Perhaps the most profoundly influential invention in the 20th century was neither the machine nor a device. The German chemist Carl Bosch found a way to produce synthetic ammonia, which led to the mass production of explosives and chemical fertilizers on a scale never seen before. This resulted in unlimited explosive capacity in both world wars and, ironically, a world population explosion.
Who Was Carl Bosch?
Carl Bosch was born in Cologne, Germany. He studied mechanical engineering and metallurgy at the Technical University of Charlottenburg. In 1896, he began studying chemistry at the University of Leipzig. Three years later, Bosch joined Germany’s most successful chemical company in Ludwigshafen. The company’s name at the time was Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik, which is now simply known as BASF.
Initially, Bosch was interested in synthetic dye. However, in 1905, his attention was directed to a crucial problem of the time: how could atmospheric nitrogen be “fixed” to the chemical components? At first, the problem seemed to concern a small environment, but in fact, its global significance was enormous. In the 19th century, scientists found that nitrogen-rich compounds were highly effective fertilizers. High amounts of guano (petrified feces) and saltpeter (potassium nitrate, KNO3), in particular, helped the world’s population grow in a way that was sustainable.
In 1898, the English chemist William Crookes (1832–1919) pointed out the gradually diminishing wheat resources, in his presentation for the British Association, entitled “The Wheat Problem.”
He also warned that the world could face famine in the 1920s. Moreover, nitrogenous compounds were also a main component of explosives. In the early years of the 20th century, the rising threat of war brought new demands for nitrogenous compounds.
Nitrogen rarely reacts with any other elements. This is why it makes up about 80% of the atmosphere. Beginning in the 1890s, chemists tried in vain to find an effective and highly efficient chemical process to “fix” nitrogen in the air to make fertilizers and explosives. Later in 1905, the German chemist Fritz Haber (1868–1934) said that he had made a small amount of ammonia from hydrogen gas (H2) and nitrogen gas (N2).
Haber-Bosch process
Haber’s approach required high temperatures, high pressures, and a catalyst (a substance that accelerates a reaction or reduces the energy required for the reaction to take place without itself undergoing any changes). Haber was working at BASF, and in 1909 he obtained a large amount of ammonia in his laboratory. In the same year, BASF assigned Bosch the task of improving Haber’s reaction to enable it to be used on an industrial scale.
Carl Bosch has developed a reactor that can withstand the required high pressures and temperatures. This was a special double-walled chamber that was more convenient and safe than Haber’s system. Bosch has conducted nearly 20,000 experiments in the search for a more suitable catalyst compared to Haber’s high-cost osmium and uranium. Bosch also explored methods of obtaining large amounts of nitrogen and hydrogen from the air by passing steam through hot coke coal. As a result of his studies, he obtained a patent in 1910. In 1911, a large amount of ammonia was produced at BASF.
Only two years later, the company opened the world’s first ammonia-only plant in Ludwigshafen’s village of Oppau. Ammonia was largely used in the production of artificial fertilizers. However, when World War I broke out in 1914 and the German government faced an ammunition shortage, Oppau used the plant only to produce explosives. Without the accomplishments of the Haber-Bosch duo, the war would probably not have lasted that long. Britain imposed an embargo so that Germany could not import the saltpeter needed to make the explosives.
Bosch’s extensive work and deep knowledge in the fields of chemistry and engineering paved the way for large-scale, high-pressure production. This development would strengthen the modern chemical industry. In 1931, Bosch was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Today, around 200 million tons of artificial nitrogen fertilizer are produced annually worldwide using the Haber-Bosch process.
Fertilizers
Carl Bosch made it possible to produce a large amount of ammonia, which was made from nitrogen-rich ammonium nitrate (NH4 NO3) fertilizers. It is estimated that about half of the world’s population feeds themselves through synthetic fertilizers. Plants need nitrogenous compounds to produce protein and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). In nature, nitrates are obtained from decaying plant and animal residues and some bacteria that can fix nitrogen in the atmosphere.
On the other hand, Bosch’s legacy is a double-edged knife. Artificial fertilizers prevented millions of people from starvation, but the world population increased from 1.8 (in 1910) to 7 billion in just 100 years, and now Earth’s resources are running out faster than nature can replenish them.
Approximately 1% of the world’s energy consumption is spent on the production of these fertilizers, while their use leads to pollution. In particular, surface waters flowing from agricultural areas cause “harmful algae explosions” due to excessive nitrogen in lakes and river mouths.
The Dutch inventor and engineer Cornelis Jacobszoon Drebbel, who designed and built the first submarine, is pretty much unheard of today by many people. But because of how brilliant he was and how well he understood how nature and chemistry worked, he is rightly thought of as one of the most successful and well-known inventors of the 17th century. Drebbel created and constructed the first submarine in 1620, making it one of his most important innovations. Drebbel’s wooden submarine, driven by oars, was built to stay submerged for hours. It was one of the first submarines that could actually be used, and it led the way for more sophisticated submarines to be built in the years to come. Drebbel’s work on submarines paved the way for undersea exploration.
How did the Drebbel submarine work?
The crew members untied the bladders and sucked out all the water before rowing to the surface. The submarine was therefore able to safely descend to depths of around 13 to 16 feet (4-5 meters) for several hours. A rudder allowed for control, while four oars propelled the boat forward by being fed into the water via leather seals.
Why did Cornelis Drebbel invent the submarine?
Initially, Cornelis Drebbel created his submarine to help humans learn more about the marine environment, but he quickly realized its potential as a military weapon as well. However, it took another 150 years for them to see action in naval conflicts.
How did Drebbel’s Perpetuum Mobile work?
It worked by reacting to changes in the pressure and temperature of a contained liquid or gas. These variations provided the power required to get the gears going as long as possible. Without an external force, it wouldn’t be considered perpetual motion.
The English king commissioned Cornelis Drebbel
Drebbel was invited to King James I of Scotland and England’s court in 1604. At the period, academics were more often asked to present their knowledge and abilities. Theologians and alchemists were welcomed in addition to scientists. But, the invitations were still rarely from abroad. The overseas journey had some benefits since the English monarch was inspired enough by Drebbel’s efforts to collaborate with him.
In that year Drebbel was summoned to England to show his impressive “Perpetuum Mobile” device to King James I (1566–1625). As the news about this fascinating perpetual motion clock spread, Drebbel gained a huge reputation and began to receive invitations from other European countries to showcase his device.
Between 1620 and 1624, Drebbel built the first functional submarine on a commission from the English king. Drebbel built three effective submarines in total during the period.
How Drebbel invented the world’s first submarine
Drebbel’s most advanced submarine is on display at Heron Square in the Richmond-upon-Thames neighborhood of London.
Drebbel’s greatest achievement was that he designed and made an invention that he owes his reputation to today: The world’s first submarine. Unfortunately, there is no original drawing of Drebbel’s invention to date. Nevertheless, there are close estimates and calculations of how the submarine could be built with a contemporary eye. Between 1620 and 1624, while working for the British Royal Navy, Drebbel made three different forms of submarines. He tested all three in London, on the River Thames. According to witnesses, the latest submarine was able to remain submerged for 3 hours at 13 to 16 feet below the surface.
In front of King James I and a large crowd of Londoners, he showed off his third submarine. The submarine made a round trip from Westminster to Greenwich. It was the first true submarine in history.
Cornelis Drebbel’s 12-oar submarine takes to the Thames in 1621. (Painting by G. H. Tweedale, Royal Submarine Museum, Gosport)
Drebbel’s wooden submarine was best characterized as a wooden round canoe-style rowing boat. The stern seemed to be the fin of a giant fish, and the oars protruded directly through the hull. It was a lovely figure, smiling and amazed. On the Thames River, the boat did its maiden dive. While rowers ensured that the boat was pushed, it is still not officially known how the crew was given air.
Cornelis Drebbel tried to persuade the British Royal Navy to use his submarine in naval combat. Despite his relationship with the royal family, the Navy was not interested in this proposal. For submarines to be used for military purposes, 150 years had to pass.
How did Drebbel’s submarine work?
Cornelis Drebbel’s the very first submarine.
Very large pouches made from pigskin used in these submarines were filled or emptied with water, this would allow the boat to go down or up in the water. The wooden double-hull submarine had holes sealed with waterproof leather, in which oars were placed.
The third and largest boat or submarine developed by Cornelis Drebbel could accommodate 16 people, including 12 rowers. The hull was covered with oiled leather to provide waterproofing. Some records suggest that there were long pipes on the boat that could reach all the way to the surface to provide air for the rowers. There is also evidence that Drebbel created a chemical reaction by heating potassium nitrate which produced oxygen for rowers.
Oxygen produced by burning
According to the legend, the crew spent nearly three hours underwater. Drebbel must have thus considered adding fresh oxygen to the waterproof vessel. There are a few hypotheses for this, but the most plausible one is that when saltpeter, or nitrate, is heated, oxygen is released. Drebbel was an expert alchemist long before he worked on the first submarine, so the notion isn’t outlandish in and of itself. The details are still speculative since nothing was really written about his invention and rumors about it were passed around orally. As a result, the legends surrounding this submarine are still unclear.
Cornelis’ career was eventually furthered by chemistry; he later worked on explosives for the Royal Navy. In summary, Drebbel had come a great way and would remain in England for a considerable amount of time before passing away in London on November 7, 1633. In a number of Dutch towns, including Amsterdam, Delft, Alkmaar, and The Hague, he has streets named after him. Cornelis Drebbel has a minor lunar crater named in his honor as well. Cornelis Drebbelweg, a street in Delft, the Netherlands, is named in his honor.
Who was Cornelis Drebbel?
Cornelis Drebbel is best known for the invention of the very first submarine.
The map artist, painter, engraver, and lens maker, Cornelis Drebbel was born as the son of a wealthy farmer in Alkmaar, The Netherlands. However, he received very little formal education. Although he picked up the basics of the Latin language in his later years, he probably only received a primary education and did not go to university. Drebbel was skilled at conducting numerous experiments despite lacking a formal education.
At the age of 20, Drebbel began working as an apprentice in the Harlem workshop of Dutch painter, engraver, and publisher Hendrick Goltzius (1555–1617). During his apprenticeship where he also lived in Goltzius’ home, Drebbel had the chance to learn much more than engraving. He learned the subtleties of alchemy, and throughout his life, his work was determined by four elements: Earth, air, water, and fire.
Drebbel returned to Alkmaar in 1598 and began to work on some versatile inventions. In 1604, he exhibited the first invention that would bring him fame. This was a dazzling astronomical clock machine called Perpetuum Mobile. In his patent application, Drebbel stated that the device could work for years without a visible power source.
Perpetuum Mobile was an astronomical almanac showing the time, day, date, phases of the Moon, the positions of the Sun, and the positions of the planets. This interesting device was powered by changes in air pressure and temperature. Cornelis Drebbel, of course, was aware of the delicacy of this phenomenon but was delighted with the mystical atmosphere created around his Perpetuum Mobile.
On the emperor’s request, Drebbel visited the Prague court of Rudolf II in 1610. Rudolf appointed him Chief Alchemist after seeing his amazing perpetual motion device; Drebbel really just claimed that it could rewind continuously due to variations in air pressure. It contained a sealed glass tub where liquid would expand and contract, allowing the clock to perpetually spin backward.
Cornelis Drebbel’s Perpetuum Mobile. Painted by Hieronymus Francken II (1578-1623).
Cornelis Drebbel’s other inventions
Cornelis Drebbel also experimented with light and lenses. In 1630, Drebbel developed the first version of the “projector,” an early form of magic lantern or slide projector, and also one of the first microscopes. Both devices used special lenses, which were produced by a machine of his design. Drebbel’s microscope had visibly improved features compared to its predecessors and was an important advance in the field of microscopy.
From 1604 until his death, Drebbel exhibited many new or improved inventions. Among them was a process for making red paint. This technology was used for many years after Drebbel’s death. Drebbel also made a boiler with a thermostat. It was a thermostatic mobile furnace for the Dutch army; a kind of ventilation system that is exhibited today at Westminster Hall in London; and also, an automatic incubator. This thermostatic furnace is the first known self-controlled device or instrumental control system in history.
Drebbel invented a rather primitive but still very significant thermometer. But this thermometer device wasn’t put together based on the idea that the compressed air in the glass tube would expand and contract. Instead, Drebbel’s invention was some kind of a thermoscope. The thermoscope was a device that gave insight into temperature without a scale to aid measurement. At about the same time, at least three experimenters were working on an air thermoscope. But what distinguishes Drebbel from them was that his device could be used to control thermostatic devices. Drebbel’s furnace had a major influence on later scientists.
The use of precision thermometers in the 18th and 19th centuries helped scientists better understand the behavior of substances and contributed to the development of the concept of energy.
Bibliography
“Drebbel’s will from 7 November 1633: Memorand that Cornelius” (PDF). Drebbel.net.
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin had devoted her life to finding the molecular structure of medically important natural chemicals such as antibiotics, vitamins, and proteins. Being the only British woman scientist to receive a Nobel Prize in science, Hodgkin‘s dedication to world peace and her efforts to promote science and education in developing countries have earned her the appreciation and respect of many people. Long before women were staying in the workforce after marriage, she raised three children while conducting pioneering scientific research in a challenging career.
Who Was Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin?
Dorothy Crowfoot, the eldest of the four daughters of British colonial ruler and archaeologist parents, grew her first crystals in a small chemistry class at the age of 10 and had a passion for it for the rest of her life. In 1928, she got admitted to study at Somerville College, one of Oxford’s women’s colleges. She graduated with honors and in 1932 went to Cambridge to study for a doctorate with John Desmond Bernal. As a brilliant crystallography expert, leftist thinker, and activist, Bernal started to work on biological molecules. Hodgkin became his closest assistant and shared his passionate socialist principles.
The natural chemical activities of the human body are based on the specific three-dimensional arrangement of the bond formed by tens, hundreds, and even thousands of atoms in each molecule. By sending an X-ray beam to the pure crystal of a substance and measuring the position and intensity of the scattered rays, it is possible to reconstruct the positions of the atoms relative to each other. This technique, X-ray crystallography, was first shown in 1912 by William and Lawrence Bragg. Bernal and Hodgkin were the first to use this method on complex biological molecules like digestive lactation pepsin.
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin and her friend Norah Pusey in chemistry class at Beccles’ Sir John Leman School.
In 1943, Hodgkin returned to Oxford University. She became a research assistant and professor of organic chemistry at Somerville College and received funding from the Robert Robinson University Museum to establish her X-ray laboratory. The protein hormone almost immediately affected the insulin levels, but the molecule was too big to find a quick solution, and the apparatus was too primitive. It took over 30 years to discover its complex structure.
Discovering the structures of vitamin B12 and insulin
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin met Thomas Hodgkin shortly after returning to Oxford; they married in December 1937. Their kids were born between 1938 and 1946, during which she continued her research. Penicillin was isolated by researchers in the Dunn School of Pathology in Oxford and was first tested on people in 1941. During the Second World War, it became a priority to analyze the arrangement of up to two dozen atoms to accomplish the mass production of medicine. Until Victory Day in May 1945, Hodgkin was able to resolve the dispute among chemists and demonstrate that even if the chemical formula was not known, she could reveal the structure of X-ray crystallography. She took the first X-ray photograph of insulin.
Dorothy Hodgkin at the Sir John Leman High School award ceremony, 1981
As her fame grew, more and more students and colleagues came from all over the world to see her. Her second most important achievement was discovering the structure of vitamin B12 in 1955, which later allowed the treatment of malignant anemia.
After receiving several awards, she earned the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964. Her most known accomplishment was the discovery of the structure of insulin, which is made of thousands of atoms, and she finally completed its structure in 1969.
A passionate peace campaigner
After winning the Nobel Prize, Hodgkin understood that her assistance could be required in some of her disciplines. In 1975, she became president of the Pugwash Conferences for Science and World Relations, bringing together scientists from the East and West to campaign against nuclear weapons; she supported peace organizations in Vietnam. She had fought against university budget cuts as rector of the University of Bristol since 1971. She has made numerous visits to China, India, and other developing countries, encouraging the exchange of students and scientists to the more resourceful institutions of the developed world, and has called her Sommerville student Prime Minister Thatcher to engage in dialogue with the Soviet Union.
Despite all of her fame, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin was polite, humble, and silent. She encouraged many women to pursue a career in crystallography, partly as a role model, and partly by giving direct help and support. Throughout her life, she showed great courage not only in establishing a new field of scientific research but also in dealing with ever-increasing arthritis pain that started when she was 28 years old. Despite being in a wheelchair, she made a final visit to Beijing in the summer of 1993 for the International Crystallography Congress. Her friends and colleagues from all over the world were excited and enthusiastic to see this person who devoted her life to taking part in a great scientific adventure.
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin quotes
“I was captured for life by chemistry and by crystals.”
“I once wrote a lecture for Manchester University called Moments of Discovery in which I said that there are two moments that are important. There’s the moment when you know you can find out the answer and that’s the period you are sleepless before you know what it is. When you’ve got it and know what it is, then you can rest easy.”
“The detailed geometry of the coenzyme molecule as a whole is fascinating in its complexity.”
How did Christopher Columbus discover America and change the world? Christopher Columbus transported the Europeans to the “New World” and died without understanding that the lands he discovered were not the coastlines he was seeking for. He lived only 55 years before dying in Spain, having been largely exhausted throughout his life. This brings us to the moment of the discovery of the “New World” by Columbus in 1492, which afterwards was renamed “America.”
Christopher Columbus and the discovery of America
With Columbus’ discovery of the new continent, the process of colonization through the slaughter of thousands of locals had begun.
When Columbus returned to Europe in 1493, the news he brought caused tension between Portugal and Spain. Until that time, Portugal had been leading the opening of new trade routes to Africa. In 1481, the Papacy officially declared that all lands in the south of the Canary Islands belonged to Portugal, which meant a new source of income for the office of Pope.
But now Spain was opposed to the north-south divide. Fernando and Isabel claimed that they had rights to all discoveries in the west and consulted with Pope Alexander VI for justice. In 1493, the Pope decided to draw a perpendicular line 370 miles west of the Azores; the lands to the east of it belonged to Portugal and those to the west to Spain.
Portuguese King Joao opposed this decision because it cut off the favorable winds that carried the ships to the south. In 1494, the two ambassadors met at Tordesillas to solve the problem. The line would be shifted approximately 1,000 miles west so that their ships could go south and east without violating Spanish rights.
What no one knew at that time was that the line cut the east coast of South America. A Portuguese sailor, Pedro Alvares Cabral, on his way to India in 1500, encountered a large piece of land east of the line and registered it on behalf of his country. For this reason, the lands we know today as Brazil belonged to Portugal.
How the discovery of America affected the New World
Until the beginning of the 15th century, Europe’s only relationship with Africa and the East was through the land, and it was a difficult and slow-moving relationship. However, after Christopher Columbus’ journeys, the seas meant new possibilities for connection, not obstacles.
This development had disastrous consequences for the peoples of America, the first continent to fully experience the influence of Europeans. Until that day, many cultures had risen, fought, and collapsed in South and Central America. Some societies, such as the Aztecs and Incas, created great empires. Others, such as Peru’s Mochica and the Maya of Central America, created the finest examples of art that would be called the “pre-Columbian era.”
With the arrival of the Europeans, these cultures were doomed to die. Europeans were supported by ships, weapons, and horses and proved to be invincible. On the other hand, the destructive effects of diseases to which Americans were not resistant brought death to the majority of the local people in the 100 years following the arrival of foreigners. All local cultures disappeared, from Mexico to Peru in the south and the Amazon in the east. Tons of handmade objects, especially golden ones, were stolen.
Despite that, the shadow of pre-Columbian culture continued to exist. Blended with European influence in architecture, the visual arts, religion, language, and technology, these cultures became even more complicated with the arrival of African slaves, who introduced a completely different culture.
The effects of the discovery of America on Europe
The first things imported from the New World were potato plants and hammocks.
The discovery of America’s first impact on Europe was the precious metal mining influx. In the 50 years after the discovery of America, Spain seized around 180 tons of gold, largely artistic pieces, and practically melted all of it. This plunder is considered one of the greatest wealth transfers and art thefts of all time. Meanwhile, the Spaniards extracted 16,000 tons of silver from the mines and sent it to their home country.
This action deprived the world of this unique artistic heritage forever, leading to controversial wastefulness in Europe. The transferred wealth was mostly spent on war, which caused prices to rise to excessive levels. On the other hand, the relationship with America had another surprising consequence. Many unknown plants were growing in Europe on the hills of the high Andes Mountains; potatoes, tomatoes, and corn were completely new tastes for the Old World. Tobacco was also unknown until the Spaniards saw the Indians smoking it for medical purposes and religious ceremonies.
Over the centuries, thousands of medicines have been produced with the resources gathered from South America. For example, a curative plant—a poison that affected the nerves—used by the Amazon’s indigenous arrows was used as a muscle relaxant during surgeries.
Who followed Colombus?
Vasco da Gama sailed from Africa to India and opened a way to Asia, making Portugal the biggest power in the Indian Ocean. “Vasco da Gama” (circa 1460-1524), oil on canvas, by Antonio Manuel da Fonseca, 1838
While Spain was trying to provide capital through the achievements of Christopher Columbus, Portugal continued to travel to the south and east. In 1497, Vasco da Gama toured the Cape of Good Hope, discovered the coasts of East Africa, and then set out for India, intending to break the Arab monopoly in Indian trade. This was also an unfortunate journey, as he could not sell anything, and the scurvy outbreak turned his three-month return journey into hell. However, this road proved to be usable. In the next decade, Portugal would use da Gama’s success as a step both to improve its trade with India and to move toward the Spice Islands (Moluccas) in Southeast Asia. In 1509, a trade fleet arrived in Malaysia. From 1520 on, Portugal dominated the Southeast Asian trade.
The Great Ocean was the last thing that needed to be completed. It was believed that America was a large piece of territory, and another ocean behind this continent was located in 1513 when Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Panama Canal and set foot on the beaches of the Great Ocean. The first round-the-world voyage took place between 1519 and 1522, and thus the southern tip of the continent was fully discovered.
Who coined the name “America”?
Amerigo Vespucci knew that the new land was not the Far East that everyone initially thought, and so the continent was named after him.
The continent was named “America” after the explorer Amerigo Vespucci, who descended from the east coast of South America to Patagonia between 1501 and 1502. Vespucci realized that this place could not be the Far East and concluded that this land had to be between Europe and China, whether it ended with a nose or reached the South Pole. Therefore, in 1504, he wrote that it would be more appropriate to call it the “New World.” German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller gave these lands the name of Vespucci, on an atlas he made in 1507. Amerigo Vespucci calculated the circumference of the Earth as only a minus 50 miles from its actual length. So, Waldseemüller named the continent after Vespucci.
Vikings discovered America before Christopher Columbus
In fact, Columbus had not “discovered” America. Millions of native Americans had been living there for tens of thousands of years. Columbus wasn’t the first visitor to reach the continent, either. Recent discoveries in Newfoundland point to a residential area where the Vikings seemed to lived for more than a generation. According to Icelandic epics, Bjarni Herjolfsson, a Greenland Viking, had gone off course on his ship in the 1000s when the winds of the North Atlantic were softer and had probably reached a temperate, forested land that is today’s Newfoundland coast.
Bjarni spent a winter in that land and eventually left the area as a result of the attacks from the locals and the shortage of food. Another Viking, Leif Ericson, reached North America as well. The Vikings noted that they stayed in the land for a short time, which they called “Vinland” because of the abundance of vines.
According to a Latin manuscript from the 10th century, Irish priest Saint Brendan VI, who lived in the 19th century, roamed the Atlantic Ocean in a leather boat stretched on a wooden frame. Although there are references to Iceland’s volcanoes and icebergs, there is no evidence that Brendan reached America.
Christopher Columbus quotes
“You can never cross the ocean unless you have the courage to lose sight of the shore.”
“Gold is a treasure and he who possesses it does all he wishes to in this world.”
“Following the light of the sun, we left the Old World.”
“When there are such lands there should be profitable things without number.”
“Riches don’t make a man rich, they only make him busier.”
The brilliant theories that Albert Einstein created throughout his life, including ground-breaking work in the fields of space, time, and relativity, are what define him. His contributions have influenced numerous areas of physics and related technologies. From understanding the functioning of the universe to the precision of the Global Positioning System (GPS), from unraveling the structure of the atom to laying the foundations for the invention of the laser, Albert Einstein’s impact is far-reaching.
In 1905, based on a study of laboratory data on the photoelectric effect, Einstein formulated the quantum theory of light, a milestone he referred to as his “revolutionary” achievement. This groundbreaking work earned him the Nobel Prize in 1921. However, the subsequent development of quantum theory was carried forward by scientists like Niels Bohr, Max Born, and Werner Heisenberg. Among the other notable figures was Erwin Schrödinger, who took Einstein’s quantum theory in a direction that Einstein did not fully endorse during the 1920s. Despite this, Einstein’s legacy remains an essential pillar of modern physics and continues to inspire new generations of scientists and researchers.
“Put your hand on a hot stove for a minute, and it seems like an hour. Sit with a pretty girl for an hour, and it seems like a minute. That’s relativity.”
Albert Einstein’s simple explanation of relativity to his secretary.
When Did Albert Einstein Develop the Theory of Relativity?
Albert Einstein’s office and desk, photographed hours after his death on April 18, 1955. (Colored from image, JD Rucker, CC BY).
Albert Einstein’s most renowned contribution to physics began with his formulation of “special relativity” in 1905. He further expanded on this theory in 1915 by introducing “general relativity,” which encompassed the concept of “acceleration due to gravity.”
Einstein’s theories have brought about a significant revolution in our comprehension of space and time since Isaac Newton‘s establishment of the laws of motion and gravity in the 17th century. In general relativity, the concept of the mysterious “ether substance” that fills space, as well as the notion of “the impact of gravity,” is discarded. Instead, the cosmos is viewed as a space-time continuum, where matter influences the bending of space, and space dictates the movement of matter.
Interestingly, while working as a full-time patent officer in Switzerland, Albert Einstein developed his special theory of relativity. According to Einstein himself in 1952, the time between conceiving his ideas in May-June 1905 and composing his essay “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies” was just five or six weeks. However, attributing this short duration as the sole starting point for his theories would be misleading, as the foundational arguments and building blocks likely took years to develop and mature.
Albert Einstein’s Childhood
Albert Einstein and his sister Maja Einstein.
Albert Einstein’s exceptional intellectual ability cannot be solely attributed to his ancestry. His father, Hermann Einstein, worked as an average businessman and faced challenges in the field of electrical engineering. His mother, Pauline Einstein, while skilled at playing the piano, did not exhibit exceptional intellectual aptitude. Her affluent family ran a successful grain firm. Although both branches of his family were Jewish, they were not Orthodox Jews and did not engage in the study of the Torah, as they were not familiar with Hebrew.
In the 1920s, Einstein became a Zionist, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland. However, later in life, he expressed regret over this decision. Einstein’s remarkable intellectual accomplishments were the result of his own talents, curiosity, and dedication to scientific pursuits, rather than any particular influence from his family’s background or religious affiliation.
When reviewing Einstein’s childhood, there were initially few indications of his intellect. He was born in Ulm, Württemberg, which was part of the German Empire at that time, and he was the first child in a two-child household. As a baby, he did not speak, which caused concern for his family, leading them to seek medical advice to understand the reason behind his silence. It was only when his sister Maja Einstein was born in 1881, when Einstein was about two years old, that he began attempting to communicate.
He asked about the wheels of his new toy, seemingly trying to form whole sentences. At first, he moved his lips and carefully weighed his words in his thoughts before speaking them aloud. This behavior continued until he was about seven years old and even beyond. The household maid was skeptical about his intellectual abilities, suspecting that he might be mentally impaired. However, as history would later show, Albert Einstein’s true brilliance emerged in his later years as he made groundbreaking contributions to science and reshaped our understanding of the universe.
Indeed, Albert Einstein was not a perfect student, but he demonstrated remarkable academic achievements during his time at schools in Germany and Switzerland, as well as at the University of Zurich. Despite his academic excellence, he did not have a liking for the traditional school environment. Later in life, he strongly opposed Germany’s formal education system, particularly the aspects that reflected the conventional Prussian military culture, such as games and physical education.
With the rise of the Nazi regime in the early 1930s, Einstein fled from Germany and sought refuge in the United States. There, he continued his scientific work and became renowned for his post-war anti-nuclear weapon campaign, advocating for peace and disarmament. Through his activism, he made his objectives clear to the rest of the world and established himself as a prominent figure in the pursuit of a safer and more peaceful world.
Albert Einstein’s strong inclination for self-learning undoubtedly played a significant role in his challenges at school. From an early age, he exhibited curiosity and began reading mathematics and science books out of his own interest. Even during his time at the Zurich school, he explored various fields of study, including the latest scientific publications. Throughout his life, Einstein never read a book solely because it was considered a classic; he only delved into books that piqued his curiosity and interest.
Similarly, Sir Isaac Newton was also an eclectic reader. Newton’s vast knowledge and discoveries were not the result of following established norms or reading many famous works of his time or from the past. Like Einstein, he pursued his own intellectual curiosity and explored topics that captivated his mind, leading to his groundbreaking contributions to science.
Both Einstein and Newton exemplify the power of individual curiosity and self-directed learning in making groundbreaking discoveries and contributions to the field of science. Their pursuit of knowledge based on genuine interest has left an enduring impact on our understanding of the universe.
How Did Albert Einstein Explain Relativity?
Albert Einstein, 19 years old, 1898.
When Albert Einstein was 16 in 1895-96, he began to think about objects, space, and time. Based on Newton’s laws and James Clerk Maxwell’s electromagnetism equations, he reached the culmination of his work by releasing the special relativity equations in 1905 and the general relativity equations in 1915. He did this not by disagreeing with Newton or Maxwell, but by putting their ideas into a bigger picture, like putting together country maps to make a world map.
Einstein created a new point of view. He argued that mechanical rules, and even all scientific laws in the physical universe, should be the same for all observers, whether they were moving or not. In the introduction of his book ‘Über die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie’ (the Special and General Theory of Relativity) intended for general audiences in 1916, Albert Einstein presents a simple but profound discovery.
Consider sitting at the window of a carriage that travels uniformly—at a constant speed that never accelerates or decelerates—and letting a stone fall simply by opening your hand. If you do not account for air resistance, you will see that the stone fell in a straight line even if you are moving. However, a pedestrian standing near the tracks can see the stone falling, drawing a parabola.
Albert Einstein wonders which of these observed trajectories is the “truth”: the straight line or the parabola. Both answers are accurate. The “truth” in this case is founded on the reference object to which the observer is connected—in geometric words, the coordinate system. Is the observer on the train or on the ground? Furthermore, unlike in classical physics, there is no absolute reference frame for the cosmos in which velocity can be measured approximately. For Newton, this frame of reference was “God,” and for Maxwell, it was “ether.”
However, if the initial proposition for the immutability of natural laws was true, it should have been true not only for moving objects but also for electricity, magnetism, and light. In 1905, Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave was known to be moving at a steady speed of about 300,000 kilometers (about 186,000 miles) per second in a stationary ether. This was producing a major issue. Einstein was willing to abandon the idea of ether or aether, which had never satisfied him. However, the constant speed of light was a different problem.”
Albert Einstein and the Limits of Light
Einstein asks: What happens if we pursue and surpass the speed of light?
Albert Einstein had been thinking about what would happen when he chased a beam of light and reached it. In 1905, he made the following conclusion:
If I pursue a beam of light with the velocity c (velocity of light in a vacuum), I should observe such a beam of light as an electromagnetic field at rest though spatially oscillating. There seems to be no such thing, however, neither on the basis of experience nor according to Maxwell’s equations.
Albert Einstein
It is impossible to attempt to reach the speed of light, which would be like watching a chase scene in a movie by freezing the image: light is only there while it moves, just as the frames of the chase scene move. Albert Einstein thought that if we could travel faster than the speed of light, we could run away from a light signal while capturing previous light signals.
As a result, our eyes must initially detect the most recent light signal before progressively detecting older signals. As a result, Einstein summarized the situation and claimed that exceeding the speed of light is impossible:
“We should catch them in a reverse order to that in which they were sent, and the train of happenings on our Earth would appear like a film shown backwards, beginning with the happy ending.”
Albert Einstein
Following that, Einstein made a daring second claim: the speed of light is the same in all coordinate systems. It is not affected by the movement of a source or sensor, unlike the train example. The light beam will always appear to move away at the speed of light, no matter how quickly a hypothetical vehicle chasing it moves.
Einstein finally realized that for this to be valid, time must be relative, not absolute like space. In order for his first proposition about the “theory of invariance” to be compatible with the second proposition about the constant velocity of light, Newton’s “unproven hypothesis” of “classical” mechanics had to be abandoned. The first one to abandon is “the time interval between the two events is independent of the state of the reference object’s motion.” Thus, time passes at a different speed according to the person chasing the light wave. As the person’s vehicle accelerates, its time will slow down and thus cover less distance (because the distance traveled is equal to the time multiplied by the speed).
This required abandoning the idea that there is a universal quantity called time that all clocks measure. Instead, everyone would have his own personal time.
Einstein during the 1927 Solvay conference. (Image, Sanna Dullaway, CC BY 2.0)
In the context of space, there is a distinction between the person chasing the light and the light wave. As the person goes faster, the space contracts, and thus the person travels less. According to Albert Einstein’s relativity equations, the rate at which a person approaching the speed of light travels in a vehicle extends and contracts the time and space of an outside observer at the same rate.
Just as the train passenger who lets the stone fall from a uniformly moving train sees that the stone falls not by following a curve but by following a straight line, the person chasing the light wave does not perceive that his time is slowing or his body is contracting; only the external observer sees these effects. Everything in the vehicle is normal for the moving person. Because the person’s brain and body are affected by this speed in the same way. The brain thinks and ages slower, and its retina contracts at the same rate as the vehicle; therefore, the brain does not perceive the difference in the size of the vehicle or body.
Newton’s System Weakens
When these concepts are initially heard, they are uncommon since humans do not travel even at a very tiny proportion of the speed of light. As a result, we don’t have any relativity observations or experiences involving time slowing or space shrinking. Newton’s rules seem to regulate all human motions. These laws make no mention of the speed of light. Einstein had to work hard to make the notion of relativity stick, which is so far outside our everyday experience.
Einstein was aware of the similar ideas of Danish physicist Hendrik Lorentz and his Irish colleague George FitzGerald in the 1890s, who adopted a different theory of space contraction. These scientists believed in the concept of ether, which was rejected by Einstein. Obviously, the abandonment of the idea of an absolute time required a much greater leap in imagination. In 1902, Henri Poincare mentioned the concept of simultaneity in his book La Science et l’Hypothèse (which Einstein read at the time it was published). Poincare wrote:
We have not a direct intuition of simultaneity, nor of the equality of two durations. If we think we have this intuition, this is an illusion.
Henri Poincare, La Science et l’Hypothèse
In fact, Poincare was quite close to Einstein’s theory of relativity. However, it seems that he was unable to proceed far enough since his results were too disturbing for Newtonian physics. Simultaneity is an ongoing illusion for us on Earth. We’re accustomed to it; we don’t discriminate between what is seen and what occurs at the same time. As a result, the distinction between time and local time becomes murky. Einstein, who was a generation younger than Poincare and had nothing to lose since he was unknown in 1905, could afford to be radical in his views on time.
E=mc2 and the Atomic Bomb
Albert Einstein in Washington, D.C., between 1921 and 1923.
When Albert Einstein arrived in the United States in 1933 to join the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study, most scientists had already accepted special relativity—also known for the famous E=mc^2 formula, which relates the speed of energy, mass, and light. Regrettably, this theory was also utilized in the calculations for the atomic bomb in 1945. However, it took a considerable amount of time for general relativity, introduced in 1915, to gain full acceptance.
In his later years, from 1925 until his death in Princeton in 1955, Einstein obsessively pursued a unified theory of gravity and electromagnetism, but it appears that this endeavor may have been futile. With the advent of more precise experimental testing in both space and on Earth, Einstein’s theory of relativity, along with Newton’s and Maxwell’s equations, now forms the foundation of physics. Today, Einstein’s once arcane realm of ideas has become widely understood and acknowledged.
Albert Einstein Quotes
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons.
Few are those who see with their own eyes and feel with their own hearts.
Imagination is more important than knowledge. Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world.
I am by heritage a Jew, by citizenship a Swiss, and by makeup a human being, and only a human being, without any special attachment to any state or national entity whatsoever.
A hundred times every day I remind myself that my inner and outer life are based on the labors of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to give in the same measure as I have received and am still receiving.
Unthinking respect for authority is the greatest enemy of truth.
I would teach peace rather than war. I would inculcate love rather than hate.
Try not to become a man of success, but rather try to become a man of value.
Great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds.
All religions, arts and sciences are branches of the same tree.
I believe in intuitions and inspirations. I sometimes feel that I am right. I do not know that I am.
Look deep into nature, and then you will understand everything better.
Albert Einstein at a Glance
What was Albert Einstein’s contribution to the field of physics?
His most famous contribution, the theory of relativity, introduced the concept of spacetime. Einstein also made contributions to the development of quantum mechanics and the study of Brownian motion.
How did Albert Einstein’s upbringing shape his scientific work?
He grew up in a secular Jewish family in Germany and received an education in math and science. As a young man, he was exposed to the work of philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Ernst Mach, who influenced his views on the nature of reality. Later, his experiences as a patent clerk in Switzerland gave him the time and freedom to develop his ideas about relativity.
What was the significance of the famous equation E=mc²?
The equation E=mc² expresses the relationship between mass and energy. It was first proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905, as part of his special theory of relativity. The equation showed that mass and energy are interchangeable, and it has had important implications for nuclear physics and energy generation.
How did Albert Einstein’s political beliefs influence his scientific work?
He was a political activist and pacifist. He was an outspoken critic of war and militarism, and his experiences living through World War I and witnessing the rise of Nazi Germany led him to advocate for internationalism and cooperation among nations. He also believed that science had a moral responsibility to promote social justice and equality.
How did Albert Einstein die?
Albert Einstein died on April 18, 1955, at the age of 76. He had been in declining health for several years, suffering from a variety of ailments including heart problems, digestive issues, and internal bleeding.
On the day of his death, Einstein experienced an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which is a bulge in the wall of the aorta that ruptured and caused severe internal bleeding. He was rushed to the hospital but refused surgery, stating that he had lived his life and was ready to go.
Einstein’s condition quickly worsened, and he fell into a coma. He passed away early the next morning, surrounded by his family and close friends.
The first submarine concepts date back to the 16th century. However, the first design ideas for underwater travel go even further. The initial challenges with the submarine design were all about how to operate the ship overall. Most efforts were made to improve underwater durability and performance. Now let’s learn more about the invention of the first submarine and the historical development of these underwater vehicles.
The invention of the submarine
The first real submarines did not appear until the 19th century. During the American Civil War, the Confederate forces developed the H.L. Hunley submarine and sank a Union ship, the Housatonic, which was launched in 1864. The first practical and modern submarines were invented after World War I.
The timeline below summarizes the entire design process of submarines, from manned battleships to today’s nuclear-powered solutions.
1578 – William Bourne
The first known drawing of an underwater vehicle.
William Bourne created the first submarine design. He couldn’t, however, go beyond the planning stage. Bourne’s concept depended on ballast tanks, which are chambers filled with water to submerge the vehicle and then drain it to the surface.
When tried in the 1600s, this wooden-framed submarine was wrapped in waterproof leather but failed against the underwater dirt. Today’s submarines employ the ballast tank principle in their design.
1620 – Drebbel
Cornelius Drebbel’s 12-oar submarine in the Thames River
Cornelis Drebbel, a Dutchman, devised and constructed an underwater vehicle with oars. Drebbels’ idea handled the problem of air replenishment while the ship was underwater. By burning potassium nitrate, Drebbel created oxygen (saltpeter). King George, I employed the vehicle, which could dive up to 3.5 meters.
1776 – Turtle, the first military submarine
The turtle.
David Bushnell created the Turtle submarine, and only one person was in charge of it. With this machine, the Colonial Army attempted to sink the British battleship HMS Eagle. It was the first submarine to participate in a naval engagement.
A manually operated propeller moved the Turtle. The operator had to descend under the hostile ship and remove the mine bomb carried by the Turtle.
1798 – Nautilus
Nautilus
Robert Fulton built the Nautilus submarine, which used two different forces for propulsion. They were the sail when it was on the surface and the manually controlled propeller when submerged in the water. The sail is believed to be a mistake in the design.
1895 – Holland VIII, electric engine submarine
Holland VII
John P. Holland created the Holland VII submarine. Later, he designed the Holland VIII (1900). The most recent version had two engines: a petroleum engine on the surface and an electric engine below. Until 1914, all naval forces across the globe employed this design.
1904 – Aigrette
Aigrette
The Aigrette, a French submarine, was one of the first to deploy an electric engine. The primary motor, though, was crucial: a diesel engine for surface propulsion. Diesel engines have benefits in submarines. As a result, all models nowadays wear them. They do not directly operate the propellers but rather charge the electric engine’s batteries.
1943 – U-264
The German U-264’s snorkel mast was supplying air to the engine. This revolutionary technology-enabled German U-boats to operate in shallow waters for longer periods of time than had previously been possible. Recharging the batteries does this.
1944 – U-791
The German U-791 was the first submarine to use hydrogen peroxide as an alternative fuel source.
1954 – Nautilus, the first nuclear submarine
Nautilus – 1954
The USS Nautilus was the world’s first nuclear-powered submarine. Nuclear power has transformed submarines into true “submersibles.” This energy enabled them to stay underwater indefinitely.
1958 – Albacore
USS Albacore (AGSS-569) was a research submarine and had a hull design that had never been seen before. It is called a “teardrop,” which reduces underwater resistance to allow Albacore to operate faster. The USS Skipjack adopted this idea later.
1959 – USS George Washington
The USS George Washington was the first nuclear-powered submarine in the world equipped with ballistic missiles. This operational terror machine meant a huge advantage in the Cold War.
.jpg - Wikimedia Commons){kind=link}