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Tag: world war II

  • Yom Kippur War: Historical Background and Causes

    Yom Kippur War: Historical Background and Causes

  • Battle of the Coral Sea: Strategic Victory for the Allies

    Battle of the Coral Sea: Strategic Victory for the Allies

  • Bandung Conference: The story of the Non-Aligned Movement

    Bandung Conference: The story of the Non-Aligned Movement

  • Battle of Britain: Great Britain’s excellent defense against relentless air strikes

    Battle of Britain: Great Britain’s excellent defense against relentless air strikes

    During World War II, the British Air Force (RAF) and the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) fought it out in the Battle of Britain from July 1940 to May 1941. It followed the previous month’s disastrous Battle of France. When the German-Soviet Pact was signed, Hitler was no longer confined to the western front and could focus only on England. Winston Churchill’s England, not Chamberlain’s, was the one he chose to bring to its knees with an unparalleled bombardment, which showed the world the British were brave and made the Royal Air Force famous. The first major loss for the Nazis since the war’s outbreak in 1939 occurred as a result of these air battles.

    Operation Sea Lion: Prelude to the Battle of Britain

    It seems that Adolf Hitler directed Admiral Raeder in May 1939 to prepare a lengthy economic war to starve the United Kingdom via a maritime blockade, and that it was Raeder who came up with the idea of invading England. After the unexpectedly successful Sedan breakout (Battle of Sedan) in May 1940, Raeder, perhaps alarmed by the difficulties of a long war at sea against the British navy, proposed an invasion of England, capitalizing on the swift defeat of France to gain months in preparation for the programmed attack against the USSR. Hitler was seduced and gave orders accordingly.

    It’s certain that the German staffs (particularly the German Navy and the German Army) had considered this possibility in 1939, but the job looked practically overwhelming due to its complexity. Whatever the situation may be, the RAF had to be annihilated before any consideration could be given to a hypothetical landing of troops. It’s possible that if the British air force was wiped out, an invasion wouldn’t even be required.

    Admiral Raeder’s suggestion naturally led to the German Navy taking up the task once again. In contrast to an expensive economic war (not only in time), Hitler and the general staff took an interest in this idea at the end of June 1940. Combining an assault meant to smash the RAF with an offensive against the supply of England was a plan explored by Jodl and others. This would cause the British populace to capitulate, making the landing the last act of a fight already won in the air and on the sea.

    The Kriegsmarine immediately voiced concerns, but that didn’t stop Jodl from putting out proposal after proposal, each one more brazen than the previous. He came up with the original name, Lion , which was eventually shortened to Sea Lion. Given that Raeder, the invasion’s conceptual originator, was uncharacteristically slow to act, it was only natural that the Luftwaffe, the Royal Air Force’s chief opponent, should take the initiative. Hitler became impatient and demanded that it be wrapped up by the middle of September.

    Hitler urged and demanded that the Luftwaffe smash the RAF; this was to be Operation Eagle Attack, despite Raeder and numerous army commanders advising the Führer to delay the assault until the following year and to prefer an offensive in the Mediterranean. Even though the result of the air war was unknown and the value of a landing was still up for debate, preparations persisted until September 1940.

    RAF vs. Luftwaffe: The air fleets involved

    Before diving into the Battle of Britain itself, it’s worth reflecting on the materials used, which were perhaps as important as the overall strategy. After their stunning successes in Poland and France, where they easily conquered the opposing air force, the Luftwaffe was ecstatic. They used cutting-edge planes that blew away (nearly) every other option.

    The Messerschmitt Bf 109 “Emil,” equipped with two 7.9 mm machine guns and two 20 mm cannons, was the primary Luftwaffe fighter during the Battle of Britain. It could go at 575 kilometers per hour and was very agile, but its range was short. Goering preferred the Messerschmitt Bf 110, the other fighter. It is equipped with a large arsenal (two 20-mm cannons, four 7.9-mm machine guns, and one 7.9-mm mobile machine gun), a long range, and decent accuracy, but poor maneuverability makes it a poor choice for engaging enemy ground troops.

    It was hoped that the “Stuka,” a nickname for the Junkers Ju 87 bomber, would strike fear into the hearts of British forces with its 500 kg bomb, or four 50-mm bombs and one 250-mm bomb, much as it had in the hearts of French and Polish forces and the populace. The adaptability of the Junkers Ju 88, a standard German bomber in every respect, meant that it could be used in a number of roles, including that of a reconnaissance plane. Although the Dornier Do 17 is a veteran of the Spanish War, both the Do 17 and the Do 215 were of lower quality due to their inadequate bomb load capacities. While the Luftwaffe relies on the Heinkel He 111 as its primary bomber, this aircraft has a rather short range for a heavy bomber that is still classified as medium. It’s not even close to becoming a “flying fortress” capable of withstanding attacks from the opponent.

    At the height of the Battle of Britain, the Royal Air Force relied on two types of aircraft and a third “weapon” that proved to be just as important. First, the RAF’s Hurricane was the service’s first and most widely used fighter, and it excelled at its primary mission of preventing bomber attacks. The M-109 was a formidable opponent, but the Spitfire, which would go on to become a hero of the battle (and the war), was faster, more agile, and better equipped. However, there were not a lot of Spitfires in the RAF at the start of the Battle of Britain.

    Luftwaffe goes on the offensive

    Since the hurried evacuation from Dunkirk, the RAF and the Luftwaffe have been at each other’s throats. The opening weeks of the war were comparatively peaceful in the British skies. Beginning in early June of 1940, the German air force launched an assault on England, with a total of about thirty bombers aiming targeting airfields. There was a break when the French onslaught ended, but activities resumed the day following the ceasefire, particularly at night.

    Since England had refused to negotiate peace, and the French had fallen quickly, Hitler decided to hasten the preparations for Operation Sea Lion by destroying the Royal Air Force (RAF). The Luftwaffe began attacking English Channel convoys in the middle of July, testing the mettle of the already-overworked British fighter fleet. This was only the beginning of the massive air assault on England.

    The Luftwaffe had around 3,000 operational planes at the start of August (including a little over 1,000 Me 109s and 300 Me 110s). Around 450 Hurricane and Spitfire planes were at the disposal of the British, but major gains were made, and by the middle of August, the RAF had more than 700 active fighters and just under 300 in reserve.

    The British defence system

    In the weeks after the evacuation of Dunkirk, British command had enough time to not only increase the number of fighter aircraft but also to arrange the defensive system. A reorganization of the air force led to a shift in where the fighter units would operate, and the radar system was also expanded. This new device was in its infancy and had not been tested extensively, but its significance was already recognized by RAF personnel. Air Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding had Coastal Command and Bomber Command to fall back on whenever he needed reinforcements due to persistent personnel shortages. However, the latter’s bombers (about 350 aircraft, mostly Blenheims) were meant to strike against German airfields and ports where the eventual invasion fleet would be based.

    Finally, the lack of initiative was the RAF’s worst weakness throughout this Battle of Britain. The Luftwaffe clearly had the upper hand, while the British Air Force could only respond defensively. The radar helped make up for some of the British military’s shortcomings. England lucked out in that their defenses were well-developed and forced the Germans to launch an impromptu attack in response to Hitler’s impatient desire for the Otarie operation to succeed in September.

    Despite his misgivings regarding Operation Sea Lion’s use in the event that the Luftwaffe was successful, Hitler eventually consented to try a big operation against England. This would include first a large air bombardment, and then an invasion. Thanks to its thousand pilots and its Hurricanes and Spitfires, England was prepared to reply to the German planes, but it also had a new “weapon,” the radar. The people living there were unaware that they, too, would have to pay a heavy price.

    The Eagle’s Day

    Beginning on August 10 and continuing for a few days afterwards, Goering plotted the destruction of the RAF, at least in the southern part of England. The British knew the air operations were set to start in the opening days of August. Stukas mostly attacked airfields and radar sites that the Germans had identified as targets. There was just one radar station damaged and the airfields were rapidly restored after the August 12 attack, which claimed 31 German and 22 British aircraft.

    The English counties of Kent, the Thames Estuary, Hampshire, Dorset, and Wiltshire were all targeted in an assault on “Eagle Day” (Adlertag) on August 13. There were heavy attacks on three English airfields, but no fighters were present. That same night, a bombing raid damaged a Spitfire production plant near Birmingham. The Luftwaffe lost 45 planes in over a thousand missions, whereas the British lost just 13. The Germans considered “Eagle Day” a victory because they believed they had shot down 300 enemy aircraft, but in reality the number was closer to 100.

    RAF wins the air battle

    The Stuka remained at the forefront of the raiding parties in the coming days. However, the British fighters retaliated fiercely, and the German light bombers, notably the Me 110s, started to struggle against the superior speed and maneuverability of the British Hurricanes and Spitfires. The bombing operations seldom had desirable consequences.

    On August 15, the Luftwaffe launched more than 500 bomber raids and 1270 fighter sorties, demonstrating an escalation in the intensity of German strikes. In comparison to the Royal Air Force’s loss of 34 planes, they suffered 75. They assaulted the airfields the next day, meeting with some success but ultimately incurring more casualties than the British.

    Despite German predictions of roughly 300, Dowding still had 600 Spitfires and Hurricanes, and his fighters had downed more than 360 German aircraft, giving the RAF the first round victory. The Luftwaffe decided to switch tactics after a string of unsuccessful raids, including one on August 18. The inclement weather had kept the conflict at bay. After being harassed by Spitfires, it stopped using the Stuka and instead focused on capturing inland targets.

    The Blitz on London

    Even though the British side had more success in terms of raw numbers, morale among Dowding’s team was low. Both the manufacturing of aircraft and the training of British pilots were not enough to make up for the losses. Even if the Luftwaffe continues to lose more men at this pace, the Allies may still lose the war.

    The British were unaware that their enemies were likewise pressed for time due to their goal of launching Sea Lion by the middle of September. As a result, a heavy blow was required to make the foe yield. The first change was a greater emphasis on escorting the aircraft. Then the targets shifted; airfields and facilities producing fighters became prime targets. The RAF’s situation quickly deteriorated at the start of September as it was forced to contend with an increasing number of bombers accompanied by a growing number of Me 109s. Over 380 German planes and 280 British fighters had already been destroyed by the time September 5 rolled around. As time went on, the wear and strain on the British fighters became more alarming. The Germans decided to switch targets and launch an assault on London at this time.

    Both the disorganization of the Royal Air Force and the strike on the center of the British government were goals of the Luftwaffe. In addition, the Reich hoped to exact revenge for a British attack on Berlin that had been initiated because of a German bombing mistake over London. Despite Goering’s claims that the city was unreachable, the Luftwaffe persisted in their attacks, and Berlin was eventually destroyed.

    A total of 300 bombers, accompanied by 600 fighters, set fire to London on September 7, 1940. Londoners gave this assault the name “the Blitz” after the devastating Blitzkrieg their French friends experienced. They believed the landing and last blow were imminent on the German side. However, British forces were worried that an invasion was imminent, so they ramped up their assaults on German ports.

    Time is against the Luftwaffe

    Despite some adverse weather and the brave response of the British fighters, the bombing of London continued during the next few days (and nights). However, time was of the essence for the British, since the Sea Lion operation needed to be started 10 days after the effective defeat of the RAF, and this was not yet definite despite the casualties. Hitler hoped to launch the invasion around the middle of September, so he gave the Luftwaffe another postponement. The severe weather on September 12 and 13 prevented the Luftwaffe from launching any further large attacks. The date of September 27 was chosen for the landing since it was the final day of favorable tide for many weeks. At the same time, the bombing of German barges by Bomber Command was having an increasing amount of success…

    Using the radars, which identified the German waves from a distance and allowed for better coordination of the reaction, the British fighter squadron considerably limited a fresh raid attempt on London on September 15. Without much success, the attacks spread to other English cities, including Liverpool, Manchester, Bristol, etc. It was the worst day of the Battle of Britain for the Germans and another defeat for Goering’s Luftwaffe.

    Battle of Britain: Turning point of the war

    The Luftwaffe will not be able to destroy the RAF in the allowed time. As long as the RAF was operational, it was impossible to invade England. As a result, Hitler postponed Operation Sea Lion on September 17. Barely a month later, on 12 October 1940, he postponed it until the spring of 1941. Meanwhile, other concerns began to consume him.

    The Battle of Britain did not finish with the Führer’s directive, however. Air Marshal Goering, infuriated, kept up the attacks on London for the next several weeks. But despite the suffering of the inhabitants, the German air attacks were kept to a minimum by the legendary English weather, supported by the RAF on good days. More than 400 Luftwaffe planes were destroyed between September 7 and September 30, 1940, but just 242 British planes were destroyed during the same time period. Goering’s ambitions and the invasion of Great Britain as a whole were dashed by Hitler’s decision on October 12.

    Its people displayed a persistence and bravery that would become legendary; its pilots displayed skill and heroism, aided by a Spitfire that was hailed one of the greatest fighters of the combat; and the radar became an indispensable tool of the war thanks to the latter’s decisive win.

    England, however, took a heavy hit; many of its seasoned pilots were killed, but the Germans’ fury was focused mostly on innocent people. Most of the main British city cores sustained heavy damage in the month of September. Bombings of civilian areas, as opposed to just industrial sectors, increased during the month of November. One such attack, on November 14, led to the martyrdom of Coventry. The deaths of forty thousand British citizens due to these attacks caused widespread mourning until May of 1941.

    The start of the Eastern Front in the spring of 1941 and the subsequent Soviet resistance brought an end to the Battle of Britain and the Blitz. Fewer than a thousand RAF pilots engaged in the Battle of Britain, with 400 losing their lives. This defeat came long before El Alamein or Stalingrad. If Operation Sea Lion had been successful in September 1940, as Hitler had hoped, the Reich could have thrown all of its troops into the struggle in the East, then it is safe to infer that the result of World War II would have been quite different.

    Bibliography:

    1. Churchill, Winston S (1949), The Second World War – Their Finest Hour (Volume 2), London: Cassell
    2. Churchill, Winston S. The Second World War – The Grand Alliance (Volume 3). Bantam Books, 1962.
    3. Stacey, C P (1955). The Canadian Army 1939–1945 An Official Historical Summary. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer.
    4. Dönitz, Karl. Ten years and Twenty Days. New York: Da Capo Press, First Edition, 1997. ISBN 0-306-80764-5.
    5. Wagner, Ray; Nowarra, Heinz (1971). German Combat Planes: A Comprehensive Survey and History of the Development of German Military Aircraft from 1914 to 194. New York: Doubleday & Company.
    6. Hooton, E.R. (2007). Luftwaffe at War: Blitzkrieg in the West, Vol. 2. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. ISBN 978-1-85780-272-6..
    7. Collier, Richard. Eagle Day: The Battle of Britain, 6 August – 15 September 1940. London: Pan Books, 1968.
    8. Bungay, Stephen (2000). The Most Dangerous Enemy : A History of the Battle of Britain. London: Aurum Press. ISBN 978-1-85410-721-3. (hardcover), 2002, ISBN 1-85410-801-8 (paperback).
  • Korean War: In the Midst of the Superpower Standoff

    Korean War: In the Midst of the Superpower Standoff

  • Pacific War: One of the Biggest Naval Battles From 1941 to 1945

    Pacific War: One of the Biggest Naval Battles From 1941 to 1945

    The United States was not prepared to engage in the war in Europe in 1941. Japanese imperialists sought to expand their country’s footprint in the Pacific and Southeast Asia in order to get access to the region’s rich mineral and agricultural resources. Japanese officials understood that they would have to rely on the United States for help. On December 7, 1941, they planned to launch an assault on the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, which ultimately led to American involvement in the conflict.

    After racking up a string of victories, Japan was able to assert control over a number of new regions between 1905 and 1942. The dominance of the Japanese was ended during the Battle of Midway in June of 1942. The Japanese put up a valiant fight, but the Americans were better prepared and had a larger army, so they were able to take the Pacific islands one by one. The bombardment and destruction of the imperial fleet in Japan have created a dire situation. After the atomic bombs of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, Japan’s surrender on September 2nd was inevitable.

    How Did the Pacific War Begin?

    The war in the Pacific began on December 7, 1941, with the Japanese attack on the American base at Pearl Harbor. Japan was planning to expand its territory in the Pacific. In particular, it wanted to conquer the Philippines, Malaysia, and Singapore in order to capture the mining, oil, and rubber resources essential to its industry. However, Japan knew that all these territories were under the control of the Western powers and that they would be protected by the United States in particular. The Japanese general staff decided to destroy the bulk of the American fleet, based at Pearl Harbor, an island in the state of Hawaii.

    The Causes of the Pacific War

    Beginning towards the close of the 19th century, the Japanese Empire actively sought to close the gap between itself and the West in terms of politics, industry, and military might. It adopted an expansionist policy, annexing nearby regions like Formosa and Korea, in order to guarantee a steady supply of raw resources. When the 1930s rolled around in Japan, they were marked by a surge of nationalist sentiment. Invading Manchuria in 1931 and China in 1937, it armed itself with a modern fleet. The Second Sino-Japanese War, which lasted from 1937 to 1945, began at this time.

    In the 1930s, tensions between the two countries reached a peak, and the Japanese realized that the United States would not stand idly by while they pursued a program of conquest. Japan joined the Axis powers of Germany and Italy in 1940 and invaded French Indochina. The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands imposed an embargo on oil and steel on Japan after Tokyo refused to pull out of Indochina and China. It was thought in Japan that the country would soon exhaust its oil supply. Japan’s entry into the war was precipitated by the breakdown of talks with the United States. The destruction of the American fleet was the Japanese military’s first priority in their push to dominate Southeast Asia.

    The Different Phases of the Pacific War

    There was an initial phase of the Pacific War in the first half of 1942. The Japanese attacked on several fronts and scored significant successes. They were successful in driving the British out of Burma and capturing the city of Rangoon. They won the Battle of Singapore after having already occupied Malaya. They also took over the islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. While morale was low, the Americans proceeded with the Doolittle Raid (the bombing of Tokyo and other Japanese cities) to show the Japanese that they were vulnerable even on their own land. The Pacific was under Japanese control in the spring of 1942. New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, farther to the south, were the targets of its impending onslaught.

    The Japanese high command ordered an assault on the Midway Islands, where the majority of the American resistance was based, at the start of June 1942. The Japanese advance was halted in this engagement, which also marked the beginning of the second phase of the Pacific War. The Japanese Empire suffered a devastating loss in the Battle of Midway (June 4–7) in 1942. As a result, Japanese military dominance in the conflict came to an end. The Americans used their newfound confidence to undertake an onslaught on the Solomon Islands, where they ultimately destroyed the Japanese from August 7, 1942, to February 9, 1943, during the Battle of Guadalcanal.

    A number of key islands, including the Marianas and Marshall Islands, were captured by the United States in 1944. The Japanese were suffering a steady setback as the conflict entered its third phase. They were outgunned, outgunned in resources, and outgunned in equipment. In 1945, U.S. forces kept making progress toward Japan. They destroyed a Japanese facility that was reporting American airstrikes back to Japan during the assault on Iwo Jima (February–March 1945). After the Americans won the battle of Okinawa in April and June of 1945, they established a crucial base from which to launch the final attack against the Japanese islands. In the meantime, the war officially concluded in Europe in May.

    How Did the Pacific War End?

    In June 1945, the United States won the Battle of Okinawa. The American military’s occupation of this archipelago provided a strategic location near Japan from which to launch air attacks and eventually invade the country. American B-29 bombers dropped so many explosives on Japan that 40 percent of the country’s metropolitan areas were devastated. The United States, however, was hesitant to invade the archipelago for fear of losing too many men in the process. In July 1945, during the Potsdam Conference, the Allies requested that Japan capitulate.

    If Japan continued to refuse, the Americans threatened to employ a particularly devastating weapon. The Japanese prime minister publicly rejected the ultimatum on July 28. Japan also reached out to the Soviets in an attempt to bargain. Since the United States believed that Japan had rejected the ultimatum and followed through on its threats, it detonated atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945. Japan’s imperial soldiers in Manchuria were annihilated when the Soviet Union declared war on Japan on August 8. Japan’s unconditional surrender on September 2, 1945, signaled the end of World War II.

    How Was the Fighting in the Pacific?

    The two sides used very different strategies. The Japanese were well equipped, highly disciplined, and motivated, which enabled them to win many battles at the beginning of the Pacific War. Applying a code of honor, they did not hesitate to sacrifice themselves to achieve their goals. This was particularly true of kamikaze pilots, who carried out suicide missions. Battles took place mainly at sea and in the air because of the strategic objectives to be reached, which were mainly islands. Thanks to its powerful economy, the United States mass-produced military equipment. In the end, the American ships and aircraft outnumbered and outperformed the Japanese models.

    By 1942, the Japanese forces had lost many ships and aircraft, which they were unable to replace. American submarines sank the majority of Japanese merchant ships, which prevented Japan from refueling. In addition, the Americans bombed Japanese cities and industries in 1944, which had devastating effects on both the economy and the morale of the Japanese. While the Americans advanced in the Pacific, the Japanese adopted a defensive strategy. On the islands, they retreated inland and preferred to die rather than surrender, which cost the American army many casualties. Outnumbered, the United States launched offensives on the strategic islands, such as Iwo Jima and Okinawa, to set up the starting bases for air raids against Japan until the final victory.

    How Many People Died in the Fighting in the Pacific?

    About 1,750,000 Japanese troops were killed during the Pacific War. The United States was responsible for the deaths of almost one million Japanese people due to its bombing campaign. About 106,000 American troops died, and another 250,000 were wounded. Roughly 8 million civilians died in the nations Japan conquered. The casualties from the Sino-Japanese conflict are not included in these calculations. The Japanese committed war crimes in the captured countries, including the enslavement of numerous women as sexual slaves for the military. War prisoners from the United States, Australia, and Britain were killed in large numbers on death marches and on construction projects like Burma’s infamous Death Railway. About 10,000 Americans and between 77,000 and 110,000 Japanese died in the bloodiest fight, the Battle of Okinawa.

    Results of the Pacific War

    After their capitulation, Japan lost all of the territory they had occupied since 1895. Because of the American occupation until 1952, it embraced Western culture. Women’s suffrage and the end of the aristocracy were two of the most significant societal shifts of the time. The fall of the Japanese Empire may be traced back to 1947, when Japan accepted a new constitution at the behest of the United States. In the nation, a constitutional monarchy was established. After the Japanese occupation ended, independence movements sprung up in former French and British territories. Western powers were unable to retake their former colonies, leading to the independence of nations like Indochina, Indonesia, India, and Malaysia. Since 1910, Japan’s occupiers in Korea lived in two separate halves. Chinese forces reclaimed Taiwan and Manchuria.

    Timeline of the Pacific War

    September 25, 1931: Japanese conquest of Manchuria

    In the 1930s, nationalist and expansionist sentiment drove Japan’s desire to catch up with the West. The 1929 Great Depression had a significant impact on its economy, and it yearned for access to Manchuria’s abundant resources. The Japanese invaded Chinese land on September 18th, 1931, using the Mukden event as an excuse. Without any opposition from Chinese forces, the Japanese army from Guandong was able to easily conquer Manchuria. The Japanese quickly captured the provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning. At a later date, Manchukuo, a vassal state of Japan, was founded.

    July 7, 1937: Beginning of the Sino-Japanese War

    Even though they already ruled Manchuria, the Japanese wanted to rule all of China. The Kuomintang and the Communists fought a bloody civil war in China. The Japanese had a justification for invading China, and the Marco Polo Bridge tragedy provided one. However, the outbreak of war did not occur until July 28, 1937. During this conflict, Japan seized a sizable portion of China, stretching from the country’s northeast to its far eastern provinces. Tens of millions of lives were lost before the conflict finally ended in 1945.

    Tonkin was occupied by the Japanese on September 22, 1940

    The French Indochina Railroad helped supply the Kuomintang while they were at war with Japan. Cutting off the Chinese from their supply was crucial for the Japanese. They sent a last demand to France, saying that they must open the Tonkin Strait to the Japanese forces. Having just been vanquished by Germany, France capitulated to Japan’s demands. However, the Japanese Guandong force had already reached Indochina by the time the treaties were signed. In a single day, the French army was completely routed.

    September 27, 1940: Signature of the Tripartite Pact

    As part of the Tripartite Pact, Japan collaborated with Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini. As a result, it supported the Axis powers in their conflict with the Allies, which included the United States and the United Kingdom. Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia were among the subsequent signatories to the treaty. The zenith of the Axis powers was in 1942, before they began a long and painful decline.

    December 7, 1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor

    Hawaii was home to the American base at Pearl Harbor. The destruction of the American fleet was a top objective for the Japanese, who were hoping to expand their empire into the Pacific. A total of 183 Japanese planes left their aircraft carriers at 6:00 a.m. on December 7th, 1941, on a mission to attack Pearl Harbor. The initial attack on the American battleships began at 7:53 a.m. At 8:30 a.m., a second swarm of 167 planes landed. At 9:45 a.m., the attackers called it quits. In the United States alone, about 2,400 people lost their lives. Numerous planes were missing, and several ships were either sunk or severely damaged.

    December 8, 1941: The United States declared war on Japan

    Roosevelt, as President of the United States, declared war on Japan after the Japanese assault on Pearl Harbor. Although the Tripartite Pact with Japan did not require it, Italy and Germany declared war on the United States. World War II was fought on two fronts instead of one once the United States entered the conflict, launching a second front in Western Europe to defeat Nazi Germany.

    December 25, 1941: Hong Kong surrendered to the Japanese

    The Japanese invaded the British colony of Hong Kong a few hours after their assault on Pearl Harbor. They fought the Japanese for 17 days despite being outnumbered. British, Canadian, and Indian forces (17,000 men against 52,000 Japanese) and Hong Kong’s governor signed an act of capitulation with the Japanese on December 25, 1941. Over 4,500 defenders were killed in the Battle of Hong Kong.

    The Solomon Islands campaign kicked off in January 1942

    The United States and Australia began their Solomon Islands war two months after the Americans’ victory at Midway. The purpose of this effort was to ensure that the United States, Australia, and New Zealand could all communicate with one another. This war was fought both on land and at sea. The American victory in the Battle of Guadalcanal was the campaign’s most well-known engagement. Japan was ultimately defeated, and the operations ended in August 1945.

    January 11, 1942: The Japanese invaded and occupied the Dutch East Indies

    With the United States at war, Japan had an urgent need for oil. But it wasn’t producing any, and it could not be imported either. After conquering Malaya, the Japanese moved on to the oil reserves of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). With assistance from the armed forces of the Netherlands, Australia, the United States, and Great Britain, Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies in December 1941. In 1943, the Japanese won this war and held the region until 1945.

    January 15, 1942: Chinese victory over the Japanese at the third battle of Changsha

    The city of Changsha, in the province of Hunan, was a strong point of resistance for the Japanese when they captured a large portion of China. General Xue Yue led an army of 300,000 troops to defend the city. On December 24, 1941, the Japanese launched an unsuccessful assault with 120,000 soldiers. After failing to achieve their goal on January 15, 1942, they surrendered to the Chinese.

    The Doolittle Raid, 18 April 1942

    With the Pacific under Japanese control in April 1942, American spirits were at an all-time low. But the Allies wanted the Japanese to know that victory was still out of their reach. To do this, they plotted a bombing attack on Japan. As a result, the Japanese knew the Americans couldn’t attack their country since no American base was near enough. Lt. Col. Doolittle’s operation showed the Japanese they were mistaken. The B-25 bombers from the United States were successfully launched from the aircraft carriers and struck Tokyo for a short period of time.

    May 4, 1942: Battle of the Coral Sea

    Australia and the United States fought together for four days against Japan in the first naval air combat, which ended on May 8, 1942. Disputes broke out between Australia, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands in the Coral Sea. An aircraft carrier, a destroyer, and a tanker all went down for the Allies. A light aircraft carrier, a destroyer, and numerous smaller ships were lost from the Imperial Navy’s side. Even though the Allies suffered more casualties, the Japanese were hampered in their preparations for the subsequent Battle of Midway.

    June 7, 1942: American victory in the Battle of Midway

    Japanese troops at war with the United States sought to eliminate any remnants of the American naval aviation forces that had survived the first assault on Pearl Harbor. To defeat the American fleet, the Japanese intended to entice it to an assault on the Midway Islands, located to the northwest of the Hawaiian archipelago. The Americans discovered the operation, though, as a result of the Japanese communications’ interception. Moreover, the Imperial Navy was unable to gauge the strength of the opposing fleet owing to the absence of a proper reconnaissance mission. Japan lost four aircraft carriers and a heavy cruiser in the Battle of Midway, which started on June 4, 1942.

    August 7, 1942: Marines land at Guadalcanal

    The United States and its allies landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida as part of the Solomon Islands campaign against Japan. Protecting the vital communications link between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States was a shared priority. Over time, the plan was to storm the Japanese naval station in Rabaul. The Japanese attempted to reclaim islands that were then in Allied hands during the Battle of Guadalcanal, which lasted from August 7, 1942, to February 9, 1943. The attempt was unsuccessful.

    August 9, 1942: Japanese victory at the Battle of Savo Island

    The Japanese forces retaliated at Savo Island after the Allied landings on the Guadalcanal Islands. The Allies were in the midst of a landing operation when they were suddenly attacked in the middle of the night. The Imperial Japanese Navy sank three Allied heavy cruisers with very few casualties on either side. Despite their seeming win, the Japanese withdrew from the operation without destroying the cargo ships. The Allies were able to fortify their strongholds in the Solomon Islands because of this strategic blunder.

    Blackett-Solomon Islands Campaign Battle, 6 March 1943

    A number of Japanese outposts remained in the Solomon Islands after the American victory at Guadalcanal. On Kolombangara, they stationed a sizable army garrison. On March 6, 1943, two Japanese destroyers were en route to the Blackett Strait to provide supplies to the garrison when they ran into American vessels. The combined efforts of three American cruisers and three American destroyers sank the two Japanese ships.

    March 27, 1943: Battle of the Komandorski Islands

    The Japanese invaded American territory on the islands of Attu and Kiska during World War II in the Pacific. The Americans saw a Japanese resupply ship near the islands and decided to attack. A Japanese naval force encountered two American cruisers and four destroyers on March 27, 1943, near the Komandorski Islands. The Japanese fleet consisted of four cruisers, four destroyers, and two supply ships. The fight was a draw for both fleets. After that, the Japanese decided to send submarines to the two islands.

    Battle of New Georgia, Solomon Islands Campaign, June 20, 1943

    In 1942, the Japanese invaded the Solomon Islands and seized New Georgia with 10,500 soldiers. They anticipated the imminent arrival of American forces. With the aid of their allies from Australia and New Zealand, American troops launched an assault on June 20, 1943. When the Allies attacked, they outnumbered the Japanese three to one, and the Japanese quickly capitulated. However, they were able to successfully escape by boat back to the Rabaul outpost.

    July 6, 1943: First Battle of the Gulf of Kula, Solomon Islands Campaign

    In the Gulf of Kula, Solomon Islands, during the night of July 5–6, 1943, a group of American destroyers, Task Force 18, intercepted a Japanese supply. The Allies’ nickname for the nightly supply runs made by the Imperial Navy was “Tokyo Express.” Ten Japanese destroyers were at their disposal. Three American cruisers and four destroyers came up in a line and sank two Japanese ships, killing 324 people, including Vice Admiral Akiyama. The Japanese, however, struck back by sinking the USS Helena, a cruiser. The battle’s result was up in the air.

    13 July 1943: Second Battle of Kula Gulf, Solomon Islands Campaign

    The Americans discovered the Japanese Navy’s midnight “Tokyo Express” supply operation in the Gulf of Kula. The Americans were trying to defend against this supply, but the Japanese were able to identify them almost immediately. Nonetheless, they were successful in sinking the Japanese light cruiser, which went down with Vice Admiral Isaki on board.

    7 August 1943: Battle of the Gulf of Vella, Solomon Islands Campaign

    It was during the night of August 6–7, 1943, when six American warships discovered four Japanese destroyers in the Gulf of Vella. The Imperial Navy often resupplied its bases in the middle of the night. The Allies’ name for this strategy was “Tokyo Express.” Three Japanese warships were sunk as the Americans conducted a surprise torpedo attack. Just one slightly damaged Japanese ship made it out of there.

    18 August 1943: Battle of Horaniu, Solomon Islands Campaign

    The Japanese army had to withdraw from the central Solomon Islands in August of 1943. Twenty landing boats and numerous additional ships were sent, with four destroyers providing security. Near the island of Vella Lavella, American planes discovered the convoy and launched an assault. The Americans sent in four destroyers and opened fire on the Japanese, damaging two of their own ships and destroying four support vessels. The Imperial Japanese Navy won because the United States Navy had no losses while failing to stop the departure of nine thousand Japanese soldiers.

    October 7th, 1943: Battle of Vella Lavella, Solomon Islands Campaign

    When the Japanese defenses on Kolombangara proved too strong, the Americans shifted their focus to Vella Lavella. On August 15, 1943, nearly 9,600 American and New Zealander forces arrived on the island, driving the Japanese back toward the island’s northern tip. The island’s 700 or so Japanese forces left on October 9, allowing the Allies to turn it into an aviation base for use in Rabaul.

    November 2, 1943: Battle of Augusta Bay, Bougainville Campaign

    The Pacific War progressed with the retaking of more and more islands by American soldiers from the Japanese. On November 1st, 1943, U.S. forces arrived on the island of Bougainville. Japanese soldiers reacted with airstrikes on Rabaul. The Japanese Imperial Navy sent four cruisers and six destroyers into Empress Augusta Bay on November 2. An American force consisting of eight destroyers and four cruisers met the Japanese fleet. As a result of American efforts, two Japanese ships were destroyed: one cruiser and one destroyer.

    November 23, 1943: The Americans liberate Tarawa

    The United States had an interest in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands as early as July 1943, realizing that having access to these islands would enable them to establish air bases from which to exert pressure on Japan. On November 21st, the United States launched a 35,000-man assault on the Gilbert Islands atoll of Tarawa. The 2,600 Japanese troops who had taken up positions on the island put up a stiff struggle. More than a thousand American troops were killed in only two days, and another two thousand were injured, yet the Americans nevertheless managed to take control of Tarawa. Only seventeen men made it out of the Japanese jail camp alive.

    November 26, 1943: Battle of Cape St. George, Bougainville Campaign

    As a result of the American invasion, the Japanese were forced to strengthen their position at their base at Buka, located on the island’s western coast. They sent five destroyers from Rabaul and landed 900 troops and their gear. The U.S. Navy’s radar caught the Japanese returning fleet. Five US Navy warships launched an assault on the Japanese off Cape St. George. Three ships from the Imperial Japanese Navy were destroyed, although no lives were lost on the American side. The Solomon Islands naval campaign ended with this fight.

    The “Ichi-Go” Operation began on May 9, 1944.

    The “Battle of Henan, Hunan, and Guangxi” is another name for this operation in China. This was an assault on Japanese territory. The Japanese wanted to take control of the U.S. air sites in China’s southeast. Japan’s 400,000-man army successfully invaded China with support from the U.S. Air Force and advanced into Indochina. They were successful in occupying a considerable area. In spite of this, the US relocated its air bases to the Mariana Islands, nullifying the advantages of the “Ichi-Go” operation.

    The Saipan Battle began on June 15, 1944

    Having retaken the Solomons, Gilberts, and Marshalls, the Allies next assaulted the Marianas, bringing them closer to Japan. Many Japanese citizens lived on these islands despite the presence of 31,000 Imperial Army troops tasked with defending them. After landing on Saipan on June 15, 1944, with 70,000 soldiers, the Americans were able to capture the island three weeks later, on July 1. This victory came at the cost of 3,426 American lives and approximately 13,100 wounded. Twenty-four thousand Japanese troops perished. Roughly five thousand Japanese soldiers killed themselves rather than surrender to the Americans.

    June 19, 1944: Battle of the Philippine Sea

    Admiral Ozawa’s mobile force launched an assault on the U.S. fleet as the Americans prepared to invade the Mariana Islands and seize them. The Japanese lost three ships and half their planes in this operation (395 aircraft were shot down). As opposed to the Imperial Japanese Navy, the United States Navy only lost 124 planes and zero ships. Due to a severe shortage of aircraft and pilots, the Japanese naval aviation forces were wiped out in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and never recovered.

    The Battle of Guam began on July 21, 1944

    The United States military needed to seize control of the Mariana Islands in the midst of the Pacific War in order to set up strategic bases for attacking Japan. Guam, an American territory that the Japanese took over in December 1941, was not too far away. Three thousand and six hundred American soldiers arrived on the island on July 21, 1944, to reclaim it from the Japanese. In 1944, on August 10, the Japanese surrendered, and Guam was freed. Nearly 1,800 Americans were killed in the conflict, while just a few of the 18,600 Japanese soldiers were killed or wounded.

    July 24, 1944: Battle of Tinian

    The Americans began their conquest of the Mariana Islands by landing on Tinian, where 9,000 Japanese forces had dug in for the long haul. Between July 24 and August 1, 1944, American forces took control of the island. About 2,500 soldiers were saved thanks to the efforts of the Japanese navy. The United States lost 328 men at the Battle of Tinian, while the Japanese lost almost 6,000. After that, the United States military built the biggest air base in the world on the island of Tinian. The Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs were launched from there.

    October 27, 1944: The Nipponese navy was broken in the Gulf of Leyte

    The United States military operation in the Philippines began that year, in October. The archipelago’s freedom from Japanese rule was their primary ambition. The United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy engaged in massive naval combat in the Gulf of Leyte off the coast of the Philippines from October 23rd to October 26th, 1944. Many historians rank this conflict as the greatest naval engagement ever fought. There were a lot of ships in play, with the Japanese fielding four aircraft carriers, seven battleships, and thirteen heavy cruisers, and the Americans deploying thirty-four aircraft carriers, twelve battleships, and twenty-three cruisers. The United States Navy ultimately prevailed in four battles against the Imperial Japanese Navy, which ultimately ceased to exist as a fighting force.

    November 24, 1944: Bombing of Tokyo

    From India and China, the United States began bombing Japan in 1944. The first American air strike occurred on November 24, 1944, over the Mariana Islands, which the United States had just liberated from the Japanese. With incendiary bombs in tow, 88 B-29 bombers headed towards Tokyo. Flying at an altitude of 33,000 feet (10,000 meters) meant that few of them really made it to their destinations. This was the first in what would be a lengthy string of attacks on the Japanese archipelago.

    February 4, 1945: Opening of the Yalta Conference

    The three leaders of state, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin, convened at Yalta, Crimea, from February 4–11, 1945. For a whole week, as Japan and Germany teetered on the brink of defeat, the top Allied leaders deliberated the war’s consequences. They wanted to finish the war as quickly as possible, determine what would happen to Europe following the collapse of the Third Reich, and establish the basis for a whole new global order. Stalin won the summit because he was able to negotiate concessions from the Western powers. After that, he had the power to establish Soviet dominance over Eastern European nations.

    The Battle of Iwo Jima began on February 23, 1945

    The United States was drawing nearer to Japan and would soon be able to unleash air strikes against the archipelago from its bases in the Mariana Islands and the Philippines. But despite this, the island of Iwo Jima in Japan tipped off the Japanese anti-aircraft defenses. 22,000 Japanese soldiers were watching over American troops as they started the conquest of Iwo Jima on February 19, 1945.

    The United States military invaded the island with 70,000 soldiers and quickly established their dominance. The American flag was hoisted on top of Mount Suribachi. Roughly 7,000 American servicemen lost their lives at Iwo Jima between February 23 and March 26, 1945. With 20,703 dead and 1,152 missing, the Japanese army was almost wiped out.

    Tokyo was bombed on March 9, 1945

    If the American bombs on Japan started in 1944 and continued until March 9 and 10, 1945, the latter was the worst. 325 B-29 warplanes unleashed tons of incendiary bombs on Tokyo as part of Operation “Meetinghouse.” 100,000 Japanese people lost their lives because of the assault. Over a million individuals were displaced, and many of them became homeless. The number of victims from this bombing exceeded that of the Hamburg and Dresden attacks combined.

    March 9, 1945: Japan takes control of Indochina

    Japan was worried that the Allies would launch an offensive via Indochina, which would be a catastrophic military move. Beginning in 1940, Japanese forces occupied a portion of the country, while the French maintained sovereignty over the remaining territory. The French Committee for National Liberation, which was in charge of the latter group, wanted to put together a fighting force to drive the Japanese out. The Japanese army launched its offensive on March 9, 1945, with 95,000 troops. The Annamese added to the French’s 18,000 troops, making the total French force 42,000. The Japanese eventually won out and ruled all of Indochina. Some 37,000 French and Annamite captives were taken by the Japanese and killed in prison camps.

    March 10, 1945: Proclamation of independence for Cambodia

    Once a protectorate, Cambodia was annexed to French Indochina in 1945. When the Japanese invaded Indochina, they urged King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia to declare independence on March 10, 1945. Son Ngoc Thanh, a nationalist, was installed as the country’s leader. When the Japanese were defeated, Cambodia became a French protectorate. Independence was not achieved until 1953.

    March 27, 1945: Beginning of the “Famine” operation

    As Japan continued to refuse to submit, the United States implemented “Operation Starvation.” The goal was to block Japanese commercial ships and soldiers from using Japanese waterways. U.S. Air Force aircraft dropped the mines. Around 670 Japanese ships were destroyed, and the country’s last maritime lines were abandoned.

    Okinawa was assaulted by the United States on April 1, 1945

    After their success at Iwo Jima, the Americans shifted their focus to Okinawa. With this island in their possession, they could make their decisive assault on Japan. Seventy-seven thousand Japanese troops had dug in there. Between 183,000 and 250,000 American troops arrived on Okinawa after losing many ships to kamikaze raids. The Japanese put up a ferocious fight for weeks because they considered surrendering an insult to their pride. The United States military eventually overran the island, but not before losing almost 20,000 men. Nearly eleven hundred people lost their lives at the Japanese concentration camp.

    April 7, 1945: Operation “Ten-Go”

    In the middle of the invasion of the island of Okinawa, the Americans were at the gates of Japan. The Japanese decided to launch “Operation Ten-Go” to assist the troops defending Okinawa with a squadron dominated by the “Yamato”, the largest battleship in the world. They hoped to fight their way through the American ships and then beach the “Yamato” on the coast to use it as a coastal battery. The operation was a failure because the Japanese had no air support, and American fighters quickly destroyed their squadron. 3,700 Japanese sailors died in the battle.

    May 8, 1945: End of World War II in Europe

    The Allies defeated Germany in Europe. On May 7, 1945, the German top brass signed their surrender at Eisenhower’s headquarters in Reims. The fighting had to stop on May 8 at 11:01 p.m. Having defeated the Germans on the eastern front, Stalin demanded that the German generals sign another surrender in Berlin. The act was signed on May 8 at 11:01 p.m. Berlin time (May 9 at 1:01 a.m. Moscow time). While World War II was over in Europe, it continued in the Pacific until Japan surrendered.

    July 17, 1945: Potsdam Conference

    After the defeat of Germany, the Allied representatives, Stalin (USSR), Churchill (UK), and Truman (USA), met in Potsdam from July 17 to August 2, 1945. The aim of this conference was to decide the fate of the defeated in World War II, namely Germany, Italy, and Japan, even if the latter had not yet surrendered. The agreements included the demilitarization and occupation of Germany by the Allies, as well as the confiscation of Italian colonies in Africa. Japan received an ultimatum: it was ordered to surrender, or it would suffer “rapid and total destruction.”

    August 6, 1945: Atomic bomb on Hiroshima

    After issuing an ultimatum to Japan, the Americans carried out their “threat” by dropping an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima. The goal was not only to force Japan to surrender but also to intimidate the Soviets. On August 6, 1945, the “Enola Gay” bomber dropped the “Little Boy” bomb, which exploded at an altitude of 1900 ft (580 meters). Fires broke out all over the city after the explosion. The bombing killed between 70,000 and 140,000 people.

    August 8, 1945: The USSR declared war on Japan

    The entry of the USSR into the war against Japan, three months after the surrender of Germany, was part of the agreements signed by Stalin at the Yalta conference. The Soviets invaded Manchuria, which Japan had been occupying, after the declaration of war on August 8, 1945. Soviet strength reached 1.5 million men. On August 16, the Red Army made its junction with the Chinese army, encircling the Japanese troops. The offensive ended on September 2, 1945. In the meantime, the Soviets took the opportunity to occupy Sakhalin Island, the Kuril Islands, and northern Korea.

    August 9, 1945: Atomic bomb on Nagasaki

    After dropping the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Americans sent a second ultimatum to Japan. However, Emperor Hirohito did not respond, hoping to negotiate with the Soviets. The Americans then decided to drop an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. The “Bockscar” bomber was the “Fat Man” bomb. The bombing caused the deaths of 60,000–80,000 Japanese.

    September 2, 1945: Japanese surrender

    On August 14, 1945, Japan surrendered unconditionally, five days after the bombing of Nagasaki. The next day, Emperor Hirohito announced his surrender to his people during a radio broadcast. The official ceremony of the surrender of Japan took place on September 2 aboard the “USS Missouri”, in the presence of General MacArthur. The Second World War was officially over. The Americans occupied Japan until 1952.

    May 3, 1947: A New Constitution in Japan

    Two years after the end of World War II, Japan adopted a new Constitution. Approved by the Diet and proclaimed by the Emperor, it established a parliamentary regime, close to the European constitutional monarchies. It was based on three principles: national sovereignty, the guarantee of fundamental human rights, and pacifism. Thus, by Article 9, Japan renounced war and committed itself to not maintaining an army. The interpretation of this article is still the subject of many controversies.

    Bibliography:

    1. Dennis, Peter; Grey, Jeffrey; Morris, Ewan; Prior, Robin; Bou, Jean (2008). The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (Second ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195517842.
    2. Drea, Edward J. (1998). In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-1708-0.
    3. Takemae, Eiji (2003). The Allied Occupation of Japan. Continuum Press. ISBN 0-82641-521-0.
    4. Toland, John, The Rising Sun. 2 vols. Random House, 1970. Japan’s war.
  • Battle of Monte Cassino: The Destruction of Monte Cassino

    Battle of Monte Cassino: The Destruction of Monte Cassino

  • Potsdam Conference: Reconstructing Europe after the World War II

    Potsdam Conference: Reconstructing Europe after the World War II

    On July 17, 1945, the Potsdam Conference commenced near Berlin. While Japan continued to engage in combat, the Allied powers convened in this German town to determine the fate of their enemies. Three heads of state led the discussions until August 2, 1945: Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom; Harry Truman, the President of the United States; and Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The occupation and denazification of Germany were decided upon in Potsdam, while an ultimatum was issued to Japan to definitively end World War II.

    As the February 1945 conference at Yalta (Yalta Conference) progressed, Stalin seemed to be in control. While Roosevelt was relatively weak, he had already committed to several Soviet positions, and the Red Army seemed to be winning the race for Berlin. Churchill had serious concerns, but the American president held out hope that the Soviet state would eventually become more democratic. In addition, Roosevelt expected the future United Nations to limit any communist expansionism that could occur. His successor, Truman, would attempt to control the resulting compromises at Potsdam due to these events.

    What is the Historical Background of the Potsdam Conference?

    In the middle of July 1945, the Allied powers were on the brink of triumph in World War II. By this time, Germany, particularly the Third Reich, had already surrendered on May 8, 1945, with Adolf Hitler having taken his own life a few days earlier in his bunker. Japan, on the other hand, was still engaged in the conflict, persistently defending its territories. It wasn’t until September 2, 1945, following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that Japan finally surrendered. The Potsdam Conference ensued, building upon the Teheran Conference held in 1943 (which played a crucial role in organizing the Allied landings in 1944) and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, along with the London Agreement signed on June 26, 1945. The objective of the Yalta conference was to expedite the conclusion of World War II and shape the future of Europe in the aftermath of the Third Reich’s defeat. These conferences aimed to ensure the stability of the newly established global order.

    Organizing the Post-War World

    The Big Three’s first order of business at Potsdam was to discuss Germany’s potential postwar trajectory. The immediate goal for the Allies was to demilitarize Germany, which entailed destroying its military-industrial complex if necessary. Poland benefited greatly from the division of Austria into four occupation zones (American, British, French, and Soviet), which reduced Austria’s western boundary along the Oder Neisse line (which the Soviet Union had amputated from its eastern part). Large-scale migrations of people also occurred as a result of these territorial shifts; in particular, 11 million Germans were forced to leave the eastern areas.

    The Nuremberg Trials were the apex of the Big Three’s commitment to a forceful campaign of denazification and the prosecution of war criminals inside the new Germany. Both the governmental and economic systems would be decentralized. In addition to disarmament, these four measures insured that the Allies would never again tolerate Germany as a military force.

    The situation in Japan was also a key topic of discussion at the meeting. Though at war with the Western Allies since December 1941, the Empire of the Rising Sun held out hope that a negotiated end to the battle might be reached, particularly with the help of the then-neutral Soviets in Asia. The Japanese government was in the dark about Stalin’s decision to join the war on the side of the Americans at Yalta. To take on the wealthy regions of Manchuria and northern Korea, the Soviet Union assembled a formidable military force in the Soviet Far East.

    The possibility was raising alarms in the nation’s capital. The Americans planned to maintain control of East Asia even if the defeat of Japan was certain (particularly in light of potential further atomic strikes). In particular, they were worried that Moscow might intervene on behalf of the Chinese Communists, whose ceasefire with Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalists was tenuous at best.

    However, on July 26, the Big Three sent Japan an ultimatum demanding unconditional surrender or immediate annihilation. Despite being left out of the ultimatum’s language, the atomic bomb hangs heavy over ties between the USSR and the USA. Stalin would soon have to catch up with the Americans.

    Who Attended the Potsdam Conference?

    The Potsdam conference saw the participation of only three invited signatories who agreed to attend.

    • Harry Truman, the Democratic successor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, represented the United States during the conference.
    • Joseph Stalin, the Soviet statesman who had been in control of the federation since 1920, acted as the representative of the USSR.
    • Lastly, Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom since May 1940 and a member of the Conservative Party, represented his country.

    Stalin emerged triumphant at the Potsdam conference, advocating for the interests of the USSR and emphasizing the immense sacrifice of 20 million soldiers who had perished in the fight against Nazi Germany. France, which was no longer considered a “great nation,” was not included in the conference but received updates on the proceedings and decisions. General de Gaulle expressed his disappointment with this situation. It is worth noting that the Potsdam conference marked the sole meeting between Truman and Stalin. By 1946, the two nations had descended into the Cold War.

    Where and When Did the Potsdam Conference Take Place?

    The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof Castle, located southwest of Berlin. Princess Cecilie, the castle’s occupant, was compelled to flee due to the advancing Red Army, and the Soviet military government took over the premises. Despite the interior being designed by German architect Paul Troost, all belongings were removed to accommodate the Potsdam Conference. A round table was brought into the castle hall, where the three heads of state, Truman, Stalin, and Churchill, convened from July 17 to August 2, 1945. The Potsdam Agreement was officially signed on July 26, 1945. Originally, the conference was intended to be held in Berlin, but extensive bombing damage rendered it impractical.

    What Decisions Were Taken Concerning Germany?

    One of the initial decisions made was the separation of Germany and Austria, which constituted the German Reich, with the goal of restoring Austria’s independence. Both countries were divided into four zones of occupation. The USA, the UK, and the USSR all occupied different parts of Germany. France, on the other hand, was granted an occupation zone along its borders by the USA and the UK. Subsequently, in 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) were established. Poland was granted authority over the former German provinces bordering its territory. The focus shifted from defeating Nazism to preparing for the post-war era and the division of assets and territories. The BNF map below illustrates the zones of occupation, with a zoom on Berlin, which itself was divided into four occupation zones.

    Germany Zones of occupation
    Germany Zones of occupation.

    En ce qui concerne le montant des réparations que l’Allemagne devra payer, les Etats-Unis et le Royaume-Uni sont en désaccord avec Staline dont la demande est jugée excessive. Un compromis est finalement trouvé. Cette question sera abordée lors de la Conférence des ministres des Affaires étrangères. En attendant, il est convenu que les Soviétiques peuvent prélever ce qu’ils souhaitent dans leur zone d’occupation.

    Among the other decisions made at the Potsdam Conference, there were the “five Ds”: disarmament or demilitarization, denazification (elimination of all elements related to Nazism), decartelization of German industries controlled by large corporations, democratization, and decentralization. Within the framework of denazification, the Nuremberg trials were organized from November 1945 to October 1946 to prosecute war criminals. They were accused of conspiracy, crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The concept of “crimes against humanity” was a novel development. Twelve high-ranking Nazis were sentenced to hanging, and others received life imprisonment.

    Regarding the amount of reparations Germany would have to pay, the United States and the United Kingdom disagreed with Stalin’s excessive demands. Eventually, a compromise was reached. This issue would be further addressed during the Conference of Foreign Ministers. In the meantime, it was agreed that the Soviets could extract whatever they deemed necessary from their occupation zone.

    The decisions made, particularly the creation of occupation zones, led to significant population displacements. Germans and Poles were expelled from the east, German populations were expelled from certain territories such as Silesia (a historical region spanning the Oder Basin, Poland, Germany, and the Czech Republic), the Sudetenland, and Transylvania.

    What Decisions Have Been Taken Regarding Japan?

    On July 26, 1945, an ultimatum was presented to the Empire of Japan. It demanded the Japanese government’s surrender, warning of “swift and complete destruction” if they refused. This ultimatum was delivered during the Potsdam Conference, where Truman informed Stalin about the existence of a new weapon: the atomic bomb. On July 29, 1945, Japan announced its disregard for the new Allied ultimatum. In response, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6 of the same year.

    Following the Japanese government’s continued refusal to surrender, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9. Concurrently, on August 8, the USSR declared war on Japan, in accordance with the agreement reached at the Yalta Conference in February. Emperor Hirohito of Japan accepted the terms of the Potsdam Accords on August 15, 1945. The official Japanese surrender was signed a few weeks later, on September 2, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

    What Does It Mean For Other Nations?

    At the Potsdam Conference, the decisions made had repercussions for France, Poland, and Italy, as well as other members of the Axis.

    Regarding Poland, on July 5, 1945, the United States and the United Kingdom recognized the pro-Communist provisional government. The conference also established the temporary border between Germany and Poland, known as the Oder-Neisse line.

    In the case of French Indochina, the Allied forces entrusted the restoration of order to the United Kingdom and China without consulting France. Despite being under Japanese control since March 1945, France managed to negotiate its reinvestment in Indochina. However, Vietnam’s desire for independence led to the outbreak of the Indochina War in 1946.

    Benito Mussolini’s Italy faced sanctions and lost its African colonies. Eritrea and Italian Somalia came under British administration, although Somalia regained its Italian identity between 1950 and 1960 under a United Nations mandate. Before gaining independence in 1951, the United Kingdom and France occupied Italian Libya. Albania regained its independence, and French territories that had been annexed during the war were returned to France.

    Bibliography:

    1. Gormly, James L. From Potsdam to the Cold War: Big Three Diplomacy, 1945–1947. (Scholarly Resources, 1990)
    2. Lewkowicz, Nicolas, The German Question and the International Order, 1943-1948. Palgrave, 2010. ISBN 978-1349320356
    3. Mee, Charles L., Jr. Meeting at Potsdam. M. Evans & Company, 1975. ISBN 0871311674
    4. The Tehran, Yalta & Potsdam Conferences. Documents. Moscow: Progress Publishers. 1969.
    5. Harriman, W. Averell, and Elie Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941-1946 (1975)
  • Wannsee Conference: Planning the Final Solution

    Wannsee Conference: Planning the Final Solution

    It was on January 20th, 1942, that the Wannsee Conference convened. Fifteen high-ranking Nazi officials, including Heydrich, Eichmann, Freisler, and Müller, met at a luxurious Berlin villa, and their discussions are now widely regarded as a watershed moment in the events leading up to the Holocaust and the final solution of exterminating the Jews of Europe. In reality, the conference was just one part of a larger series of meetings held by Nazi leaders during the winter of 1941–42, during which they established a rationalization of their genocidal policy and began implementing the “final solution of the Jewish question”.

    The Wannsee Conference was organized and chaired by Reinhard Heydrich, a high-ranking SS officer and one of the key figures in the Nazi regime. Heydrich was known for his brutal involvement in Nazi activities.

    The Wannsee Conference and the Holocaust’s Final Solution

    About fifteen high-ranking Nazis met with Adolf Eichmann at Wannsee, a Berlin suburb, on January 20, 1942, to plan the “Final Solution” to the “Jewish issue.” The strategy of systematic discrimination against German Jews, followed by a program of extermination that was extended to all nations that Germany controlled directly or indirectly from the commencement of World War II, was to have this gruesome result.

    Jews in Germany and the annexed areas were ordered to start wearing the yellow star of identification on their clothes as early as September 1941. Thousands upon thousands of Jews were murdered by Einsatzgruppen commandos or sent to ghettos in Poland and the Soviet Union in the months that followed. Hermann Göring, Nazi Germany’s number two, issued an order to Reinhard Heydrich, the chief of the Gestapo, to carry out a “Final Solution to the Jewish Question” throughout Europe.

    Wannsee is emblematic because it was under the direction of the ambitious Reinhard Heydrich, who advocated an industrialized and centralized approach to the “final solution,” and it was at his headquarters that this process was centralized. Although Adolf Hitler may have sensed the war was lost (though perspectives on this issue vary), he would not give up the aim of purging Europe of its Jewish population, by whatever means. This strategy would sometimes even take priority over military operations.

    The mechanization of mortality

    The goal of Heydrich’s plan was to “cleanse about 11 million Jews.” This meant that the Holocaust would be institutionalized and carried out methodically throughout all seized territories and areas under German control. They were planned for deportation to Polish ghettos and concentration camps, where they would be killed through “natural decrease” due to forced labor. “Any survivors will have to be treated appropriately because, being the product of natural selection, they could, once released, be the ferment of a new Jewish organization.”

    The Nazi state as a whole was mobilized for the Final Solution, and the administrative administration of the extermination was mastered. The Nazi leadership prioritized the creation of an industry of death to facilitate the killing process more quickly and effectively. Central Europe was the site of the concentration camps and extermination camps, where deportees were promptly killed, sometimes by means of gas chambers. Those deportees who weren’t gassed right away were utilized as slave labor by German factories or as test subjects by Nazi physicians. More than five million Jews were killed in this way, out of an estimated six million victims of Nazi crimes.

    The Allies brought the remaining Nazi leaders to court at the Nuremberg Trials after the war. Twenty-one people were put on trial, including Nazi racism theorist Alfred Rosenberg. Conspiracy, crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity were the charges against them. This last allegation was made to downplay the enormity of the atrocities perpetrated against Europe’s Jews. The two principal actors of Wannsee would each meet a different fate: Heydrich would be slain in 1942 by Czech resistance fighters, and Eichmann would be hanged in 1962 after a dramatic trial in Jerusalem.

    References

    • Creation of the Memorial Site”. Haus der Wannsee-Konferenz.
    • Longerich, Peter (2012). Heinrich Himmler: A Life. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959232-6.
    • Dederichs, Mario (2009) [2006]. Heydrich: The Face of Evil. Casemate Publishers. ISBN 9781935149125.
  • Yalta Conference: Setting Up the World After World War II and How the Cold War Began

    Yalta Conference: Setting Up the World After World War II and How the Cold War Began

    The major wartime commanders in the fight against the Third Reich gathered in the Crimean resort of Yalta from February 4–11, 1945 to plan for a new global order in the wake of Germany’s impending defeat. The leaders of the world’s three superpowers were all there: Joseph Stalin for the Soviet Union, Winston Churchill for the United Kingdom, and Franklin D. Roosevelt for the United States.

    For several days, they will strive to come to a consensus on how to go forward in order to set the tone for this momentous conference. The goal was to finish the war as quickly as possible but also to establish the groundwork for a durable restoration of peace in a Europe freed from Nazi rule. At the conclusion of this conference, the United Nations Organization (UNO) was formed to ensure global stability.

    How does the Yalta Conference fit into history?

    The three major World War II winners—Joseph Stalin, Winston Churchill, and Franklin D. Roosevelt—met at the Yalta Conference in February 1945. World War II broke out in September 1939. The main goal of this conference was to find solutions to the problems brought on by the impending defeat of Nazi Germany. While this historic and significant meeting was focused on the conditions of the German surrender, it also signaled the start of a protracted process of talks between the winners of this brutal conflict to create a new international order.

    What were the dates and location of the conference?

    In retrospect, it’s clear how pivotal a role this meeting played in World War II was. It took place at Yalta, Ukraine, between February 4 and 11, 1945. Yalta is a popular vacation destination in the Crimea, and it can be found on the northern coast of the Black Sea, not far from the city of Livadia. The summit took place at the Livadia Palace, the summer palace of the last Russian tsar, Nicholas II.

    What was the purpose of the Yalta conference?

    Germany’s capitulation seemed inevitable, and with it, the end of World War II. After almost six years of war against Nazi Germany, the world’s top leaders gathered at Yalta to establish a new international order. As a result of Hitler’s defeat, the many goals of this landmark summit were as follows:

    1. Use of a coordinated plan of action to hasten the war’s conclusion, primarily via the involvement of the Soviet Union in the fight against Japan.
    2. The planning for the future of a Europe freed from Nazi Germany and Hitler’s oppression.
    3. The establishment of the United Nations, a global body with the power and duty to keep the peace.

    Why was France not present at the Yalta conference?

    The Yalta conference, which reunited the Allied powers, was the summit gathering of the three main postwar conquerors. Even though General de Gaulle’s temporary government of the French Republic was recognized by the Allies in October 1944, it was not invited to the Yalta conference. Because of this, France was not seen as a triumphant state symbolically throughout World War II. A further humiliation, following the conclusion of four years of occupation endured by the French people, was felt by the French delegate when he was not invited to participate in the meeting.

    But why such an exclusion of France?

    The French weren’t at Yalta for a variety of reasons. To begin with, General de Gaulle was viewed with suspicion by the United States and Franklin Roosevelt in particular. He was labeled an “apprentice dictator” by the opposition. In contrast to the General’s optimism, the Soviets did not seem persuaded by his suggested strategy of continental balancing. Among the British, Churchill was the lone dissenter who advocated excluding France from the negotiations and instead sparing the country. In fact, the British prime minister desired to have France become a powerful continental partner in the fight against Stalin.

    What decisions were taken at the conference?

    During World War II, the Allies met for days to debate and negotiate the Yalta Accords, which included:

    1. The development of democratic administrations via free elections in the freed European republics. 
    2. The United Nations was formally established when the United Nations Charter was signed during the San Francisco summit between April 25 and June 26, 1945.
    3. The USSR’s entry into the war against Japan.
    4. The eradication of German militarism and weapons.
    5. The victorious Allies partitioned Germany into three sections, which they then occupied in turn. After some time, France was granted a fourth zone of occupation thanks to Churchill’s backing and General de Gaulle’s mobilization.
    6. Poland’s relocation to the western side of the Soviet Union was to create new boundary lines. This nation gave up some land to the Soviet Union but gained back some areas that Germany had occupied. 
    7. The formation and operation of the UN is a guarantee of peace and security throughout the globe. The United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, and China, all of whom have the authority to veto any decisions made by the Security Council, will agree on its foundation.

    What are the results of the Yalta conference?

    The Yalta Conference in February 1945 was a watershed moment. In light of the impending defeat of Nazi Germany, it seemed to be the only way to deepen the links of trust and collaboration that united the major Allies and winners of World War II. Germany was to be demilitarized and divided into three occupation zones, and this plan was agreed upon by all parties involved. A fourth zone would be added to France in the future. By holding fair elections, the other European nations will have the same chance at self-determination.

    However, additional demands will emerge from these concerns of collaboration and peace, and many of the various aspirations of the allied countries will become clear. As a result, the Yalta accords give the appearance of being a huge victory for Stalin. Although he advocated for peace, all of Eastern Europe was ultimately subject to Soviet dominance. In a short amount of time, the continent was effectively split in two by the Iron Curtain, which marked the beginning of almost fifty years of conflict between two radically different philosophies. In the early decades of the twentieth century, the Cold War emerged as another significant war with no open hostilities between opposing nations.

    Bibliography:

    1. Beevor, Antony (2012). The Second World War. New York: Little, Brown and Company. p. 709. ISBN 978-0-316-02374-0.
    2. Truman 1973, p. 208
    3. Fenby, Jonathan (2012). The General; Charles de Gaulle and the France he saved. Skyhorse. pp. 280–90.
    4.  Pavel Polian. Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR. Central European University Press 2003 ISBN 963-9241-68-7 pp. 244–49
    5. “Agreement Regarding Japan,” Protocol Proceedings of the Crimea Conference (February 11, 1945). Online.
    6. Leffler, Melvyn P. (1986). “Adherence to Agreements: Yalta and the Experiences of the Early Cold War”. International Security. 11 (1): 88–123. doi:10.2307/2538877. JSTOR 2538877. S2CID 153352217.
    7. “Potsdam Declaration”. Ndl.go.jp. July 26, 1945.
  • Munich Agreement: The Signature of the De Facto Beginning of World War II

    Munich Agreement: The Signature of the De Facto Beginning of World War II

  • Battle of Stalingrad: The Collapse of Hitler’s Grand Plan

    Battle of Stalingrad: The Collapse of Hitler’s Grand Plan

  • Battle of Kursk: The Largest Tank Battle in History

    Battle of Kursk: The Largest Tank Battle in History

    The Battle of Kursk, fought in western Russia from July 5 to July 13, 1943, was a defining moment of World War II. As the largest tank battle in history, it involved over 2 million men and over 3,000 Russian and German tanks. More than 100,000 Nazi soldiers died in the final large-scale offensive attempt on the Eastern Front, and Adolf Hitler suffered irreparable losses to his armored divisions, which had been unbeatable up until that point. The Soviet Union’s victory demonstrated to the world that the German Panzerwaffe was vulnerable to attack. Peaceful conditions improved to the point where the great liberating offensives of 1944 could be launched.

    The Context of the Battle of Kursk

    German Panzer IV and Sd.Kfz. 251 (Sonderkraftfahrzeug 251).
    German Panzer IV and Sd.Kfz. 251 (Sonderkraftfahrzeug 251).

    Since most German units were located in the east, it was only logical that the West German government would intervene against the Soviets. It’s crucial, first and foremost, to put to rest the horrors of Stalingrad (the Battle of Stalingrad), but it’s also important to bring back Germany’s struggling allies (be it Italy, Hungary, or Romania). In addition to protecting “Fortress Europe” (Festung Europa), Hitler planned to bleed to death a Soviet Union that he believed had been weakened by two years of war with a new successful offensive in the east.

    The real start-up of the war economy (the famous Totaler Krieg of Goebbels’ speech of February 1943) organized by Speer was likely to reinforce Berlin’s optimism. This allowed the Germans to reassemble their best offensive weapon: tanks. The latter was fortified and reorganized under the leadership of General Guderian (who became Inspector General of Armor), who drew inspiration from his experiences fighting Soviet armored formations (and their famous T-34). Hitler had high hopes for new equipment like the Tiger tank and the Panther tank, which could take on the most powerful Soviet armored vehicles.

    In 1943, the Allies decided to launch an offensive somewhere in the eastern hemisphere. If you look at a map of the front from that period, you’ll see that the answer is obvious: Kursk. The winter Soviet offensives did create a salient, roughly 180 km (north to south) by 140 km (east to west). Kursk, a major railroad hub in the middle, provided the Red Army with a strong foothold from which to launch attacks south (Kharkov) or north (Moscow) (Orel).

    The German high command hoped that by attacking Kursk preemptively, they could shorten Stalin’s front by about 280 kilometers and thus deprive him of his best troops (the Central Front and the Voronezh Front), an economy of about twenty divisions. Due to the salient’s shape, Operation Citadel will resemble a traditional pincer movement. In the south, Field Marshal von Manstein’s army group was in charge of a “pincer” maneuver.

    Hitler had faith in Manstein because of his ability to turn around hopeless situations, and he did so by arranging impressive formations on paper. Hermann Hoth’s Fourth Armored Army, on the left, consists of 10 divisions, 200,000 men, and around 1100 armored vehicles (including the elite of the armored and mechanized formations, such as the SS Armored Corps of Hausser). This is a detachment of the Kempf army, on the right, with three mechanized brigades. General Model’s 9th Army was in charge of the northern end of the pincer. Model, a defense expert who was popular with his troops but particularly harsh, fielded 21 divisions, 335 thousand men, and nearly 900 armored vehicles.

    It became immediately clear that Manstein’s units would be responsible for the bulk of the offensive effort due to the temperament of the two concerned leaders and the disparity of their forces (and the air support that could be offered by a Luftwaffe already reduced by the lack of fuel). The victor of Sevastopol, in contrast to Model, was confident that his tanks could breach the Soviet defensive system’s fortifications and depth. Weak German intelligence was the cause of an overconfident outlook.

    The Citadel of Stalin

    Zhukov with Ivan Konev, commander of the Steppe Front, during the Battle of Kursk.
    Zhukov with Ivan Konev, commander of the Steppe Front, during the Battle of Kursk. CC BY 4.0.

    The German military intelligence consistently underestimates the strength of the Red Army throughout the German-Soviet war. However, the partisans and an advanced eavesdropping system meant that the Soviets, despite their reputation as disinformation experts, were in the dark about German intentions. That allowed them to construct a strong defense. Beginning in March of 1943, more than 300,000 troops and civilians in the Kursk region set up eight defense lines, each one 300 kilometers in depth.

    The German attack formations were supposed to be channeled by the trenches, minefields, and fortified points, and then destroyed by the armored reserves. The entire operation was kept secret using tried and true maskirovka methods, which was why the Germans had no idea of the full extent of the resistance mounted against them. Without a doubt, Model would have hesitated to launch the attack with his 9th army if he had known that he would have to face 80,000 mines, 2800 artillery pieces, and 537 multiple rocket launchers.

    Stalin, who had recently granted Soviet generals greater autonomy, had obviously devoted a large amount of resources to protecting the Kursk salient. So that he can develop his own offensives (primarily Operation Kutusov towards Orel) in peace, the master of the USSR plans to make this salient a fixation point for the best German units. Central Front was led by General Rokossovski (Polish-born and a victim of the purges of 1937), who was stationed in the north to face Model. In order to complete his mission, the brilliant officer had access to multiple armies, or a total of 700,000 men and 1,800 armored vehicles (Soviet armies and divisions were smaller than their German counterparts). Rokossoskvi had time on his side and the option to use the reserves Stalin prudently amassed on his back if Model needs to break through in two days.

    Young general Vatutin’s (42 years old) Voronezh Front is aligned with Manstein. Vatutin, a local who was familiar with his opponent, had a total of six armies at his disposal (two of which would not be attacked and would serve as reserves). There were a total of 1700 tanks and 625,000 men represented here. Not enough to stop Manstein’s offensive, but sufficient to set up a devastating counterattack. In fact, Vatutin, like Rokossovski, was aware that, in the long run, he can count on the assistance of two reserve groups he had amassed (including the Steppe Front) in order to counter the salient. The STAVKA (Soviet High Command) will send their two best officers, the brutal Zhukov and the level-headed Vassilievsky, to Kursk to coordinate their actions. A dynamic duo whose skillsets perfectly complement one another, able to hold their own against their Germanic rivals.

    Two Weeks to Change the Course of the War

    Battle of Kursk (map).
    Battle of Kursk (map).

    Operation Citadel’s official launch date was finally settled on July 4th, 1943, after several delays caused in part by Hitler’s desire to supply his armored formations with the latest equipment (Panthers tanks, among others). With four months of planning and practice under their belts, the Luftwaffe Stukas will fly into action at 4 o’clock. The objective was to set up for the on-the-ground charge of Hoth’s 4th armored army.

    Vatutin was unfazed by the brutality of the mechanized attack and maintains his composure. Russian defenses were strong because they were positioned on higher ground. The Soviet Union’s counterbattery fire and minefields were both highly effective. When the Luftwaffe took to the skies, the red-star planes severely hampered their ability to fight. But Hoth’s woes were compounded by the fact that the 200 Panthers making up its front line have been plagued by persistent mechanical issues. While in 1941 it would have been several dozen kilometers, on the evening of July 6 it was only a few kilometers.

    Model had an even more trying time of it than everyone else. The 9th Army commander wisely followed the Soviet playbook and went in with infantry, later exploiting the situation with tanks (while Hoth rushes with its armor in the lead … to the Germans). Nonetheless, the implementation of these units was hampered by the activity of an admirably informed Soviet artillery late on the night of the 4th/5th (by deserters, among others). The Red Army’s resistance was strong, and the minefields significantly slowed the German advance, just as they had in the south. The 9th Army, at a cost of nearly 10% of its potential, broke through a 20 km wide and 7 km deep corner on the evening of July 5. The 6th Rokossovski had already begun their counterattack, so it would be a waste of money and a poor use of their time. Even though the Soviets suffer heavy casualties due to the poorly coordinated attack, the 9th army only loses a day. Sufficient time for Rokossovski to reflect on his setback and rethink his approach.

    The Last German Great Eastern Offensive at Kursk

    Battle of Kursk
    Soviet troops of the Voronezh Front counterattacking behind T-34 tanks at Prokhorovka, 12 July 1943.

    By July 6, the Germans learn some encouraging news from the south. The 2nd SS armored corps (Hausser) was given the opportunity to attack in a poorly guarded area and made its way through toward Prokhorovka. The other Hoth army corps joined the breakthrough on the 7th, and the entire 2nd Soviet defense line was broken. As a result of the crisis, Stalin sent a large number of reserve formations, including the 5th Tank Army of Romistrov’s Guard, and Vatutin’s general staff was forced to respond (from Voronezh). Stalin had reason to be optimistic about continuing the operations despite Vatutin’s concerns. Even though the Hoth armored army had great success, the Kempf army detachment almost stalled in the north.

    The 9th Army’s formations were showing signs of wear and tear due to constant bombing by Soviet aircraft. The strongest sectors of Rokossovski’s system were surrendered on July 9 by a Model that was unable to maneuver and was stuck in a logic of frontal assault. Model, a defense expert, realized right away that he was at a loss. On July 12, his superior, Marshal Von Kluge (Army Group Center), worried about his northern flank, ordered him to begin withdrawing. Half of the Battle of Kursk had been won by the Soviets at that point.

    Therefore, the onus fell upon von Manstein to turn the tide. To be sure, he was upbeat because he had no idea how significant the Soviet Union’s upcoming reserves were. Hoth, frustrated by the positioning of Soviet forces, spends September 9th through 12th making his way to Prokhorovka, where the Schutzstaffel (SS) Panzers appear to have cleared the road. Killing Vatutin’s armored reserve would clear the way to Kursk, which was why he plans to do it. Nonetheless, the onslaught of Romistrov’s Guards tanks caught him and Hausser’s SS by surprise.

    On July 12, the finest Soviet and German armored weapons will face off along a front of 8 km on both sides of the local railroad. Most recent studies agree that Prokhorovka was not the “swan song of the Panzerwaffe,” despite the fact that the battle was made out to be much more difficult than it actually was by Soviet propaganda. Although the SS armor was victorious on the defensive to some extent, they were unable to take the Prokhorovka railway junction due to heavy casualties and a lack of reinforcements.

    Hitler called Manstein and Kluge to his headquarters in Rastenburg, East Prussia on the 13th. Though he was troubled by Hausser’s demise, he was even more so by some other information. The Western Allies had landed in Sicily and taken Syracuse three days prior. The Italian defense had been so ineffective that the island may as well be abandoned for the time being.

    Thus, Hitler was compelled to organize a reserve army to protect the southern flank of Fortress Europe. This force could only count on the political stability of Hausser’s SS. The planet of Hoth cannot make significant progress without its spearhead. As a result, on the 17th, work on the Citadel was permanently halted. The gamble didn’t pay off, and the Führer had lost the upper hand on the Eastern Front. As a result, the German armies had no choice but to withdraw.

    A Critical Moment in World War II

    A major setback for the Hitler Reich was the inability of the Germans to take Kursk and completely destroy the Central and Voronezh Fronts. Although the Eastern Front did not shrink, the Red Army’s operational situation improved thanks to the creation of a strategic reserve. Worse, the Soviets still went ahead with Operation Kutusov on July 12 after Operation Citadel cost them 250,000 men against 60,000 Germans.

    The myth of German invincibility was put to rest at Kursk. In the summer of 1943, the Red Army begins its campaign with a renewed vigor and the assurance that comes from knowing it can hold its own in mechanized combat. It had run out of chances to win.

    Bibliography:

    1. Healy, Mark (1992). Kursk 1943: Tide Turns in the East. London: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-85532-211-0.
    2. Jentz, Thomas (1995). Germany’s Panther Tank. Atglen: Schiffer Pub. ISBN 0-88740-812-5.
    3. Jacobsen, Hans Adolf; Rohwer, Jürgen (1965). Decisive battles of World War II; the German view. New York, NY: Putnam. OCLC 1171523193.
    4. Mulligan, Timothy P. (1987). “Spies, Ciphers and ‘Zitadelle’: Intelligence and the Battle of Kursk, 1943” (PDF). Journal of Contemporary History. 22 (2): 235–260. doi:10.1177/002200948702200203. S2CID 162709461.
    5. Moorhouse, Roger (2011). Berlin at war: Life and Death in Hitler’s capital, 1939–45. London: Vintage. ISBN 9780099551898.
    6. Taylor, A.J.P; Kulish, V.M. (1974). A History of World War Two. London: Octopus Books. ISBN 0-7064-0399-1.
    7. Searle, Alaric (2017). Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-9813-6.
  • Vichy France: France Ruled by Pro-nazi French for Four Years

    Vichy France: France Ruled by Pro-nazi French for Four Years

    Following France’s defeat at the hands of Germany in World War II, the Third Republic was replaced by Vichy France on July 10, 1940. Marshal Pétain was granted absolute power and promptly established the “French State,” relocating his government to the free zone city of Vichy. The marshal then took center stage as World War I‘s heroic “providential man,” the man who would help France recover from its devastating loss to Germany, which had occupied the country’s northern and western regions.

    With daily interactions with the Germans, the Marshal used all the power at his disposal to introduce new principles; this was collaboration. The Germans evacuated France upon the arrival of the Allies on August 20, 1944, and General de Gaulle assumed the presidency of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, bringing an end to the Vichy regime.

    How Did the Vichy Regime Collaborate With Germany?

    Personal flag of Philippe Pétain, Chief of State of Vichy France (Chef de l'État Français)
    Personal flag of Philippe Pétain, Chief of State of Vichy France (Chef de l’État Français).

    The “French State,” or Vichy France, was nominally independent after the German occupier handed over administration of France to them. Towards the end of October 1940, Philippe Pétain gave a speech in which he openly supported collaboration. There was a meeting between Hitler and the Marshal in Montoire-sur-le-Loir on October 24th, 1940. Immediately following the German invasion of the free zone on November 11, 1942, collaboration intensified. Compulsory Work Service (Service du travail obligatoire, STO), increased repression of opponents, establishment of the SOL (Legionary Order Service) and then the French Militia, economic measures favoring Germany, etc. all served German ideology under the Vichy regime. Moreover, anti-Semitic laws (such as the mandatory wearing of the yellow star and the confiscation of property) were enacted, as well as the establishment of a General Commissariat for Jewish Questions (CGQJ) and Jewish roundups like the Vel’ d’Hiv’.

    Was the Vichy France an Anti-republican Regime?

    The anti-republican Vichy regime had Marshal Pétain exercising legislative and executive powers and had abolished Parliament. It was a dictatorship, in which one man made all the decisions without consulting the people. The regime’s anti-republican tenor was bolstered in 1943 when a militia was formed to combat resistance fighters and apprehend Jews. After a short period of time, references to the “French Republic” were removed from all government publications.

    What Was the Composition of the Vichy Government?

    Secretary of State members served alongside French President Philippe Pétain. François Darlan succeeded Pierre-Étienne Flandin as Vice President of the Council after Pierre Laval stepped down. In April 1942, Pierre Laval became the Head of Government of Vichy France, a position he combined with his duties as Minister of the Interior, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Minister of Information. Financial Minister Yves Bouthillier was succeeded by Pierre Cathala. Pierre Pucheu (Minister of the Interior) and Paul Baudouin (Minister of Foreign Affairs and then Minister of Information) were just two examples of the many different people who have held high offices in France. There were then separate ministers of state in charge of the air force, the navy, and the war.

    What Were the Symbols of the Vichy France?

    Propaganda image with the motto and Philippe Pétain above a scene of rural and industrial France.
    Propaganda image with the motto and Philippe Pétain above a scene of rural and industrial France.
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    Image: Wikimedia.

    The motto “Travail, Famille, Patrie” (Work, Family, Homeland) replaced the French Republic’s former motto of “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité” (Liberty, Equality, Fraternity) as the defining symbol of the Vichy regime, its ideology of “national revolution,” and its new moral order.

    Official emblem of Marshal Pétain and de facto coat of arms of the Vichy regime.
    Official emblem of Marshal Pétain and de facto coat of arms of the Vichy regime.

    The francisque, the national symbol, comes next. It’s a battle axe with both sides decorated in the blue, white, and red of France, and it’s been kept in mint condition. It was used on all government publications, advertisements, and trophies. The song “Maréchal, nous voilà!” was taught to every schoolchild in Vichy France and quickly became the unofficial anthem of the regime.

    KEY DATES IN VICHY FRANCE

    April 5, 1939 – Albert Lebrun was re-elected President of the Republic

    The newly re-elected French President Albert Lebrun fought against signing an armistice with Adolf Hitler’s Germany. Eventually, he had to cede power to Marshal Pétain, who was elected president of the Council. In the end, authorities in the Austrian Tyrol captured and imprisoned Albert Lebrun.

    Pétain was elected Council President on June 16, 1940

    Pétain served as President of the Council of the Third Republic prior to becoming head of state of France (Vichy regime). On the same day he took office, he was replaced by a government formed after Paul Reynaud’s resignation. As required by the Constitution, this change had taken place.

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    When Pétain was in charge, his administration went by that name. The Marshal was already 84 years old. After signing the armistice on June 22, 1940, Philippe Pétain immediately established a new government in Vichy.

    France and Germany sign an armistice on June 22, 1940

    France’s Council President Philippe Pétain officially ends hostilities with Germany. The country of France was effectively divided in half, with the northern and western regions under German control and the southern region remaining independent. There was a line drawn in the sand that divided the two halves. The Marshal set up his new government in the southern city of Vichy.

    July 2, 1940 – The Pétain government settled in Vichy

    Pétain’s government established its headquarters in the free zone city of Vichy. Considering its proximity to the demarcation line with the occupied zone and its convenient train connections to Paris, this was a calculated move. The hotel’s facilities also made it simple to house the government officials. Since the government settled here, its rule was known as the Vichy regime.

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    French State was founded by Pétain on July 10, 1940

    On this day, the “French State” officially began. The Third Republic ended when Marshal Pétain was given absolute power by the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Assembly business was settled at the Grand Casino in Vichy. There were 569 in favor of Marshal Pétain and 80 opposed; 19 people didn’t vote. To legitimize the establishment of the “French State,” now known as the Vichy France, a new constitution was enacted. “Work, Family, Country” became the new national motto of France.

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    July 12, 1940 – Pierre Laval vice-president of the Council

    Phillipe Pétain named Pierre Laval vice president of the Council and his successor on July 12. After the Allies won the war in Europe in August 1944, the “French State” was no more.

    Churchill officially recognized de Gaulle as the legitimate leader of France on August 7th, 1940

    Churchill’s official endorsement gave General de Gaulle the confidence he needed to take decisive action. Britain officially recognized the independence of the Free French Forces (FFL) after he signed agreements with Churchill on that day. Agreements like these provided the FFL with the funds it needed to take action and ensured that French possessions would be returned upon the country’s liberation.

    Léon Blum was taken into custody on September 15, 1940

    Léon Blum, the founder of major social laws and the Popular Front’s president in 1936, voted against giving Marshal Pétain full powers on July 10, 1940. As both a Jew and a socialist, he was targeted for arrest by the Vichy regime on September 15 and sent to Chazeron prison, where he attempted to coordinate resistance efforts from behind bars. After being tried in Riom and found guilty of leading France to defeat, he was turned over to the Germans and sent to Buchenwald.

    Position of Jews in the Neutral Zone as of October 3, 1940

    The Vichy government issued a new law regarding the status of Jews without any influence from the Nazi regime. According to Article 1, a person was considered Jewish if they have at least three Jewish grandparents or two non-Jewish grandparents whose spouse was Jewish. This was the first of a series of measures that will progressively worsen over time. Jews were restricted from working in many fields. Marshal Pétain’s collaboration led to the deportation of 75,721, including 6,012 children.

    Pétain and Hitler shake hands on October 24, 1940

    This handshake took place at the Montoire meeting and was captured on film forever. This was a visual representation of the Nazi regime’s cooperation with the Vichy government. After their interview at the train station, Hitler and Pétain continued their discussion in Hitler’s private carriage. On October 30, Pétain addressed the French people and urged them to “collaborate,” explaining that he had sought to improve France’s situation with the war’s victor.

    December 13, 1940: Pierre Laval was dismissed

    After being accused of having too close of ties to Germany, Philippe Pétain removed Pierre Laval as vice president of the Council and put him under house arrest. Adolf Hitler did not agree with the new Vichy government leader, so he had Laval released. In April of 1942, Pierre Laval regained prominence when he was appointed prime minister, foreign minister, interior minister, and minister of information all at the same time.

    French strike ban on October 4, 1941

    The law of October 4, 1941, known as the “Labor Charter”, was passed by the Vichy regime. It prohibited strikes and established the principle of single, compulsory unions.

    The Riom trial began on February 19, 1942

    On February 19, 1942, the Vichy regime initiated the Riom trial in an effort to establish the guilt of Third Republic politicians for the defeat of 1940. The likes of Léon Blum and Édouard Daladier, among others, were among those who stood accused. However, the defense presented compelling evidence that the loss was a result of military failure rather than political missteps. The trial was put on hold because it did not result in an indictment. With his newfound authority, Marshal Pétain decided to hand down a conviction himself.

    22 February 1942 – Creation of the Service d’Ordre Légionnaire (SOL)

    Joseph Darnand established the “Service d’Ordre Légionnaire” (Legionary Order Service) on February 22, 1942. They were a Vichy regime military group. They took an oath to “fight against democracy and the Jewish leprosy” and pledged their allegiance to the Nazi regime in exchange for membership in this openly collaborator army. After initially supporting the Vichy regime, the Service d’ordre légionnaire eventually broke away and aligned itself with less extreme collaborationist regimes. Joseph Darnand continued to lead the SOL after it morphed into the French Militia in 1943.

    Vel’ d’Hiv’ raid, 17 July, 1942

    A total of over 13,000 Jews, including around 4,100 children, were arrested in the Paris area overnight. René Bousquet, the French police’s General Secretary, was the one to carry out the order from the Vichy government. The Vel’ d’Hiv’ round-up got its name from the days the prisoners were stacked up at the Velodrome d’Hiver. Their next stop was Drancy, before they were shipped off to Auschwitz.

    German forces invade the free zone on November 11, 1942

    To counter the Allied invasion of North Africa, Adolf Hitler launched “Operation Attila” against France on November 8. The Germans invaded the southern part of the country, which had been a “free zone,” despite the name. Germany exerted full control and influence over the Vichy government.

    February 16, 1943 – Institution of the STO

    Vichy France passed a law instituting the Obligatory Labor Service because the “relief” and volunteer systems weren’t enough to meet German demand for labor. Every single man between the ages of 21 and 23 was shipped off to Germany to work for a total of four years. Some of the young men, however, defied the authority. People who didn’t want to sign the STO formed the maquis.

    April 26, 1945 – Pétain took himself prisoner

    Philippe Pétain, facing charges of “intelligence with the enemy” and “high treason,” decided to surrender as a prisoner in Switzerland. A few months later, there was no question about the verdict: he was sentenced to death. The sentence was changed from death to life in prison by General de Gaulle.

    July 23, 1945 – Philippe Pétain’s trial opens

    Marshal Pétain, a hero of World War I, went on trial in the High Court of Justice on July 23, 1945. In his trial, where he remained silent, questions were raised about his possible collaboration and his reasons for sparing France. It took a long time, but he was ultimately found guilty and given the death penalty. He was given a life sentence instead of death because General de Gaulle intervened on his behalf.

    October 4, 1945: Pierre Laval’s trial opens

    Pierre Laval, who had no idea how unpopular he was, learned the hard way during his trial, when he was subjected to jeers and insults from the crowd. The trial was hastily wrapped up, and the defendant was found guilty of high treason and conspiracy against the internal security of the State. For this reason, Pierre Laval was given the death penalty.

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    On October 15 of that year, he was killed inside the Fresnes prison.

  • Battle of Midway: The end of Japanese supremacy in the Pacific

    Battle of Midway: The end of Japanese supremacy in the Pacific

    The United States achieved naval air superiority over Japan in the Pacific Ocean following the decisive Battle of Midway during World War II. The fighting occurred in the waters off the Midway Islands, to the northwest of the Hawaiian Islands, from June 3-7, 1942. The Japanese plan to encircle this atoll with an underwater barrage was thwarted by the American military, who achieved a major victory. This effectively ended any further maritime expansion by the imperial army, as the United States military effectively cut off their supply lines. As much as the Allied victory on the Russian front or in North Africa, the sinking of four aircraft carriers, three destroyers, and two hundred and sixty-one fighter planes at Midway shifted the balance of power in the war.

    The Midway trap

    After five months of defeats since Pearl Harbor, the Americans’ luck appeared to be changing with the paradoxical victory at the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942. Admiral Yamamoto, however, had not finished speaking, and he planned to trap the enemy carriers. Despite the setback at the Coral Sea for the operation against Australia and New Guinea, Admiral Yamamoto decided to maintain the initiative by preparing a new offensive. Although the primary goal was relatively unimportant, it was actually meant to lure the enemy fleet so that it could be destroyed.

    Actually, Yamamoto had his sights set on Midway, a Pacific atoll that was far from everything and of little strategic interest, but a landing there would still force the Americans to react. The Japanese admiral expected the American fleet to be depleted since Pearl Harbor, but he also anticipated that after the loss of the Lexington in the Coral Sea, the United States would be compelled to commit its last remaining forces to this battle.

    It was also decided to launch a parallel attack on the Aleutian Islands; if the goal was to confuse the Americans, this also had the disadvantage of complicating the Japanese plan and even dividing the forces for no real reason. This strategic flaw would prove to be a recurring theme for the Japanese throughout the war.

    The American surprises

    As a whole, the American fleet’s experience at the Battle of the Coral Sea was mixed. While they were successful in stopping the Japanese offensive on Australia, they also suffered heavy losses, including the destruction of the aircraft carrier Lexington and the severe damage sustained by the battleship Yorktown.

    The intelligence services had made great strides since Pearl Harbor, and it appeared that they had identified the next enemy target by breaking the Japanese code: Midway. This was the first good news Admiral Nimitz received. While it may have appeared that the Yorktown (commanded by Fletcher) was in dry dock for weeks, its repairs were actually completed in record time thanks to Chester Nimitz’s orders to bring the carrier to Pearl Harbor.

    The aircraft carriers Enterprise and Hornet (commanded by Spruance) should be able to get to the area quickly, so the Admiral had that going for him as well. The Japanese did not realize that the forces were even.

    Beginnings of the Midway conflict

    The Japanese were so intent on carrying out their complex plan that they failed to anticipate facing not one, not two, but three aircraft carriers; they had been led to believe that the Yorktown had been sunk in the Coral Sea. Worse, they had to make do without the Shokaku and the Zuikaku, both of which were damaged in this conflict. Consequently, Yamamoto “only” had four aircraft carriers—the Kaga, the Hiryu, the Akagi, and the Soryu—for the Midway attack.


    One thing to keep in mind was that they were all there when Pearl Harbor was bombed.

    The majority of the Japanese fleet set sail for Midway and the Aleutians on May 26, 1941. They left Pearl Harbor the following day without the enemy knowing it, and the Japanese command thought the Enterprise and the Hornet were still operating in the Solomon Islands. The U.S. had won the intelligence war long ago.

    On June 3, much to the shock of the Japanese, who had assumed they would not be attacked, the first contact was made when B-25s from Midway began bombing their island. The only thing that really got damaged was the Japanese pride after it became clear that the Americans hadn’t fallen for the Aleutian trap.

    Raid on Midway and reconnaissance

    Even so, Yamamoto continued to launch his assault. When he gave the order to invade the atoll on June 4, 1942, Nagumo was ready. The first attack ended at 7:10 a.m., and the Japanese pilots promptly requested another one. While passing through Midway, they ran into the American air force, which launched an unsuccessful attack on the Japanese fleet. The atoll-based air force did not cease to exist until 9 a.m. However, their efforts were not in vain, as the Japanese had already spotted the American fleet by the time the Midway raid took place, but were unable to attack it due to the destruction of their aircraft.

    The reconnaissance ballet had been going on for hours. Disturbing and sometimes muddled messages were sent to Admiral Nagumo, one of which mentioned an American aircraft carrier being nearby. In the end, he decided to wait until the Midway raids were over before launching an attack, despite his initial reluctance. The Japanese mechanics were so confused that they had to switch the plane’s ammunition twice; once from torpedoes to bombs and once back again. A technical issue arose and all four Japanese aircraft carriers were in complete disarray. What the Japanese feared most came true: the Americans had also spotted them.

    The American Box

    An American reconnaissance plane spotted the Japanese fleet at 5 a.m., hours before the Japanese had signaled Fletcher’s aircraft carrier, the Yorktown. After two hours of the Midway raid, Enterprise’s planes were the first to make contact with the Japanese fleet, but the old Devastator torpedo boats had little effect and were shot down like rabbits by Japanese flak. Though flawed, they accomplished their goal of clearing the skies of enemy fighters for the subsequent aircraft, most notably the Dauntless dive bombers.

    The Nagumo fleet was then hit by a barrage of bombs. Within minutes, the Kaga, the Akagi, and the Soryu were all either sunk or rendered inoperable.


    Not helping matters were the planes waiting on the decks to convert their bombs into torpedoes. After the twenty-minute American raid, the Japanese fleet had only the aircraft carrier Hiryu to launch planes.

    Farewell to Yorktown

    At 10:40 a.m., aircraft from the Hiryu began their assault. The Yorktown, an aircraft carrier spotted early in the day, was their intended prey. Three bombs severely damaged the hero of the Battle of the Coral Sea, followed by a second wave, this time with two torpedoes. All hope was lost when the aircraft carrier was finally destroyed by a submarine two days later. The submarine also managed to sink the destroyer that had been protecting the carrier. Meanwhile, the aircraft launched a new attack on Nagumo’s fleet and sank the Hiryu; the vengeance for the Yorktown continued with a two-day pursuit of the heavy cruisers Mikuma and Mogami, the first of which was ultimately sunk, and the second of which was very seriously damaged.

    As a result of arriving late to the scene, Admiral Yamamoto missed his chance to save Nagumo. He issued a retreat order. It was a devastating setback.

    Results and implications of the Midway conflict

    Unlike in the Coral Sea conflict, there was no ambiguity about the outcome this time! Whereas the Americans only abandoned one, the Japanese abandoned four. And most importantly, the war would ultimately come down to the loss of far too many of the Japanese fleet’s most experienced pilots.

    Admiral Yamamoto’s attempt to capture Midway was a strategic failure, and he lost the initiative as a result. From Midway on, the Japanese advance was stopped for good, and more importantly, the Americans were able to launch a counterattack, which they did on Guadalcanal. As with the Allied victories on the Russian front and in North Africa, this was a turning point in the Pacific War.

    Ultimately, the outcome of this naval engagement proved once and for all that aircraft carriers are superior to battleships. The ultimate defeat of the two titans, Musashi and Yamato, later in the war served as a symbolic confirmation of this. However, we still have a ways to go.

    TIMELINE OF THE BATTLE OF MIDWAY

    December 7, 1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor

    At 7:55 a.m., Japanese air forces launched an attack on the Pearl Harbor naval base. Over 2,000 Americans and roughly 100 Japanese were killed in the conflict. The Japanese Empire sought to destroy all U.S. naval and air vessels. They wanted to solidify their dominance in the Pacific by launching campaigns in Australia and Malaysia.

    December 8, 1941: The United States declared war on Japan

    After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States ends its state of neutrality. Involvement in World War II and the Pacific War begins with a declaration of war against the Empire of Japan.

    May 4, 1942: Battle of the Coral Sea

    The United States and Japan fought each other off the coast of Australia in the Coral Sea. The dates of May 4–May 8 of 1942 were crucial to this conflict. In spite of being the first naval air battle ever recorded, the outcome was a draw. The United States claimed a strategic victory, while the Japanese Empire won on the ground. The resolution of this conflict was exploited by both parties.

    June 7, 1942: American victory in the Battle of Midway

    The United States won the Battle of Midway on the fourth day of fighting. Air strikes on both sides’ naval fleets were a defining feature of this conflict. Both the strategic mistakes of the Japanese empire and the deciphering of their communications helped the Allies win the war. Japan will no longer be the one to initiate attacks during the Pacific War.

    August 7, 1942: Marines land at Guadalcanal

    The Solomon Islands campaign officially kicked off with the landing on Guadalcanal. The Allies were able to retake the strategic position from the Japanese in just six months.


    During this assault, 3,100 Americans and 31,000 Japanese were killed. Hundreds of airplanes and ships were lost on both sides.

    Bibliography:

    1. Morison, Samuel E. (1949). Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions: May 1942 – August 1942. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. 4. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-58304-6.
    2. Isom, Dallas Woodbury (2007). Midway Inquest: Why the Japanese Lost the Battle of Midway. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34904-0.
    3. Lord, Walter (1967). Incredible Victory. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 1-58080-059-9.
    4. Buell, Thomas B. (1987). The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-562-0.
    5. Symonds, Craig L. (2018). World War Two at Sea: A Global History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1902-4367-8.