to receive all of the photographs due to the tiny CubeSat’s (LICIACube) restricted communication capabilities.
The European space probe HERA will revisit the asteroids in four years to investigate them further.
Validation for the actual test
The critical part of the DART mission has been accomplished with the successful “ramming test” of the asteroid Dimorphos. According to NASA’s first-ever Planetary Defense Officer Lindley Johnson, “DART’s success provides a significant addition to the essential toolbox we must have to protect Earth from a devastating impact by an asteroid.” DART has demonstrated that “we are no longer powerless to prevent this type of natural disaster.”
September 27, 2022
Dart: Crashing a Satellite Into an Asteroid for Planet Defense
What is the DART mission? Here is everything there is to know about it. Thousands upon thousands of asteroids speed through space with many of them routinely passing within Earth’s orbit. A regional or perhaps worldwide disaster could be triggered if one of them were to arrive on a collision track with Earth. With its DART mission, NASA is exploring whether or not this may be avoided; for the first time, humankind will seek to alter an asteroid’s course by use of a ram probe.
- DART successfully crashed into the asteroid Dimorphos
What could be done if an asteroid is headed in the direction of Earth? According to NASA, a more effective defense would be to use an unmanned spacecraft to deflect the asteroid. On September 26, 2022, NASA’s DART mission will put this kinetic deflector approach to the test.
How do you avoid an asteroid collision?
The risk is real: Earth has been bombarded by space debris several times during its existence. The impact of the 6.2-mile (10-kilometer) wide Chicxulub asteroid 66 million years ago terminated the Cretaceous epoch and wiped out the dinosaurs, while other impacts have created worldwide disasters and monumental mass extinctions. The Tunguska event of 1908 and the Chelyabinsk meteor explosion in February 2013 proved, however, that even tiny fragments may wreak devastating harm.
About 25,000 asteroids, each about 500 feet (150 meters) in size, orbit in the neighborhood of the Earth and often pass through the Earth’s orbit. Although many incidents still go unreported.
It’s just a matter of time
Small chunks up to 3.3 feet (1 meter) in size continue to impact Earth practically daily but are burned up in the atmosphere before reaching the surface. Asteroids up to 1,000 feet (300 meters) in size are expected to strike every few thousand years, and asteroids the size of the Chelyabinsk meteor are seen on average once every 50 years. They are big enough to obliterate a whole city of millions. It’s not a matter of if, but rather when, the next major impact on Earth will occur.
What could be done if an oncoming asteroid is noticed in time? Whether humanity still has time to adopt countermeasures for an approaching asteroid depends on the size of the asteroid and the time left before the impact. When the threat is known decades in advance, the “gentle” “Gravity Tractor” defense could be all that’s needed: Using the gravitational pull of a large probe brought in close proximity to the asteroid, you can divert the asteroid off an Earth collision trajectory.
The kinetic deflector
A spacecraft smashes the asteroid and attempts to divert it off its crash route in an asteroid defense via a kinetic deflector. (Image: INASA/Johns Hopkins University APL)
But in reality, it is more probable that the asteroid will go undetected until it is too late. Because many possible Earth-orbiting asteroids are hard to spot in advance due to their dimness and their orbital distance to the Sun. The 330-foot (100-meter) asteroid called “2019 OK,” for example, was only discovered 12 hours before its closest approach in 2019. Thankfully, it was passing Earth at a distance of barely one-fifth that of the moon. After that point, no amount of protective measures will be able to prevent an impact.
However, there is still hope for an asteroid deflection if an asteroid on a crash track is discovered months or perhaps years in advance. The kinetic deflector approach is generally thought to be the best in such a scenario. As part of the strategy, the heaviest feasible spacecraft is sent in the direction of the asteroid to smash it at a specific angle. If the collision happens early enough, the force of the impact can deviate the fragment off its trajectory, and a deviation of only a few millimeters or a modest slowing is enough to prevent a collision with Earth.
But there is more to it
However, such a deflection is notoriously difficult in reality. The asteroid probe has to make a perfectly timed and hard collision with the asteroid. Too much of an off-angle impact will just alter the asteroid’s spin and not its course. The deflecting impact will be insufficient if the momentum is too low. This method requires the most precise data available regarding the asteroid’s course, spin, and size in order to precisely plan the collision.
If the asteroid is porous, most of the impactor’s energy might be absorbed instead of dissipated. The spacecraft’s collision might cause the asteroid to fracture if it is fragile or made of debris that is only weakly held together. Multiple, potentially catastrophic chunks can still head toward Earth in this case.
Given these challenges, NASA is conducting its first practical tests of kinetic deflection, called the DART Project, as a means of asteroid deflection, serving as a kind of “dress rehearsal” for the real deal.
Target object of the DART
A double asteroid as the impactor
Dimorphos’ new orbit after the collision of the DART satellite. The LICIACube will track the collision and broadcast pictures of the impact back to Earth. (Image: NASA/DART)
This is no easy feat since the whole collision must take place millions of miles from Earth to redirect an asteroid off its crash course with Earth. However, if the asteroid is so far away, the scientists may not be able to determine its exact nature, rotation, or mass before sending out the defensive probe since it will be beyond the precision of current Earth-based telescopes.
The selection of the test asteroid for DART
With the “Double Asteroid Redirection Test,” or DART, NASA is exploring the limits of an asteroid defense mission’s success and the hazards it faces. If an asteroid were to be headed toward Earth, a kinetic deflector, like the one shown by DART, would be the only way to stop it. DART’s mission is to change an asteroid’s orbit, so it can not collide with Earth.
The primary stipulation for the DART is that the experiment must not endanger Earth in any way. Even after an unsuccessful deflection, the target asteroid must follow a course that moves it as far away from Earth as feasible. However, in order to accurately assess the ramming’s effects, the candidate asteroid must be rather near. Thus, it has to be visible with large telescopes.
Didymos and its moon Dimorphos
Size comparisons of DART, Dimorphos, and Didymos. (Image: NASA/Johns Hopkins University APL)
The 1996-discovered twin asteroid Didymos satisfies these requirements for the DART mission. Didymos, the 2560-foot (780-meter) asteroid, and Dimorphos, its moon, measure around 525 feet (160 meters) in diameter. Because of their eccentric orbits, they both swing from the furthest distance from the Sun outside of Mars’ orbit to the closest distance to the Sun within Earth’s orbit. Accordingly, both are circling the Earth and are part of the class of asteroids that, although not immediately dangerous, may one day approach Earth.
This is also why the DART mission isn’t actually aimed at the asteroid Didymos itself. Because there’s too much of a chance that the asteroid may be redirected in such a manner that it would eventually crash on Earth. The moon of the asteroid Dimorphos (Greek for “two forms”) is the actual target of the DART. Due to the stability of its orbit around Didymos, any deviation will only alter the minor-planet moon’s path relative to Didymos.
Observing Dimorphos with transits
When Dimorphos passes in front of his parent asteroid Didymos, the change in brightness allows scientists to calculate its orbital period. (Image: NASA/Johns Hopkins University APL)
While in orbit around Didymos, the asteroid moon also travels directly in front of it. Due to this predictable transit, astronomers have been able to estimate Dimorphos’ orbit and size using just Earth-based telescopes. This tiny moon takes 11 hours and 55 minutes to complete one orbit around its parent asteroid. During this time, the distance between them stays at just approximately 0.73 miles (1.18 kilometers).
The DART mission’s before-and-after planning requires a high level of foreknowledge about the asteroid system. Dimorphos’ orbit around its parent asteroid may be significantly altered if the DART probe collides with the moon at just the proper location and velocity. This deflection, at least in the model predictions, is expected to become apparent during the transit phase. As a result of the impact made by DART on the smaller asteroid in the Didymos system, its orbital period will be altered by at least 73 seconds.
The Didymos-Dimorphos binary asteroids will be within observing distance of Earth at the time of the DART’s collision on September 26, 2022, at a distance of just around 6.85 million miles (11 million kilometers).
Almost indistinguishable from the actual threat
However, there is a second reason why the Didymos system is well suited as a test case for the DART: its two components are illustrative of prospective asteroid impactors on Earth’s course. Dimorphos, with a diameter of around 540 feet (165 meters), is huge enough to cause widespread destruction in the case of an impact on Earth. While its size is comparable to that of probable next-catastrophic-impact asteroids, it is not one of them.
The composition of the target asteroid of the DART mission is also quite similar to that of the asteroids that are flying close to Earth. Didymos’s composition matches that of an “L/LL chondrite” meteorite class according to the analysis of its visible and near-infrared spectra. And this is the composition of most meteorites that strike Earth. The experimental findings of the DART collision will be used for a wide variety of planetary defense research.
Order of events of the DART mission
Specifications of the DART spacecraft
The DART probe places itself at the ideal impact point by autonomously navigating its course. (Image: NASA/Johns Hopkins University APL)
The DART spacecraft has been traveling toward the asteroid Dimorphos since it was launched on November 24, 2021. The asteroid moon Dimorphos will be rammed by the spacecraft on September 26, 2022, at 23:14 UTC, in an attempt to knock it out of orbit. This will be the first-ever test of a technology designed to protect Earth from asteroids. The DART mission is outfitted with various high-tech enhancements that allow this to happen.
The impactor probe used in the DART mission seems plain at first glance: The dimensions of its hull are 3.9 by 4.3 feet (1.2 by 1.3 meters), making it about the size of a soda machine. During the roughly 10-month approach, the DART probe has been powered by two solar panels, each of which is a good 26 feet (8 meters) in length. An experimental ion drive generates thrust by electrostatically accelerating and ejecting xenon ions in a magnetic field. DART has 12 hydrazine-fueled classical maneuvering thrusters for course corrections and fine-tuning of the final approach to Dimorphos.
DART’s autonomous target acquisition and approach
The DART spacecraft from two perspectives. (NASA)
The DART probe has a navigation system that is considerably sophisticated. This is due to DART’s ability to fine-tune its trajectory on its own. The data from the DRACO camera, a tiny telescope with a focal length of around 8.3 inches (21 cm), and a high-resolution digital image sensor are placed on DART for this purpose. High-resolution photos captured by the camera will reveal the precise location and shape of Didymos and Dimorphos.
The spacecraft’s autonomous navigation system records these photos with location and attitude data. About 4 hours before the crash with Dimorphos, at a distance of 56,000 miles (90,000 kilometers) from the target, this SMART Nav system will assume complete control of the DART probe. The navigation system will initially perform an evaluation of the data in order to pinpoint the precise locations of Didymos and its moon Dimorphos using custom algorithms. An hour before impact, Dimorphos will appear as a small 1.5-pixel light point.
The navigation system will then be able to make autonomous decisions about whether or not trajectory modifications are required, and the DART probe’s correction jets will receive new commands. When there are only 930 miles (1,500 kilometers) left between Dimorphos and DART, the asteroid in DRACO images will be around 22 pixels in size and it will be too late for DART to make any changes at this point. When DART is around 460 miles (740 kilometers) away from the target, it will be on a collision track with Dimorphos in two minutes. The probe will now just cover the rest of the distance.
The impact
The DART probe will crash on the surface of Dimorphos at a speed of around 14,000 miles (22,000 kilometers) per hour. DART weighs only 1,260 pounds (570 kilos), whereas the asteroid moon Dimorphos is predicted to weigh over 11 billion pounds (5 billion kilograms). Therefore their collision is more like a bug landing on an elephant. The impact’s relatively small impulse might not seem like it would accomplish anything.
This, however, is not true. The 540 feet (165-meter) rock will receive a little push from the high velocity of the DART collision. In addition to blasting between ten thousand and a hundred thousand pounds of debris into space, the impact will also create a hole in the asteroid’s surface. The force exerted on Dimorphos will be greater than that of the hit alone because of the rebound of this ejection. The combination of this amplified ramming action and the collision is enough to cause a little shift in the asteroid moon’s kinetic energy and knock it off of its orbit.
After DART crashed onto Dimorphos, the spacecraft will be destroyed but the scientific investigation will only be getting started.
Consequences of the DART Impact Event
What will happen to the massive Dimorphos-moon once the tiny DART spacecraft crashes into it? Will the massive asteroid be able to be steered out of orbit by kinetic deflection? How did scientists successfully predict the collision characteristics of the DART-Dimorphos event essential for a deflection?
LICIACube as the direct observer
The Italian Space Agency constructed LICIACube for the impact between DART and Dimorphos to send the collision images to Earth. (Image: (NASA/Johns Hopkins APL/Ed Whitman)
The LICIACube mini-satellite will report back the first data on the DART’s impact results and its effects on Dimorphos’s surface. This mini-satellite will ride behind the DART probe before it collides with the Didymos double asteroid, and its mission is to check out the impact area. Self-propelled with its maneuvering thrusters, it’s programmed to move into an observation point 15 days before the collision, which has already been initiated on September 11th.
LICIACube stands for Light Italian CubeSat for Imaging Asteroids. And the observations and documentation from this courageous little reporter will provide insights scientists couldn’t gain any other way. Using two optical cameras, LICIACube will capture the moment the DART spacecraft crashes on the surface of Dimorphos. Three minutes after the impact, LICIACube will adjust its course to fly near the DART’s crash location.
Images of the crater, the ejected material, and the type of debris of the DART impact are to be provided by this mini-probe. These photographs, together with the last close-ups captured by DART’s DRACO camera before the collision, will provide crucial details regarding the Dimorphos’ make-up, nature, and reaction.
A view of the Dimorphos orbit
Around the same time of the collision, a dozen or more very powerful telescopes on Earth will be aiming toward the Didymos system. The pair of asteroids are 6.85 million miles (11 million kilometers) away from Earth and are only a tiny speck of light even with the best telescopes. But we will be able to see from Earth the periodic variations in brightness of this light, which are set off by the transit of the moon Dimorphos in front of its parent asteroid.
A little shift in transit timing would indicate that the DART probe’s collision deflected the asteroid moon. Astronomers may roughly infer the strength of Dimorphos’ kinetic momentum and the extent to which its trajectory shifted in magnitude to find out whether the asteroid was successfully deflected and the DART mission was a success.
The essentials for the “genuine deal”
The events of DART’s mission definitely won’t be the basis for a Hollywood blockbuster, but the future of Earth’s safety is equally at stake. The ultimate goal of the DART mission is to demonstrate that human beings can deflect an approaching asteroid. If a similar-sized rock is ever found on a collision path with Earth, the knowledge and expertise gained from the DART test in the Didymos system will be invaluable.
Where to watch DART’s collision live
On Monday, September 26, at 4:14 p.m. PT / 7:14 p.m. ET, the spacecraft DART will crash with Dimorphos. Live coverage will start on NASA’s YouTube channel, and the NASA TV at 3 p.m. PT / 6 p.m. ET.
You can also see DART’s position live in the official NASA webpage.
Aftermath of DART
HERA, a spacecraft bound towards the Didymos system
This deflection mission won’t be completed right away despite the DART spacecraft’s collision with the asteroid moon Dimorphos and subsequent studies of the immediate repercussions.
HERA, a European spacecraft, will be launched in 2024 toward the Didymos system and arrive in 2026. For the first time, it will use on-site scientific instrumentation to explore the effects of this kinetic deflection. The HERA spacecraft will scan Dimorphos’s surface topography to an accuracy of within 33 feet (10 meters) using its LIDAR measuring system, camera, and mid-infrared scanner in order to examine the impact crater and any other changes to the surface that may have resulted from the collision.
More crucially, HERA will finally provide us with more accurate information on how far the DART probe steered away from its intended target. The rotation, mass, and orbit of Dimorphos and Didymos will be directly measured, unlike with terrestrial observatories. One way HERA will achieve this is by pointing its laser towards the parent asteroid and picking up the minute wobble caused by the small moon’s gravity. Additionally, HERA will do many near flybys of Dimorphos, transmitting data back to Earth each time. Scientists on the ground will be able to determine whether the asteroid moon’s gravity has altered the signals and, if so, by how much.
Milani: What are Didymos and Dimorphos made of?
The asteroids’ surface will be mapped by the CubeSat Milani, which will also examine the expelled dust. (Image: ESA/Science Office)
However, HERA isn’t traveling alone; it’s accompanied by two smaller satellites (CubeSats) that carry their own sets of equipment and will take readings that supplement those taken by HERA. The Milani minisatellite will use a hyperspectral camera and spectrometer to determine the elemental make-up of Dimorphos and Didymos.
This will also enable scientists to compare the composition of its surface to that of known meteorites and minerals, such as that of the DART crater and its ejecta. Milani also has an onboard analyzer calibrated to detect dust particles between 200 and 400 microinches (5 to 10 micrometers) in diameter. Scientists can use it to learn more about Dimorphos’ composition by studying the dust thrown up by the collision.
Juventas: First radar view into the interior of an asteroid
For the first time, radar will be used by the CubeSat Juventas to illuminate an asteroid’s interior. (Image: ESA/Science Office)
HERA’s companion CubeSat, Juventas, will be investigating the asteroids’ composition and dynamics up close. It is equipped with a miniature replica of the radar sensor used by ESA’s Rosetta comet mission to survey 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, making it the smallest radar system ever sent into orbit. The Juventas radar system will carry out the same task at Didymos and Dimorphos. To do this, it will set up 4 radar antennas, each measuring 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length, and radiating radar waves with circular polarization. The incoming and outgoing signals from Dimorphos’ interior will be recorded and decoded simultaneously.
In order to get accurate readings, the tiny radar satellite Juventas will fly within 1.85 miles (3 kilometers) of Dimorphos at a slow enough speed to get high-resolution data despite the radar’s low power. The radar scan of an asteroid by Juventas will be the first of its kind which will greatly expand the understanding of asteroids. The reason for this mission is that the outside of an asteroid does not actually portray its interior accurately.
Determining whether Dimorphos is made of solid, compact rock or a loosely formed “pile of debris” will be crucial for future asteroid defense. This data, together with measurements of the DART deflection experiment will aid scientists in improving and adjusting the models and calculations used to plan such defensive operations to protect Earth from asteroids in the future.
September 24, 2022
An Explanation for Saturn’s Rings: A Lost Moon, Chrysalis
Saturn’s rings and current wobble in its rotating axis may have their origins in a “lost” moon. The research claims that Saturn’s hypothetical moon Chrysalis was broken apart by Saturn’s gravity when it went out of orbit around the planet 160 million years ago. This altered the planet’s axial tilt, which in turn disrupted Neptune’s resonance and produced sufficient debris to create the rings. It’s possible that this is also the reason Saturn’s rings are not that old.
No other planet in the solar system has such a large and intricate ring system as Saturn. Recent measurements imply that the thick bands of frozen pieces only formed around 100 million years ago, rather than simultaneously with Saturn.
Saturn’s rings are at a different location when it is in opposition to Earth because of the tilt and precession of Saturn’s axis (Credit: Mosesofmason/CC-by-sa 3.0).
It’s a puzzle why the axis is tilted
The rings and axis of rotation of Saturn are inclined 26.7 degrees with respect to the plane of its orbit around the Sun, giving it a somewhat powerful tilt. The known formation mechanisms in the protoplanetary disk or early collisions on the planet are insufficient to account for such a great inclination. Numerous hypotheses have been put forward, but none of them are very compelling.
There’s a suggestion that Saturn’s axial tilt is due to gravitational interactions with Neptune. As a result, Saturn’s axis wobbles nearly in time with Neptune’s orbital period, which may be indicative of a resonance effect.
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Scientists have assumed that Saturn’s rotational axis became as large as it is now due to a gravitational interaction between the planet and one of its moons.
To the limits of resonance
However, the angular momentum of Saturn is a vital quantity in determining whether or not the resonance theory is right. It affects how readily a planet may be knocked off of its orbit by natural or man-made disturbances.
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Neptune may be responsible for Saturn’s asymmetrical rotation if the angular momentum is too high. A decreased angular momentum, however, renders the whole situation implausible, necessitating the search for an alternative theory.
Jack Wisdom, Burkhard Militzer, and coworkers have recalculated Saturn’s angular momentum using a combination of observed data from NASA’s Cassini mission and theoretical considerations. Their finding was unexpected: the two planets do not resonate with one another. Regardless of the model assumptions or rotation period, the system is close to the resonance area but always outside of it. Their findings indicate a variation of about 1%.
Planetary scientists draw the conclusion from this that Saturn and Neptune were in resonance for an extended period of time. Nonetheless, this bond has obviously been compromised during the previous 200 million years.
Why is the moon Chrysalis missing?
But how exactly? The researchers used a model to replicate Saturn’s moon’s and its neighbors’ evolution to find out. Initially, they investigated whether the resonance break may have been caused by a shift in the orbits of Saturn’s moons. Although Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, has migrated further from the planet over time, this was not enough to disrupt the resonance between Saturn and Neptune.
If Saturn had a second moon in the past and subsequently lost it, the system could have been able to break free of resonance.
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It’s possible that this missing moon was swept away by a gravitational storm, or that it approached Saturn too closely and was shattered by the planet’s tidal forces. Each of these factors might disrupt the synchronization of Neptune’s orbit with Saturn’s axis.
Ejected from orbit
Based on their models, Wisdom’s team is able to piece together the following scenario: The new moon, Chrysalis, weighed nearly as much as Saturn’s third biggest moon, Iapetus. In theory, Chrysalis should be around 910 miles (1,470 kilometers) in circumference. Chrysalis’s orbit was predicted to lie between Titan and Iapetus, where it would have remained stable for a considerable amount of time. But then Titan started to move further and farther away from Earth.
The moon Chrysalis got into an unstable orbit due to this event sometime between 100 and 200 million years ago. In some simulation runs, this factor led to the moon being expelled from the system. The moon was ripped apart by Saturn’s tidal forces because it passed too near to the planet on previous orbits. Saturn would have lost resonance in either scenario.
Newly-formed ring explanation
Moreover, the rings were formed as fragments of the moon continued to circle Saturn. Their theory also explains the young age of Saturn’s rings, which has long been a mystery. Those icy rings might be what’s left behind from when Saturn had a huge ice moon. If the mythical moon Chrysalis existed and was eventually destroyed, it would account for a number of anomalies in Saturn’s system.
This explanatory mechanism for both Saturn’s proximity to a precessional resonance with Neptune and for its young rings seems quite plausible. Yet Wisdom and his colleagues acknowledge that further testing of the scenario is now necessary.
September 17, 2022
How Do Spacecraft Travel in Space?
On 1969, the first man landed on the Moon. Missions planned for the Moon landing required long preparatory works because getting from Earth to the Moon was not going to be in a straight line. During this time, the space agency not only developed the necessary technology for space flight but also had to find the best possible route to the Moon. This is because, unlike on Earth, the start and end points in space change their position relative to each other during the course of a journey. But everything is in constant motion: The Earth revolves around itself and orbits the sun. And the destination – in this case, the Moon – also revolves around the earth and, together with it, around the sun.
A Curved Trajectory
Couldn’t a rocket still simply fly from the Earth directly to the Moon? Physically, there is nothing to be said against it. But such a flight would require an extremely powerful engine and a lot of fuel. And so space scientists are trying to make the best possible use of the celestial bodies’ own motions and gravitational forces to save some energy.
This starts with the launch: Rockets are preferably launched into space near the equator and in the direction of the Earth’s rotation. This alone gives a rocket a speed of 1040 miles (1674 km) per hour. However, for a typical orbit around the Earth at an altitude of 185 mi (300 km), a spacecraft must reach a speed of 17.400 mi (28.000 km) per hour.
In order to get from an Earth orbit to a more distant one like the Moon – in the most energy-saving way possible, there are different ways. One is the so-called Hohmann orbit: This is an ellipse with the Earth at its focal point. The point closest to the Earth in this ellipse touches the original orbit around the Earth, and the point farthest from the Earth in the ellipse is in the desired orbit – the orbit of the Moon. Already in 1925, the German space pioneer Walter Hohmann described this transition between two orbits in his book “The Attainability of Heavenly Bodies”.
Hohmann orbit
To reach such an elliptical orbit leading to the moon, the spacecraft must be accelerated to a speed of about 24.850 mi (40,000 km) per hour. The thrusters must ignite at exactly the right moment so that the Hohmann orbit actually intersects with the moving Moon at the furthest point from Earth. This flight maneuver was both technically and computationally challenging in the 1950s and 1960s. Any smartphone today is a million times superior to the NASA computers used for the Apollo missions. And getting into orbit around the Moon or landing smoothly on the Moon requires following an even more complicated trajectory.
Why Do Space Rockets Not Go Straight Up?
Reaching orbital velocity, which is around 20 times the speed of sound, is the most challenging component of space travel. At first, rockets make a wide arc to get away from the takeoff site, and then they begin gaining horizontal velocity. Their precise trajectory is a careful balancing act between the forces of gravity, air resistance, and aerodynamic loading.
When a rocket points vertically upward, gravity acts in the other direction, slowing it down. To reduce this, rockets are launched at an angle immediately after leaving the launchpad.
In order to enter orbit, or a circular route of motion around the Earth, rockets must tilt to the side as they ascend into the sky. A gravity turn is a steering maneuver that makes advantage of the Earth’s gravity to assist save rocket fuel and lessen stress on the spaceship. To aid the spacecraft bend its course into orbit, the spacecraft is rotated until its heavier side is facing down.
Numerous Attempts Until the Landing
The Apollo astronauts’ journey to the Moon took three days and four hours. A short flight time is a decisive criterion for manned missions because it means less radiation exposure for space travelers. For unmanned probes, flight time plays a minor role. Flight routes that take months but cost little in terms of energy are also conceivable. Such orbits initially usually lead far out of the Earth-Moon system and make use of the gravitational pull of the Sun to finally head to the Moon.
Another major advantage of the space probes is that they approach the Moon at a relatively low velocity, which means that only minor corrections are required to enter an orbit around the space object.
There have been a total of 124 known attempts to fly to the moon. Of these, 55 failed in a variety of ways, from explosions on launch to unplanned crashes on the Moon. However, it is possible that some failed flights have not entered the official records. As part of NASA’s Apollo program, there were nine flights to the Moon and six successful Moon landings from 1968 to 1972 – a total of twelve people have walked on the Moon’s surface.
In numerous attempts, the space agencies slowly felt their way toward the moon: After several false starts, the Soviet probe Lunik 1 raced past the Moon on January 4, 1959 – at a distance of about 3730 mi (6000 km). On September 12, 1959, Lunik 2 was the first space probe to hit the Moon. The first soft landing on the Moon was made on February 3, 1966, by Luna 9, also a Soviet probe, and on April 3 of the same year, Luna 10 swung into orbit around the Moon for the first time. On December 24, 1968, Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to reach the Moon, orbiting it a total of ten times within twenty hours. And just seven months later, NASA’s Apollo 11 was the first manned lunar landing.
September 4, 2022
Why Do We Never See Black Holes in Pictures?
September 4, 2022