Author: Bertie Atkinson

  • 5 Facts About Scorpions That Will Clearly Surprise You

    5 Facts About Scorpions That Will Clearly Surprise You

    Scorpions Can Detach Their Tails, But They Die from Constipation

    If you ask anyone which animal drops its tail to distract a predator, the answer would most likely be: “A lizard!” Not all lizards can do this, but many indeed use this tactic to escape.

    However, lizards don’t have a monopoly on this ability. Scorpions can also sacrifice their tails to survive.

    When a predator grabs a Ananteris balzani scorpion by the tail, the scorpion easily discards it and flees. But this doesn’t bring happiness to the scorpion. The problem is that the anus of this arachnid is located next to its stinger, and with its tail gone, the scorpion cannot defecate.

    Therefore, a tailless scorpion urgently seeks out a female to mate with, trying to leave behind some memory of itself before it dies from constipation.

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    Its chances are low, but its determination sharply increases.

    Scorpions Glow Under Ultraviolet Light

    If you look at a scorpion under an ultraviolet lamp—or in the moonlight—it will glow bright blue-green. Scientists are still unsure why this happens, but there are three plausible reasons.

    Firstly, the glow might help arachnids find mates in the dark.

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    These creatures are active at dusk and at night, and the ability to quickly identify others of their kind in low light is quite useful.

    Secondly, substances produced by the scorpion’s outer shell reflect ultraviolet light and could act as a kind of sunscreen.


    This can be helpful when living in a hot climate.

    Lastly, phthalic acid ether, a component of the scorpion’s fluorescent compounds, offers excellent protection against fungi and parasites.

    Scorpions Once Lived in Oceans and Grew Up to Three Meters Long

    Modern scorpions are not impressive in size—the largest, the emperor scorpion, can reach a length of only 20–23 cm.

    But the ancestors of these modern critters were much more formidable. Eurypterids, also known as sea scorpions, lived during the Paleozoic era (from 467 to 248 million years ago) and grew up to 2–3 meters long. They fed on fish and smaller aquatic arthropods.

    They didn’t have poisonous tails yet. After all, who needs venom when you’re the largest predator on the planet?

    Later, during the Great Permian Extinction, the large eurypterids disappeared, while smaller ones adapted to breathe atmospheric air, moved onto land, and gradually transformed into modern scorpions.

    In Pakistan, Scorpions Are Used Instead of Tobacco

    What do you think scorpions can be used for? Maybe to fill pots and hurl at advancing Roman armies, as defenders of the besieged city of Hatra reportedly did?


    Or to eat them fried, as traditionally done in the Shandong province of China? Or perhaps to create medicines from their venom to treat skin diseases and autoimmune disorders?

    However, the sunny residents of Pakistan have taken it further—they smoke scorpions. The venom of some species has hallucinogenic effects, and locals seeking new experiences take advantage of this.

    They dry the scorpions, grind them into powder, and pack them into pipes, sometimes mixing with herbs or dried sheep dung. Of course, smoking venom doesn’t improve one’s health, but enthusiasts don’t worry about such things—Pakistan’s healthcare system is still somewhat lagging behind other countries.

    Scorpions Carry Their Offspring on Their Backs and Sometimes Snack on Them

    Female scorpion with cubs.
    Female scorpion with cubs. Credit: Wikimedia

    Scorpions are strange creatures who do things differently from their relatives, spiders. Unlike spiders, they don’t lay eggs or weave webs and cocoons but give birth to live young.

    Sometimes, a female’s pregnancy can last up to a year.


    When it’s time to give birth, she curls her back part underneath herself and uses her pincers to quickly catch and place the babies on her back. There, they will ride for 5 to 25 days, depending on the species. If a baby falls off its mother or runs away sensing danger, it will later try to return.

    However, scorpions cannot be called model parents. If the female is hungry and can’t find food, she might casually take one or two offspring off her back and have them for dinner.

  • 5 Scary Facts About Marine Animals

    5 Scary Facts About Marine Animals

    1. The Throats of Sea Turtles Are Lined With Spiky Protrusions

    These reptiles appear as charming creatures until you look inside their mouths. The esophagus of sea turtles is covered with thorn-like protrusions all the way to the stomach. These help them hold onto jellyfish, their primary prey. During meals, the turtles use throat muscles to push out the water that gets swallowed with the food.

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    The spikes ensure the prey doesn’t slip out with the liquid. Additionally, the protrusions protect the mucous lining from the jellyfish’s venom.

    1. The Fangtooth Fish Has Teeth So Large It Can’t Close Its Mouth

    This predator rarely grows larger than 30 centimeters, but its powerful jaws give it a truly terrifying appearance, earning it the nickname “viperfish.” It feeds on small fish and shrimp, which it swallows whole. So, why does it need such sharp, needle-like teeth?

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    These teeth help the fish create a “cage” from its jaws, trapping its prey inside. The teeth are semi-transparent, so the prey often doesn’t notice them until it’s too late.

    1. The Goblin Shark Can Extend Its Jaw by Seven Centimeters

    This deep-sea dweller isn’t exactly a beauty. It has a long, shovel-shaped snout, a flabby body, and a tail with an underdeveloped lower lobe. But its most terrifying feature is its ability to suddenly extend its jaw forward by seven centimeters.

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    It performs this trick only during hunting. This predator mainly feeds on small fish and invertebrates.

    1. The Sea Cucumber Spits Out Its Internal Organs

    Sea cucumbers are part of the echinoderm family, closely related to sea stars and sea urchins. Their bodies indeed resemble cucumbers, but these animals have small tube-like feet. Sea cucumbers face many predators: crabs, fish, turtles, certain shark species, and even humans. To escape, they’ve developed a frightening defense mechanism. When threatened, the sea cucumber can contract its muscles and shoot part of its intestines at the predator.

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    The process is harmless and repeatable, as the animal’s organs regenerate quickly.

    1. A Shark Can Grow a New Tooth in One Day

    The lemon shark can shed over 30,000 teeth in its lifetime. On average, this predator loses a tooth every week. This is because, like human baby teeth, the shark’s teeth aren’t well-anchored to its gums. Sharks have multiple rows of teeth, with the front ones being the most used, so they wear down the fastest.

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    But don’t feel too sorry for them — a new tooth can grow in just one day after one falls out!

  • 5 Facts About Capybaras

    5 Facts About Capybaras

    Capybaras — The Largest Rodents in the World

    These peaceful herbivores, native to South America, have large bodies with short legs and rounded snouts, making them the largest rodents in the world.

    Capybaras are relatives of the well-known guinea pigs. In fact, this is why they are sometimes called water pigs. Indigenous peoples of Brazil call these animals kaapiara, which means “eater of thin grass”—hence the name we are familiar with.

    Adult capybaras can weigh between 50-65 kilograms (110-143 pounds) and measure about 1.3 meters (4.3 feet) in length. Their height at the shoulder reaches up to 60 centimeters (24 inches). The largest capybaras recorded by scientists include a female from Brazil weighing 91 kilograms (201 pounds) and a male from Uruguay, reaching 73.5 kilograms (162 pounds).

    Capybaras Swim and Run Well

    Capybaras are excellent swimmers and can easily move in water thanks to their dense bodies and small webbing between their toes, similar to beavers, with whom they share a family connection.

    They have anatomical features that help them survive in aquatic environments. Capybaras can hold their breath underwater for up to five minutes. Their eyes, ears, and noses are positioned high on their heads, allowing them to keep an eye on predators while submerged in ponds or rivers.

    On land, capybaras are also quite adept. These rodents can reach speeds of up to 35 km/h, helping them escape predators.

    Capybaras Are Social Creatures

    Capybaras are highly social. A typical group consists of about 10 animals. However, during the rainy season, the number of members can reach 40, and in the dry season, they can form herds of up to 100 individuals, led by a dominant male.

    Capybaras are most active at dawn and dusk, but if they sense danger, they may stay awake at night and rest during the day. Darkness helps protect them from predators while they feed.

    Capybaras use a wide variety of sounds to communicate with each other. This can include barking, clucking, grunting, purring, squealing, and long whining sounds.

    They also loudly grind their teeth, using this as another form of communication.

    The meaning of the sounds capybaras make varies depending on the context—it can be a warning about a nearby predator, a signal of friendliness, or even an indicator of weather conditions.

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    Capybaras are friendly and welcoming, even toward other species. There are many documented cases of capybaras accepting orphaned or abandoned animals into their groups. They allow birds, rabbits, and even monkeys to ride on their backs in the wild, and in captivity, they are known to befriend cats and dogs.

    Capybaras are also tolerant of humans and gladly allow people to pet them. However, you should avoid touching wild capybaras, as they can transmit Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever to humans. The latter is fatal for children, who are often the first to want to hug these cute, fluffy animals.

    Capybaras’ Eating Habits Are Quite Peculiar

    The primary diet of capybaras consists of various plants. They graze in fields, consuming grasses and cereals. They also eat young shoots, branches, bark, and leaves from different trees and shrubs. Additionally, they may consume aquatic plants, such as cattails, water lilies, and water spinach.

    Capybaras also eat fruit when available or when offered by people.

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    They enjoy oranges, pears, and watermelons.

    However, these cute animals regularly engage in a rather unpleasant behavior known as autocoprophagy.

    You see, unlike ruminant animals, capybaras cannot afford such long intestines, so they don’t digest fiber very efficiently. As a result, they eat their own feces to literally digest their food a second time. This way, capybaras obtain more nutrients and can reclaim water lost during defecation.

    Additionally, capybaras sometimes regurgitate the contents of their stomachs, chew it a little, and swallow it again, which aids digestion. Cows, for example, do this as well.

    Capybaras Can Be Eaten During Lent

    At this point, you might exclaim—how could anyone eat these adorable creatures? But capybaras are indeed consumed in some regions of South America.

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    This rodent is part of traditional cuisine in countries like Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, and others.

    Capybara meat has a distinctive taste and is considered a delicacy in certain regions. It can be prepared in various ways and used in different dishes.

    South American Catholics, in particular, have a fondness for capybara—culinarily speaking.

    In some regions of South America, especially in Venezuela, capybaras are eaten during Lent and Holy Week. This is because the Catholic Church issued a special dispensation allowing these animals to be consumed during this time, while other meats are prohibited. This papal bull was issued in 1784.

    The logic of the Pope was understandable. Beavers had been allowed as food during Lent since the Middle Ages because they live in water, and thus, were considered akin to fish, which is permissible during Lent. Capybaras are similar to beavers—both are rodents, both enjoy swimming—so their meat was deemed acceptable as well.

  • 10 Drugs That Changed the World

    10 Drugs That Changed the World

    Throughout the history of medicine, important pharmaceutical discoveries have changed the course of healthcare and the human experience. So chemotherapy drugs, penicillin, insulin, ether, chlorpromazine, thalidomide, contraception, idoxuridine, and azidothymidine are not just chemical molecules. They are symbols of the revolutionary forces that changed medicine and society. The history of these drugs is a story of technological progress, moral dilemmas, and social transformation, beginning with the development of anesthesia and ending with the eradication of infectious diseases.

    Ether

    V0018140 The first use of ether in dental surgery, 1846. Oil painting.Credit: Wellcome Library, London. Wellcome Images.images@wellcome.ac.uk.http://images.wellcome.ac.uk.The first use of ether in dental surgery, 1846. Oil painting by Ernest Board
    V0018140 The first use of ether in dental surgery, 1846. Oil painting.Credit: Wellcome Library, London

    Ether is a volatile liquid that can produce anesthesia when inhaled. Ether was first discovered in the 13th century by a Spanish chemist named Raymundus Lullus (Ramon Llull). However, its use as an anesthetic began in the mid-19th century. Crawford Long, a physician from Georgia in the USA, used it as a surgical anesthetic for the first time in 1842. He removed a tumor from the neck of a patient who was under the influence of ether. However, he did not publish his results until 1848.

    The first public demonstration of ether anesthesia was done by William Morton, a dentist from Boston, USA, in 1846 at the Massachusetts General Hospital.

    Aspirin

    Aspirin
    Bayer’s aspirin commercial.

    Aspirin is a drug that can relieve pain, inflammation, and fever. It is derived from salicylic acid, a compound found in the bark of willow trees and other plants. The use of salicylic acid as a medicine dates back to ancient times when people chewed willow bark or drank tea made from it to treat various ailments. In 1828, Johann Buchner, a German chemist, isolated salicin, a precursor of salicylic acid, from willow bark.

    In 1897, Felix Hoffmann, a German chemist working for Bayer, synthesized acetylsalicylic acid, a more stable and less irritating form of salicylic acid, and named it aspirin. Bayer patented the drug in 1899 and marketed it as a painkiller.

    Insulin

    Front page of the Toronto Daily Star, March 1922.
    Front page of the Toronto Daily Star, March 1922.

    Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels. The pancreas, a gland located in the abdomen, is responsible for producing this hormone. In individuals with diabetes, insulin is either insufficient or ineffective, leading to elevated blood sugar levels and various complications. In 1889, German physiologists Oskar Minkowski and Joseph von Mering discovered that removing the pancreas from dogs caused them to develop diabetes. This suggested that the pancreas contained a substance that prevented diabetes.

    In 1921, three Canadian researchers, Frederick Banting, Charles Best, and James Collip, working at the University of Toronto, isolated insulin from the pancreas of dogs. They successfully lowered blood sugar levels by injecting insulin into diabetic dogs. In 1922, they achieved a successful treatment by administering insulin injections to a 14-year-old child with type 1 diabetes.

    Insulin became the first effective treatment for diabetes, saving millions of lives. Banting and the head of the Toronto laboratory, John Macleod, shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1923 for the discovery of insulin.

    Penicillin

    Penicillin
    A sample of penicillium mould, gifted by Alexander Fleming to a colleague at St Marys Hospital, London, 1935. Image: Science Museum.

    Penicillin is an antibiotic that can kill or inhibit the growth of certain bacteria. Penicillium is a type of mold that produces it. The discovery of penicillin is attributed to the Scottish bacteriologist Alexander Fleming, who worked at St. Mary’s Hospital in London.

    In 1928, Fleming discovered that mold had contaminated a Staphylococcus bacterial culture he had left on his workbench, preventing the bacteria around the mold from growing. He identified the mold as Penicillium and named the antibacterial substance it produced penicillin. However, he struggled to purify and mass-produce penicillin, and his discovery went largely unnoticed.

    In 1939, two biochemists from the University of Oxford, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, revived Fleming’s work and developed a method to obtain and purify penicillin from mold cultures. They tested penicillin on mice and humans, demonstrating its effectiveness against various bacterial infections.

    During World War II, with the assistance of the U.S. and British governments and pharmaceutical companies, penicillin entered mass production and became a lifesaving drug for wounded soldiers and civilians. Fleming, Florey, and Chain shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 for the discovery and development of penicillin.

    Chemotherapy Drugs

    Chemotherapy drugs are medications that can kill or halt the growth of cancer cells, which are abnormal cells that divide uncontrollably and invade other tissues. The first chemotherapy drug, nitrogen mustard, is a chemical warfare agent that damages DNA and inhibits cell division.

    In 1942, pharmacologists Alfred Gilman and Louis Goodman from Yale University tested nitrogen mustard on mice with lymphoma, a cancer type affecting lymph nodes. They found that the drug reduced tumor size and prolonged the survival of the mice.

    In 1943, they treated a non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma patient with nitrogen mustard, achieving temporary remission. Nitrogen mustard became the prototype of alkylating agents, a class of chemotherapy drugs that interfere with DNA synthesis and function. Dr. Sidney Farber’s work in the 1940s laid the foundation for modern cancer chemotherapy.

    Later, new types of chemotherapy drugs were found or created. These include antimetabolites, which copy and damage the building blocks of DNA and RNA, vincristine and paclitaxel, which come from plants and stop cells from dividing, and cisplatin and carboplatin, which are made of platinum and stop DNA from replicating by creating cross-links in it.

    Chemotherapy drugs are often used in combination to enhance efficacy and reduce side effects.

    Chlorpromazine

    Chlorpromazine is a drug that can reduce the symptoms of psychosis, such as hallucinations, delusions, and agitation. It belongs to a class of drugs called antipsychotics or neuroleptics, which affect the activity of certain brain chemicals called neurotransmitters. Paul Charpentier, a chemist at the French pharmaceutical company Rhône-Poulenc, created chlorpromazine for the first time in 1950. It was originally designed as an antihistamine, a drug that blocks the effects of histamine, a substance that causes allergic reactions.

    In 1951, Henri Laborit, a French surgeon, tested chlorpromazine on surgical patients and found that it induced a state of calmness and indifference without causing a loss of consciousness. He suggested that the drug could be used to treat psychiatric disorders. In 1952, Jean Delay and Pierre Deniker, two psychiatrists at the Sainte-Anne Hospital in Paris, tried chlorpromazine on patients with schizophrenia, a severe mental disorder characterized by psychosis.

    They observed that the drug reduced the intensity and frequency of psychotic symptoms, such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech and behavior. Chlorpromazine became the first drug to treat schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders and opened a new era of psychopharmacology. Chlorpromazine also inspired the development of other antipsychotic drugs, such as haloperidol, clozapine, and risperidone.

    Thalidomide

    Thalidomide is a drug that can treat certain inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as leprosy and multiple myeloma, a type of blood cancer. It also has sedative and anti-nausea effects. However, taking thalidomide while pregnant is well known to lead to severe birth defects. Wilhelm Kunz, a chemist at the German pharmaceutical company Chemie Grünenthal, created the first synthetic version of thalidomide in 1953. It was marketed as a safe and effective sedative and antiemetic, especially for pregnant women suffering from morning sickness.

    However, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, thousands of babies were born with severe malformations, such as missing or shortened limbs, due to their mothers’ exposure to thalidomide during pregnancy. The drug was withdrawn from the market in 1961 after the link between thalidomide and birth defects was established by several researchers, including Frances Oldham Kelsey, a pharmacologist at the US Food and Drug Administration, who refused to approve thalidomide for sale in the US.

    Thalidomide became one of the biggest medical disasters in history and led to stricter regulations and ethical standards for drug testing and approval. In the 1990s, thalidomide was rediscovered as a treatment for leprosy and multiple myeloma after researchers found that it had immunomodulatory and anti-angiogenic properties, meaning that it could modulate the immune system and inhibit the formation of new blood vessels.

    Thalidomide was approved for these indications, under strict conditions and monitoring, in several countries, including the US. Thalidomide also served as a model for the development of other drugs with similar mechanisms of action, such as lenalidomide and pomalidomide.

    Birth Control

    Birth control is a term that refers to any method or device that can prevent pregnancy. Hormonal methods include birth control pills, patches, injections, implants, or intrauterine devices (IUDs), such as hormonal IUDs. Barrier methods include condoms, diaphragms, or cervical caps. Natural methods involve techniques like abstinence, withdrawal, or fertility awareness. Surgical options include vasectomy or tubal ligation.

    The history of birth control dates back to ancient times, when people used various herbs, plants, animal products, or physical methods to prevent pregnancy or induce abortion. Among the earliest documented forms of birth control are the use of vaginal suppositories by the ancient Egyptians, the use of the plant silphium by the ancient Greeks and Romans due to its contraceptive and abortifacient properties, and the practice of coitus interruptus or withdrawal, in various cultures.

    The development of modern birth control pills began in the 1950s, with key contributions from scientists such as Carl Djerassi, Gregory Pincus, and John Rock. The first oral contraceptive, Enovid, was approved for contraceptive use in 1960.

    Idoxuridine

    Idoxuridine is a drug that can treat herpes simplex keratitis, an eye infection caused by a virus. It is a nucleoside analogue, a modified form of deoxyuridine, that can block the replication of viral DNA. It was first synthesized by William Prusoff, a chemist at Yale University, in 1958. He initially developed it as an anticancer drug but later found that it had antiviral activity against the herpes simplex virus. In 1962, the US Food and Drug Administration approved it as the first antiviral agent.

    Azidothymidine

    Azidotimidin, also known as zidovudine or AZT, is a drug that can prevent and treat HIV/AIDS. It is also a nucleoside analogue, a modified form of thymidine, that can inhibit the enzyme reverse transcriptase that HIV uses to make DNA. Jerome Horwitz, a chemist at Wayne State University, created the first version of it in 1964. He intended it as a cancer therapy, but it proved ineffective and was shelved. In the 1980s, it was included in a screening program by the National Cancer Institute to identify drugs to treat HIV/AIDS. It showed promising results in laboratory and clinical trials, and it became the first drug to gain approval from the US Food and Drug Administration for treating AIDS in 1987.

  • 5 Fun Facts About Parrots

    5 Fun Facts About Parrots

    Parrots Can Teach Each Other Profanity

    Tourists and researchers often come across wild parrots in the forests of Australia, who curse fluently in impeccable English.

    How do these birds, who have never met a human, manage to pick up such foul language? According to ornithologist Jaynia Sladek from the Australian Museum, they learn it from pet parrots that have either escaped from captivity or were intentionally released.

    In addition to insults, wild parrots can mimic sounds like saws, axes, and camera clicks. They remember the noises made by tourists, ornithologists, and loggers, not only reproducing them but also teaching them to other birds.

    In the Middle Ages, Parrots Were Considered Birds of Paradise

      In the Middle Ages, parrots were valuable pets in Europe. They were expensive, and owning such a bird was a sign of prestige. Additionally, parrots were considered pious creatures, appropriate for respectable Christians to keep. This was no mere black cat, the tool of Satan.

      He speaks articulate words so that if you don’t see the bird, you would think it is a person speaking, and naturally, he pronounces “Ave.” As for the other words, he needs to be taught.

      Isidore of Seville’s Etymologies, 620 [Link]

      “Ave” is the first word of the prayer “Hail Mary (Ave Maria).” Because of this, people in the Middle Ages believed that parrots were no less than birds from the Garden of Eden, praising the Holy Virgin with each call. If you have a parrot that screams in the morning, you can think for yourself if its vocalizations resemble Latin prayers.

      In ancient times, however, scholars weren’t so impressed with the bird. Pliny, for example, described the parrot like this: “It greets emperors. It speaks the words it hears. Especially lewd when drunk.”

      A Parrot Almost Ruined a U.S. President’s Funeral

        Parrots’ ability to imitate human speech often tempts careless owners to teach them colorful language. This is an old tradition.

        For example, Andrew Jackson, the U.S. president from 1829 to 1837, known for his foul mouth and unruly behavior, taught his African grey parrot named Poll an extensive vocabulary of curse words.

        Jackson died at 78 from a heart attack. At his funeral, the bird suddenly began loudly spewing foul language.

        Mourners panicked, covered their ears, and called upon the Lord for help.

        The troublesome bird had to be removed. According to Reverend William Menefee Norment, who attended the funeral, the parrot “began to curse in the middle of the service and disturbed the people so much that it had to be taken out of the house.”

        Knowing Jackson’s fiery temper and fondness for cursing, he likely would have been proud of his pet.

        Parrots Are Related to Falcons and Can Be Bloodthirsty

          If you’re asked to name relatives of falcons, you’d probably think of hawks and eagles. But you’d be wrong. In reality, parrots are closer relatives, along with songbirds like thrushes and orioles.

          This conclusion was made by geneticists from the University of Münster. Although falcons and parrots split millions of years ago, they still share common traits—intelligence and a hooked beak. However, parrots turned to a vegetarian diet, while falcons became predators.

          Not all parrots are harmless vegans, though. For instance, the Kea from New Zealand is a true killing machine.

          These tough green birds with hooked beaks land on the backs of sheep peacefully grazing in the fields of New Zealand at night and peck out their fat. They leave terrible wounds, which sometimes get infected and lead to the death of livestock.

          Farmers tried setting traps, but the parrots learned to deactivate them. Kea use sticks in their beaks to poke at traps, a sign of their remarkable intelligence.

          Parrots Saved the Language of an Extinct South American Tribe

          In the 1800s, the German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt was traveling through the jungles of Venezuela. During his expedition, he encountered a local indigenous tribe from the Carib group. They had a large collection of parrots in bamboo cages, which could speak the local language.

          But one of the birds uttered words that no one could understand. Humboldt discovered that this was the language of an extinct tribe called the Atures. The Caribs had fought and wiped out its people. The survivors fled into the jungle and vanished. Only a pet parrot remained, the only being in the world that could speak the language of its lost owners.

          Humboldt managed to discern and record about 40 words from the parrot’s chatter, thus preserving a small part of the Atures’ language.

        1. 7 Tourist Attractions That Are Actually Completely Fake

          7 Tourist Attractions That Are Actually Completely Fake

          Not all cities in popular tourist countries have interesting attractions. The locals feel resentful that capitals and ancient cities have plenty to see, while they have nothing. However, the most resourceful ones don’t complain but create new attractions by hand. Books, Hollywood, and common misconceptions help them in this endeavor.

          Sherlock Holmes’ House

            The genius detective Sherlock Holmes is just a talented creation of Arthur Conan Doyle. Therefore, his house is merely a museum. Neither Holmes, nor Mrs. Hudson, nor Dr. Watson ever lived there. Every child knows that.

            However, a lesser-known fact is that the Sherlock Holmes museum is not located at 221B Baker Street but at 239 Baker Street. The address Doyle mentioned in the books does not actually exist on that street.

            Bridge on the River Kwai

            Bridge on the River Kwai
            Image: Wikimedia

              One of Thailand’s main attractions, topping the list of local historical tours. After all, who wouldn’t want to see the bridge built by prisoners of war, the same one from David Lean’s film of the same name! But here come two deceptions.

              First, the bridge built by the POWs was blown up in 1944. Tourists are shown only a replica, built by regular workers with modern technology, for money, and without suffering.

              Second, the river is not called Kwai but Mae Klong. Furthermore, the film “The Bridge on the River Kwai” was never filmed in Thailand. If you want to walk in the footsteps of the director’s glory, head to Sri Lanka.

              Piz Gloria Panoramic Restaurant

              Piz Gloria Panoramic Restaurant
              Image: Schilthorn Swiss

                If you are lucky enough to visit one of Switzerland’s most beautiful peaks—Schilthorn—you’ve probably heard guides telling you that episodes of the film On Her Majesty’s Secret Service were filmed in the panoramic restaurant there. It’s hard to forget a luxurious rotating restaurant that offers a breathtaking panorama.

                But don’t rush to pay for a cup of coffee where George Lazenby, as James Bond, allegedly filmed. In fact, the scenes were filmed in a Hollywood studio, and the restaurant was built after the movie was shot.

                Juliet’s Balcony

                Juliet’s Balcony
                Image: Juliet’s balcony in Verona, Italy / spencer77/Flickr

                  Juliet, like Sherlock Holmes, never existed, but that doesn’t stop fans of the young Capulet from bringing flowers and notes to Juliet’s balcony in Verona, Italy.

                  It’s quite strange that a balcony was chosen to attract tourists. In Shakespeare’s play, Juliet never stepped out onto a balcony to meet Romeo, contrary to many modern theatrical interpretations. She asked Romeo not to swear by the moon while standing on a terrace, but never on a balcony.

                  Shangri-La

                  Ganden Sumtseling Monastery within Zhongdian County, northwestern Yunnan China.
                  Image: Wikimedia

                    In 2001, the Chinese county of Zhongdian was renamed after the fictional land described in James Hilton’s novel Lost Horizon—Shangri-La. Considering the abundance of Eastern temples and the stunning mountain landscapes, this kind of deception to attract tourists is met with gratitude.

                    Dracula’s Castle

                    Dracula’s Castle bran castle
                    Image: Wikimedia

                      The Romanian Bran Castle, located between Muntenia and Transylvania, is shown to tourists as the residence of Vlad III, better known as Count Dracula. However, the real Prince of Wallachia never lived in this castle.

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                      Nevertheless, the writer Bram Stoker, who revived the prince’s fame and imbued him with mystical powers, was inspired by Bran Castle for his books.

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                      The castle itself was built with local funds and used for defense.
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                      Later, it became a royal residence.

                      Sleepy Hollow

                      Sleepy Hollow

                        Sometimes, city residents don’t want to profit from tourists, but the tourists persist. That was the case with Sleepy Hollow, formerly North Tarrytown. Tourists visiting Westchester County, New York, repeatedly asked to be taken to Sleepy Hollow, the town featured in Washington Irving’s book and Tim Burton’s eerie film.

                        When tourists discovered that no town by that name existed, they were so disappointed that the mayor had to rename the town to satisfy tourist demand. And it worked: Sleepy Hollow quickly became the county’s most popular attraction.

                      1. 10 Misconceptions About Early Humans

                        10 Misconceptions About Early Humans

                        Ancient Humans and Dinosaurs Lived Side by Side

                        This is a common joke stereotype, often seen in popular culture, like in the cartoon “The Flintstones.” However, sometimes proponents of alternative history seriously claim this to be true. According to them, humans allegedly lived alongside dinosaurs, which is why legends of many peoples feature dragons and similar creatures.

                        Some believe humanity existed for hundreds of millions of years and thus witnessed dinosaurs. Others claim that ancient reptiles went extinct quite recently, often supporters of biblical chronology. A third group argues that humans personally eradicated all dinosaurs, turning them into meat patties, which is why they no longer exist in modern nature.

                        Just keep in mind: dinosaurs went extinct 65 million years ago, and the first hominids appeared 2-3 million years ago.

                        So, the idea that these creatures could have crossed paths is absurd.

                        That said, dinosaurs could have seen our distant ancestor, the small mammal Purgatorius, the earliest known primate. It resembled a mix between a squirrel and a mouse, was no more than 15 cm long, and most likely had no idea its descendants would launch rockets into space and dominate the planet.

                        As for certain ancient world artifacts where early humans are depicted alongside dinosaurs, these are all fakes, created for cheap sensationalism. For instance, on the famous Ica stones found in South America, even reptiles that never existed there are depicted — yet they’re easily recognizable.

                        Prehistoric Humans Loved Clubs

                        Another stereotype about early humans is their fondness for huge clubs. In movies, cartoons, and comics, ancient humans are always seen carrying cone-shaped heavy branches, using them to hunt or defend against predators like saber-toothed tigers (most of which, by the way, went extinct before humans appeared). When not in use, the club is slung over the shoulder or used as a walking stick.

                        In reality, there is no significant evidence of widespread use of clubs by early humans.

                        They mostly hunted with spears tipped with stone points or sharpened sticks hardened by fire. Axes could also be used for blows, but spears were the primary weapon.

                        A spear could inflict far more serious damage to an animal or another human than a stick. Plus, thrusting is easier, and a spear can be thrown if necessary. So, clubs were unlikely to be a common weapon, though hitting small animals with sticks wasn’t out of the question.

                        The stereotypical image of a hairy man with a huge club probably originated a long time ago, perhaps in the Middle Ages, and persisted to this day.

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                        In European mythology from the 1200s, there were forest-dwelling half-animal barbarians covered in fur who fought with heavy branches. This is how early humans are commonly depicted now, even though it’s inaccurate.

                        And They Lived in Caves

                        The very name “caveman” suggests where they supposedly lived. The term comes from the word “troglodyte,” which in Greek means “cave dweller.” Ancient authors like Herodotus and Pliny used this term to describe savages living on the western coast of the Red Sea.

                        Later, the naturalist Carl Linnaeus used this word to label the supposed wild, ape-like ancestors of humans. Today, laypeople habitually call all fossil human ancestors “cavemen” and “troglodytes.” But this term is essentially incorrect. Early humans rarely lived in caves: they were dark, damp, and drafty.

                        Our ancestors were nomadic, moving from place to place in search of food and didn’t specifically settle in caves.

                        If a suitable cave appeared along the way, where they could set up a temporary camp, great, but people could get by without it.

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                        Caves were more often used as storage or for ritual purposes — for example, to pray to spirits.
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                        Archaeological finds in caves are more common not because people lived there more frequently, but because such locations have a higher chance of preserving artifacts. Open-air camps were quickly washed away by rain, while in secluded caves, they remained untouched for thousands of years.

                        Moreover, caves were often homes to predators like bears and leopards, which dragged their prey there to avoid sharing it with hyenas. So, “cavemen” didn’t always enter caves voluntarily.

                        Early Humans Were Much Healthier Than Modern Ones

                        The idea of a club-wielding prehistoric human persists for a reason. For some reason, it’s believed they were much stronger and healthier than modern people: they lived in harmony with nature, ate only healthy, natural food (or were even vegans), and had constant physical activity.

                        In contrast, modern weaklings sit in their offices all day and only occasionally lift dumbbells.

                        In reality, you can’t call the life of a early human healthy. Studies of human remains from the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods show they suffered from infections, rickets, dental problems, and numerous chronic diseases.

                        Early humans certainly had plenty of physical activity, and it was strenuous. But due to heavy labor, our ancestors experienced spinal microfractures, spondylolysis, hyperextension, lower back twists, and osteoarthritis.

                        Men lived slightly better than women, as hunters received more nutritious food and didn’t risk dying in childbirth. But they more often died in encounters with wild animals. On average, people lived between 30 and 40 years, and such a life can hardly be called healthy. Although there might have been some long-livers, they were likely very few.

                        Medicine was rudimentary. Diseases were treated by eating clay, applying it to the body, and using various herbs — you can imagine the effectiveness of such therapy. In severe cases, they turned to a shaman, who would perform trepanation to release evil spirits, which not everyone survived.

                        …Because They Led a Sober Lifestyle and Followed a Paleo Diet

                        No, early people were certainly not fans of a healthy lifestyle because they had no idea what that was. Their diet had nothing in common with the modern paleo diet.

                        Ancient humans could not eat as much meat and fish as modern enthusiasts of these foods do, but they consumed roots, flowers, and herbs that no present-day vegan would touch: thistles, water lilies, and reeds. They also didn’t shy away from less exotic foods like wild olives and water chestnuts.

                        But no matter how much you try, you won’t be able to replicate their diet.

                        The fact is that not only humans but the world around them has changed over millennia. All the fruits, vegetables, and roots you have access to are the result of long-term selection, and their wild forms are long gone.

                        For instance, corn was once a small weedy grass called teosinte, with only 12 kernels in its ears. Tomatoes were tiny berries, and wild ancestors of bananas had seeds.

                        Take a look at this painting, made between 1645 and 1672. This is what watermelons used to look like. And even earlier, 6,000 years ago, they were berries no bigger than 5 centimeters, as hard as walnuts, and so bitter they would give a modern person heartburn.

                        The food of early people, coarse and poorly prepared (or completely raw), pales in comparison in taste and nutrition to modern food.

                        And even in the Stone Age, people were not fans of a sober lifestyle. There is evidence that as early as 8,600 BCE, humans were using mind-altering substances: hallucinogenic mushrooms, cacti, opium poppies, and coca leaves. The very first alcoholic beverage—a fermented mixture of rice, honey, wild grapes, and hawthorn fruit—was consumed in China during the Neolithic era, about 9,000 years ago.

                        This desire for such indulgences likely came from our primate ancestors, who intentionally consumed overripe, fermented fruits to get tipsy. So don’t think that people in the past were more responsible about their health than you. Considering the harsh living conditions back then, it’s hard to blame them.

                        The Earth Used to Be Populated by Giants

                        Another common pseudo-scientific hypothesis suggests that in the past, there were extraordinarily tall human ancestors—three meters (10 feet) or more in height. Sometimes, this is used to explain the existence of the Egyptian pyramids and Stonehenge, as regular people supposedly could not have lifted the massive stones during construction, but giants could have.

                        Then, the giants left behind monuments of ancient architecture and a few skeletons before either disappearing, going extinct, flying back to Nibiru, or degenerating into people of our height.

                        However, from a scientific perspective, giant human ancestors can be lumped together with massive trolls and one-eyed ogre cannibals—there’s simply no reason to believe in any of these characters.

                        For example, the famous photograph of a giant skeleton supposedly found in India is a photomontage. The Canadian illustrator, known by the pseudonym IronKite, admits he created the image for a photo manipulation contest on Worth1000. He didn’t expect that his work would be widely circulated and that thousands of alternative history enthusiasts would use the image as evidence of ancient titans.

                        The origin story of this skeleton varies from version to version. Some claim it was found in India, while others say it was discovered in Saudi Arabia, confirming the existence of giants mentioned in the Quran.

                        But this image, like many others, is simply a fake, created for a contest and then unexpectedly going viral.

                        Sometimes, the remains of gigantic humans are mistakenly identified as the skeletons of Gigantopithecus—massive ancient orangutans. These creatures, which could grow up to 3 meters (10 feet) tall, did indeed exist, but they are no more related to humans than modern apes are.

                        And yes, if you compare the sizes of the remains of human ancestors with today’s population, you’ll notice a trend toward increasing, not decreasing, height over time. So, we are the giants compared to the people of the past, not the other way around.

                        The “Missing Link” Has Never Been Found

                        When Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, science had not yet discovered the intermediate forms that illustrate the possibility of one species evolving into another. Darwin considered this a weak point in his theory, but he believed that such organisms would eventually be found. And they were: a few years later, the skeleton of Archaeopteryx—a transitional form between reptiles and birds—was discovered.

                        Opponents of evolutionary theory argue that there are no transitional forms between ape-like creatures and modern humans. Therefore, humans did not share a common ancestor with present-day primates and must have emerged through some other means. But this isn’t true: since Darwin’s time, so many transitional forms have been found that it’s impossible to remember them all.

                        Cave People Had a Matriarchal Society

                        The theory that women ruled in primitive societies was popular in the 19th century. It was promoted by ethnographer Johann Jakob Bachofen.

                        In his book Mother Right, he built the following logical chain: those who possess property hold power. Since sexual relations in the Stone Age were random, determining the father of children was impossible, and they were raised solely by their mothers. Therefore, long-term intergenerational relationships were only possible between women. Mothers passed on their property to daughters, exclusively through the female line, and fathers did not participate in inheritance.

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                        Thus, women held more power in the past.

                        This sounds quite reasonable, but Bachofen based his ideas not on precise data, but on… ancient myths. He saw echoes of matriarchy in the tales of Homer—in the stories of Queen Arete of the Phaeacians and the warrior Amazons. Thus, Bachofen’s theory was purely speculative. Nevertheless, his works were highly regarded by Friedrich Engels, which is why Soviet science avoided disputing the theory of matriarchy in primitive societies.

                        However, modern studies of archaic societies show that matriarchy was extremely rare. Among the Tasmanians, Pygmies, Bushmen, Native Americans, Inuit, and other similar tribes, it was not typical. Sometimes women could hold high positions and even hunt alongside men, but there was no talk of them ruling.

                        So, purely matriarchal societies were rare and were unlikely to have been widespread among early humans.

                        Moreover, female dominance is not observed among closely related great apes.

                        Some scholars, like anthropologist Marija Gimbutas, consider the widespread presence of so-called Paleolithic Venuses—stone and bone figurines of very full-figured women—as evidence of matriarchy among early human. These figures are associated with fertility and abundance cults.

                        However, the fact that early humans made figurines of women doesn’t necessarily mean that they ruled society. Future anthropologists could just as easily argue that there was matriarchy in our time, given the number of curvaceous women posted daily on Instagram.

                        Human Development Stopped Since the Stone Age

                        Some people ask: if the theory of evolution is true, why don’t we observe the development of life forms? It seems as if changes have frozen in place—people today are no different from their great-grandparents. Even animals, birds, and plants around us are the same as centuries ago.

                        However, living organisms (including us, humans) continue to evolve. For example, over the past 20 years, evolution has been observed in beetles, mosquitoes, bedbugs, and other pests, as well as various species of fish, among others. The most noticeable changes occur in bacteria, viruses, and unicellular organisms since they reproduce faster than all others.

                        Humans also evolve, though not as rapidly, making these changes harder to observe.

                        Research in molecular genetics supports this. For instance, evolution has helped Tibetans adapt to life at high altitudes—a process that took 100 generations.

                        In short, if you want to witness human development as a biological species, you would need to live for a hundred thousand years or so. Only over such a long period will external changes become visible to the naked eye.

                        Darwin Renounced the Theory of Evolution at the End of His Life

                        The idea that Charles Darwin was the first to propose the animal origin of humans is deeply ingrained in popular consciousness. There’s also a belief that, in old age, Darwin supposedly rejected this heretical idea, but by then it was too late—his theory of evolution had already spread worldwide.

                        But this is completely untrue. Firstly, various theories about the evolution of living organisms existed before Darwin, proposed by figures such as Buffon, Lamarck, Haeckel, Huxley, and others. Even Leonardo da Vinci and Aristotle had hinted at such explanations for the origin of species.

                        Secondly, Darwin did not disavow his theory or convert to religious faith on his deathbed, as some claim. This myth was invented by Baptist preacher Elizabeth Hope three decades after Darwin’s death.

                        She fabricated a story about Darwin’s renunciation during a church service, and many believed it.

                        Later, Hope published her fictional account in the national Baptist magazine The Watchman-Examiner, from where it spread worldwide.

                        But Darwin never recanted his theory, and while he was not a militant atheist, he wasn’t particularly religious either. This was confirmed by his children, son Francis Darwin and daughter Henrietta Litchfield.

                      2. 12 Shark Myths You Shouldn’t Believe

                        12 Shark Myths You Shouldn’t Believe

                        Sharks Are Bloodthirsty

                        We usually picture a shark as a ferocious carnivorous monster straight out of Steven Spielberg’s Jaws—the great white shark, or Carcharodon. But in reality, not all of these fish devour meat.

                        For example, whale sharks, giant sharks, and pelagic megamouth sharks feed on plankton.

                        These gentle giants gather tiny crustaceans in their wide-open mouths and ignore larger prey, much like whales.

                        But there’s an even stranger case of shark pacifism—the bonnethead shark, or shovelhead shark. While it can’t be called a vegetarian, more than half of its diet consists of plant matter. It swims along the seabed, consuming crabs, shrimp, mollusks, and also algae.

                        Perhaps this is why the bonnethead shark is only about 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) long. If it ate meat, it would grow bigger and stronger.

                        Sharks Can Sense a Drop of Blood in the Ocean From Miles Away

                        It’s often claimed online that sharks can smell blood in the water from miles away and rush toward their prey like torpedoes. Supposedly, even a tiny scratch, a single drop of blood, can attract them. But that’s not entirely true.

                        This myth has some basis since most sharks have a pretty good sense of smell. They have nostrils on their noses, but these are used solely for detecting scents, not for breathing.

                        Studies on olfactory receptors show that the best sense of smell is not in the famous great white sharks, but in hammerhead sharks. However, hammerheads are more likely to use their sense of smell to find mates than prey.

                        A shark can indeed detect blood in the water, but not from a miles away.

                        Biologist Tricia Meredith from Florida Atlantic University found that sharks’ sense of smell is not supernatural. Tuna and rays have exactly the same level of olfaction, yet they don’t have the reputation of apex predators.

                        On average, a shark can detect one drop of blood in a billion drops of water, which is about the volume of a typical swimming pool. So if you cut your hand while swimming in one, a neighboring shark might find you.

                        However, there’s some doubt that sharks are highly attracted to human blood. Blogger and former NASA engineer Mark Rober conducted several experiments in the Bahamas, using his own blood, cow blood, fish oil, and urine to lure predators (just in case sharks had strange tastes).

                        In the end, the test subjects were much more interested in tuna oil than in mammalian blood. Apparently, marine cuisine is more familiar to them, and they haven’t had much opportunity to taste cows on the ocean floor.

                        All Sharks Are Large

                        dwarf lanternshark
                        This is the smallest known adult shark, Etmopterus perryi (Dwarf lanternshark), on the palm of Fish Division collections manager Julie Mounts. Image: Smithsonian

                        When thinking of sharks, most people picture the great white shark, or Carcharodon, the predator from Jaws. In fact, there are over 400 different species of sharks, and they vary greatly in size, habits, and appearance.

                        The great white shark can grow up to 6 meters (20 feet) long and weigh almost 2,000 kg (4,400 lb). But there’s an even bigger shark—the whale shark, which can reach up to 20 meters (68.1 ft)  in length. As mentioned earlier, it feeds on plankton.

                        However, the ocean is also home to truly tiny predators that could fit in the palm of your hand.

                        For example, the dwarf lanternshark only grows to 21.2 cm (8.3 in). There’s also the spined pygmy shark, about 28 cm (11 in) long, and the pygmy ribbontail catshark, which is around 23 cm (9.1 in). These are peaceful, shy fish that pose no danger whatsoever.

                        The dwarf lantern shark can even glow, thanks to photophores—special organs on its belly. This helps it swim and feed calmly during the day, as other fish looking up think it’s just a glint of sunlight passing by.

                        Sharks Flip Onto Their Backs Before Biting

                        In literature, there’s a claim that sharks turn on their sides or backs before biting. For example, in the novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, harpooner Ned Land uses this trait to time his strikes.

                        What’s my harpoon for? You see, professor, sharks are pretty clumsy creatures. To bite you, they need to flip onto their backs…

                        Jules Verne, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea

                        But this is a myth that could cost a shark hunter their life. Diver and photographer Valerie Taylor from the Royal Geographical Society of Australia filmed marine predators for almost 60 years. She observed their hunting of whales and other marine mammals and says sharks don’t need to flip over to bite.

                        In survival recommendations for military pilots, experts from the U.S. Air Force Academy also state that a shark can bite from almost any position. They advise crash survivors in the ocean not to rely on its supposed clumsiness.

                        Sharks Don’t Get Cancer

                        In collections of “incredible facts about nature,” it’s often claimed that these marine predators never suffer from cancer.

                        But unfortunately for these fish (and anyone rooting for them), that’s not true. Scientists have documented cancerous tumors in at least 23 species of these predators, including the great white shark.

                        The myth that these cartilaginous fish are immune to cancer probably originated from a 1983 study.

                        In it, scientists discovered a substance in shark cartilage that limits the development of blood vessels and, consequently, the growth of tumors. As is often the case, journalists exaggerated and concluded that if cartilage inhibits cancer and sharks are made of it instead of normal bones, they must be immune to tumors. But that’s not the case.

                        Shark Fins Are Extremely Beneficial

                        A widespread misconception suggests that various shark parts, such as their fins or cartilage, can cure different diseases, especially cancer. Additionally, they are believed to extend life, boost intelligence, improve potency, and enlarge any body parts you desire.

                        But this is just a myth. Regardless of what alternative medicine advocates claim, shark cartilage powder or shark fin soup does not cure cancer. Here’s what a shark researcher has to say about it:

                        Even if sharks didn’t get cancer, eating them wouldn’t cure it. It’s like eating Michael Jordan in hopes of becoming a basketball player.

                        David Shiffman, Oceanographer, University of Miami.

                        Moreover, shark fins, which mainly consist of the same cartilaginous tissue, have very little nutritional value. Consuming them is unlikely to improve your health in any meaningful way.

                        Additionally, researchers from the University of Miami discovered that some shark fins contain significant amounts of mercury and a neurotoxin called BMAA.

                        Fish are fine with this—they don’t care about such things. However, humans may develop degenerative brain diseases, like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Lou Gehrig’s disease (ALS), as well as reproductive system issues.

                        Shark Fins Grow Back After Being Cut Off

                        This is false. While some species of fish can regrow lost tails and other body parts, sharks cannot. Their fins are made of cartilage and non-segmented keratinous rays, known as ceratotrichia, which are nearly incapable of regenerating. There are exceptions, such as whale sharks, which can heal even severe wounds, but this is rare.

                        So, when fins are cut off, the shark is doomed to die from starvation or even suffocation, as their gills can’t function without movement. The poor fish will literally drown in its own habitat.

                        In short, it’s not worth spending money on shark fin soup: it’s cruel, pointless, and wasteful. A good old perch soup is tastier and more nutritious.

                        Sharks Cannot Stay Still and Never Sleep

                        This claim contains a fair bit of truth. Most sharks indeed need to move for fresh water to flow over their gills. But that doesn’t mean they never sleep.

                        These fish apparently have the ability to swim while asleep. In this state, the shark’s brain rests, while the spinal cord keeps the body moving forward so that the respiratory system continuously receives oxygen from the water.

                        Greg Skomal, a biologist at the Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries, asserts that great white sharks can sleep or at least doze. In this state, they swim slowly forward with bulging eyes and open mouths.

                        Moreover, some species, such as reef, carpet, and lemon sharks, as well as the nurse shark, have learned to pull water through their gills by mouth, allowing them to sleep while lying on the ocean floor. They’re fine with that.

                        Sharks Are Loners

                        This isn’t always the case: some sharks are quite social. For example, lemon sharks often gather in groups, as it’s easier to hunt and safer together.

                        They somehow manage to communicate and even teach each other. Seriously, a fish that has figured out the easiest way to catch food can show this to its peers. Young lemon sharks follow adults, learning how to hunt and avoid predators.

                        Even the toughest and most fearsome sharks, like great whites, can feed together without disturbing one another.

                        These predators can even play together and socialize, establishing complex hierarchical structures within their groups.

                        Sharks Are the Biggest Threat in the Ocean

                        Thanks to horror movies, sharks are considered the scariest marine man-eaters. But statistics show that these fish don’t live up to the hype.

                        According to the Australian Museum of Natural History, sharks bite humans around 100 times a year. About 10 of these incidents are fatal. Mosquitoes, which transmit various diseases, kill more people in a day than sharks have killed in the last 100 years worldwide.

                        In fact, you are more likely to be killed by lightning than by a shark.

                        Sharks don’t hunt humans and don’t see them as a food source, so their attacks are rare and accidental. If anything, stray dog attacks result in twice as many fatalities—and encountering them is far more likely.

                        On the other hand, humans kill about 100 million sharks each year—for food and medicinal purposes (which don’t work anyway). So, it’s not us who should fear them, but they who should fear us.

                        Sharks Attack Because They Mistake People for Seals

                        There’s a myth that sharks kill swimmers for one simple reason: they mistake them for large pinnipeds. And when the predator realizes its mistake, it just spits out its catch.

                        However, this isn’t true, even though it sounds logical. Sharks often hunt seals and other marine mammals, but they don’t confuse humans with them. They use different tactics: when attacking, they decisively tear and devour the animal immediately, while they explore humans cautiously. Here’s what experts say about this:

                        I’ve observed more than a thousand attacks by great white sharks on sea lions. If they attacked people the same way they attack pinnipeds, they would rocket to the surface like torpedoes and tear the victim apart. But they approach humans slowly and nonchalantly.

                        —R. Aidan Martin, Director, ReefQuest Shark Research Center.

                        Sharks bite people not because they think they’re seals, but because that’s how they explore the world. Instead of touching unfamiliar objects like humans and primates do, these predators bite them. And even if a great white shark bites a diver out of curiosity rather than malice, the victim won’t feel any better.

                        There’s even a term for this—”exploratory bite.” Sharks frequently test even inedible things with their teeth to figure out what they are because they can’t feel them. They don’t have hands.

                        When a Shark Attacks, Punch It in the Nose

                        Just deliver a powerful hook punch to the shark’s nose, and the stunned predator will retreat—this is the advice that circulates on social media, often with variations. Some even suggest biting the shark yourself.

                        As martial arts masters (or someone else) once said: “If a fight is inevitable, strike first, brother.”

                        But hitting a shark is one of the dumbest things you can do. These fish are far less sensitive to pain than mammals, so you’re more likely to hurt a bear than a shark. Also, it’s very hard to deliver a damaging punch underwater, even if you’re a boxing champion, because water is much denser than good old air.

                        Moreover, sharks are apex predators in their environment, so they are not easily scared. Striking first could provoke the fish to retaliate, and it’s unlikely that a human would win such a fight.

                        Playing dead doesn’t work either, since sharks have an organ called the ampullae of Lorenzini. It allows them to detect electrical fields in the water, especially those created by the nervous system and muscles of living creatures.

                        So, to convince a shark you’re dead, you’d have to shut off your brain and spinal cord—something hard to do without dying for real. And sharks don’t mind eating carrion.

                        The only thing you can do when encountering a shark is to calmly swim away and get out of the water without provoking it. If it grabs you and won’t let go, your best bet is to stick your hand in its gills. Chances are slim, but it might help.

                      3. 5 Facts About Volcanoes

                        5 Facts About Volcanoes

                        Volcanoes Can Create Floating Stones

                        Pumice stones lifted by the eruption fill the surface of the sea
                        Pumice stones lifted by the eruption fill the surface of the sea. The distant island is South Iwo Jima (Jan 20, 1986)

                        Yes, such stones really exist. And not in fantasy, but in real life. The only rock that can float on water is volcanic pumice. It forms from solidified lava with a high amount of gas bubbles, which make it very light and porous.

                        The more such voids the rock has, the lower its density and the better it floats on water. However, over time, the bubbles can fill with water, causing pumice to sink. Moreover, if the stone is too small, the surface tension of the water may exceed the buoyant force, causing it to sink as well.

                        Sometimes, after strong eruptions, pumice accumulates on the ocean’s surface and forms large rafts that can drift with the current. For example, in 2019, a 150 km² (58 sq mi) raft of pumice was spotted in the Pacific Ocean. However, these islands are not very stable and can quickly disintegrate due to waves and wind.

                        Volcanoes Produce Lightning and Rainbows

                        Anak Krakatau volcano erupts before and after tsunami

                        It’s well known that volcanoes produce lava and clouds of hot gases. But they also often cause more unusual natural phenomena, such as lightning.

                        Volcanic lightning, or “dirty thunderstorm,” is an electrical discharge that appears in an ash cloud rising during an eruption. This phenomenon was first recorded in 79 AD near Mount Vesuvius. Today, such lightning is often observed around the crater of the Earth’s most active volcano—Sakurajima in Japan.

                        These lightnings occur due to the difference in electrical potentials between the particles of gases and ash emitted during the eruption. The gases carry a positive charge, while the ash has a negative one. When these components collide, electrical flashes occur. Water vapor, also released during eruptions, contributes to this process.

                        The color of volcanic lightning can range from bright white to orange-red and even blue, creating an impressive contrast with the dark night sky or ash clouds.

                        This natural phenomenon has a curious side effect. When a discharge with a temperature of 30,000 °C melts ash particles and rock flying in the air during an eruption, they turn into glass beads or tubes known as fulgurites.

                        Another atmospheric phenomenon that can occur during an eruption is a rainbow. Large amounts of ash, dust, and gases are ejected into the atmosphere, interacting with moisture and clouds. If the sun is shining in the sky at the same time, its rays refract through the particles ejected by the volcano, creating a multicolored arc-shaped strip.

                        Sharks Live in Volcanoes

                        Sharks discovered inside underwater volcano

                        Volcanoes are not only terrestrial; they can also be underwater—and the latter can host their own ecosystems. After all, a hole in the Earth’s crust from which hot magma spews is not just a source of destruction but also a provider of heat, minerals, and nutrients for various plants and animals.

                        For example, archaea use chemical energy and minerals from the volcano for their metabolism. Some species of mollusks form specific communities based on symbiosis with bacteria that oxidize chemical compounds. Hydrothermal tube worms can synthesize organic substances using hydrogen sulfide energy.

                        The most unusual example of such an underwater ecosystem is the Kavachi volcano, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Solomon Islands. Despite being submerged, it occasionally erupts, creating temporary islands of lava and ash. Yet, diverse marine creatures live in its crater, including Pacific sleeper sharks and hammerhead sharks.

                        Why would these creatures enter a volcano? Scientists have yet to provide a definitive answer.

                        However, several hypotheses exist. First, sharks may use the warm water in the crater as a kind of thermostat to regulate their body temperature. Second, they may find abundant fish in the volcano, which feed on minerals, bacteria, and algae from the hot springs. Lastly, sharks might use the crater as a refuge from predators or competitors.

                        Volcanoes Produce Obsidian

                        Volcanoes Produce Obsidian
                        Obsidian boulders formed from lava flow. Image: Encyclopædia Britannica

                        People who have played Minecraft, Dwarf Fortress, or Terraria know well that when lava contacts water, obsidian forms. This is not just a game mechanic—obsidian is indeed a real volcanic rock formed from solidified magma.

                        Obsidian is primarily composed of silica and has a characteristic black, brown, or dark gray color. Its surface is very smooth and shiny, resembling glass.

                        There are also other shades: gray, green, blue, and even pink. Obsidian may contain various inclusions, gas bubbles, crystals, or bands. The final appearance and properties of the stone are influenced by factors such as the composition of the lava and the speed at which it cools.

                        Due to its unique properties, obsidian has been a valuable material for making stone tools, weapons, and ornaments for thousands of years. It has high hardness and sharp edges, making it ideal for creating weapons.

                        For example, the Maya and Aztecs used a weapon called a macuahuitl—a flat club-sword with rows of obsidian blades along its edges.

                        Imagine what could happen to a person if struck by a baseball bat studded with glass, and you’ll understand that the macuahuitl was a dangerous weapon. However, it wasn’t very effective against muskets—the conquistadors can attest to that.

                        Today, obsidian is used in jewelry and sculpture as a decorative stone. It also has potential in surgery, as extremely sharp, though fragile, scalpels can be made from it.

                        Volcanoes Affect the Climate of the Entire Planet

                        Infrared image of Mount Tambora, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia
                        Infrared image of Mount Tambora, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia. Taken from the space shuttle Endeavour at 0:54 GMT on 13 May 1992. Image: Wikimedia

                        You might think that volcanoes are distant phenomena, not influencing the lives of ordinary people. But this is a misconception. Eruptions, accompanied by ash, gas, and lava emissions, can lead to global climate change. They impact temperature, precipitation, and even atmospheric circulation. The outburst of a fiery mountain in a remote region of Oceania can easily affect the lives of people in America and Europe.

                        For example, the most powerful volcanic eruption in human history occurred on April 10, 1815, when the Tambora volcano, located on the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia, erupted. It spewed an enormous amount of ash, gas, and lava into the atmosphere, significantly contributing to its pollution. Columns of volcanic particles rose to an altitude of about 43 kilometers.

                        The eruption itself claimed around 71,000 lives—a record. Sumbawa and neighboring islands were covered with a thick layer of ash, and lava flows inundated surrounding areas. However, the most significant consequence of Tambora’s eruption was its global impact on climate.

                        Ash and gas clouds, released into the upper layers of the atmosphere, reflected a substantial portion of sunlight back into space, causing global cooling.

                        As a result, 1816 became known as the “Year Without a Summer” or the “Year of Darkness.” Many regions of Europe, North America, and Asia experienced prolonged frosts and snowfalls in June and July. Crops were destroyed. By the spring of 1817, grain prices had risen tenfold, and a severe famine ensued. The climate changes also affected people’s health, leading to the spread of diseases and epidemics.

                        However, there was a silver lining: this event also influenced literature and art. The high level of ash in the atmosphere led to unusually beautiful sunsets, which were captured in the works of many artists, including Caspar David Friedrich and William Turner. Additionally, some famous works, like Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein, were inspired by the cold and dark atmosphere created by the Tambora eruption.

                        The shortage of oats and the death of many horses also pushed people to develop alternative transportation technologies. As a result, German engineer Baron Karl Drais invented the prototype of the bicycle and a human-powered rail vehicle—the draisine. Hard times often spur innovation.