Author: Hrothsige Frithowulf

Transatlantic Telegraph Cable: In 1858, Two Worlds Were Connected
How did the brave engineers of the 19th century manage to lay the first transatlantic telegraph cable in the history of communication? The question “What hath God wrought?” was the very first message to be sent using a commercial teletype, often known as a telegraph, in the year 1844. Around the year 1860, the practice of communicating over copper wires had already become commonplace. But the actual process of placing the wires was fairly difficult at times. The traditional mail soon became too slow, not in the least due to the ever-increasing presence of railways. Communication via the use of electrical impulses had contributed to the provision of a world that is capable of delivering rapid communications. But even this cutting-edge technology would eventually hit its constraints, namely those posed by the Atlantic Ocean.
Today it is conceivable to build cables over water; since 1850, one has been spanning the English Channel to link London and Paris. However, the ocean presents a different challenge than a smaller body of water would.
Up until 1858, there were several attempts made to lay a telegraph cable over significant bodies of water on the continent of North America. In 1855, an attempt to run a cable over the Cabot Strait located in Canada was proven unsuccessful.
First Stop: Canada, Followed by the Continents
A telegraph engineer by the name of Frederick Newton Gisborne was the first to install an undersea telegraph cable that connects North America to the rest of the world. He was successful, at least for a brief period. Even though it is just 9 miles (15 km) long, the cable that ran across Northumberland Strait demonstrated the advanced engineering of the time. However, before Gisborne could benefit from it, the firm that he founded expressly for this enterprise went bankrupt, and owing to his amassed debts, he was even imprisoned for a brief time.
However, not long after that, he found himself in contact with C. W. Field. His ability to see into the future and be persistent would prove to be a game-changer for transatlantic communication despite the obstacles and failures he encountered along the way.
Cyrus West Field.
Cyrus West Field was the eighth of ten children and was born in 1819. At the time of his birth, he had already amassed a fortune from the operation of a paper mill. He had the means to retire comfortably in 1853, one year before he met Gisborne and became acquainted with him.
However, Gisborne’s proposal to construct a cable that would cross the Atlantic Ocean piqued his interest. He went to two other guys in the hopes that they would have the knowledge he needed, although he had very little understanding of the situation. One among these individuals was Samuel Morse, the inventor of the telegraph. Morse, for his part, had already been cultivating ideas for constructing an underwater cable. The other person was Lieutenant Matthew Fontaine Maury, a member of the United States Navy who, following a serious accident, was confined to a wheelchair and assumed leadership of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington after he recovered from his injuries.
Since the publication of his book “The Physical Geography of the Sea,” Maury has had a reputation as an oceanography authority. Using a research vessel from the Navy, Maury had begun his exploration of the Atlantic below in 1853, halfway between Newfoundland and Ireland. After much consideration, he realized that a plateau he had discovered there would provide an excellent location for the base of a transatlantic cable.
The laying of the transatlantic cables from HMS Agamemnon in 1858.
Field, who is wealthy but not wealthy enough to finance the entire venture by himself, bought Gisborne’s old company—along with its debts—and founded the Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company with the assistance of various investors. Everything was now ready to be initiated with a budget of 1.5 million dollars established. To begin, a cable is to be laid across the Cabot Strait, and ultimately, connect to the telegraph network that is already in place in Nova Scotia.
Field had entertained the notion that this undertaking might prove to be less challenging than the installation of the later transatlantic cable. However, once the cable had successfully run over the Cabot Strait, virtually the whole budget of the corporation had been used up as a result of bad weather conditions and tough terrain. It was necessary to find new investors.
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This vital search resulted in the establishment of a new business, which will be known as the Atlantic Telegraph Company.
The First Transatlantic Telegraph Cable Was Placed
Installing the Atlantic Telegraph Cable from the USS Niagara, 15 August 1857.
Field made his way to England in order to present his new project; to lay a telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean. He was greeted with a great deal of interest but also some skepticism.
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In the end, he was successful in raising 350,000 British pounds, which, in today’s money, is equivalent to over 48 million pounds. This was achieved at a time when electrical impulses were falsely demonstrated to not go farther than 2,000 miles (3,200 km) underwater.
Field was not discouraged by this “finding” and in the year 1857, the first effort to install the transatlantic telegraph cable was started. The transatlantic cable project had the backing of both the United Kingdom and the United States governments, particularly in the form of the two ships HMS Agamemnon and USS Niagara, which were repurposed as cable ships.
On August 5, the first cable, which consisted of three thick copper wires insulated with gutta-percha (gum of a tree native to the Malay) and wrapped in tarred hemp rope, was installed in the southwest of Ireland close to Ballycarbery Castle.
However, the cable was damaged on the very first day that it was laid. After being fixed, the malfunction occurred again after 400 miles, this time with the cable end falling to the bottom, two miles below. The investors finally decided to put the matter to rest, which meant that the cable worth 36,000 pounds was to be discarded.
The next year, after spending many months figuring out how to properly and more securely install the cable, a second effort was made. This time, it was successful. The company followed a strategy that was a bit different than before: Once the two ships that were laying the Atlantic cables met each other halfway between North America and Ireland, they started laying the telegraph cables in the direction of their countries. However, the cables were again broken while on the return route, but the ships were able to fix them shortly after.
On August 5th, both ships, together with the cables that were installed, finally arrived at their destinations. This first-ever transatlantic telegraph cable spanned across the Atlantic Ocean for about 2,000 miles (3,200 km) at a depth of sometimes over two miles (3.2 km).
On August 10, 1858, Newfoundland sent its first test communications over the Atlantic Ocean. On August 12, the first transmission was received on Valentia Island, which is located in Ireland, on the opposite side of the Atlantic Ocean.
After the cable connecting the two hemispheres was laid down on the ocean floor, it left a lasting effect on the developed world: On August 13, 1858, the directors of the Atlantic Telegraph Company in England relayed to the directors in the United States:
Europe and America are united by telegraphy. Glory to God in the highest, on earth peace, goodwill toward men!
Queen Victoria herself personally sent a message over the transatlantic line.
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In it, she offered her congratulations to James Buchanan, who was serving as President of the United States at the time.
The Cable Was Too Slow
The location of the Atlantic cable from London to New York.
However, the happiness did not last for very long. The first transatlantic cable had a transmission rate that was too slow. It takes more than 16 hours to send the whole 98-word response that the Queen had given.
The many different efforts to get a better transmission rate were not only unsuccessful but also disastrous in the end. The president of the Atlantic Telegraph Company, Edward Whitehouse, decided to increase the amount of voltage that is sent over the Atlantic cable. But as a direct consequence of this, a portion of the insulation melted, and ultimately the cable snapped.
It seemed that the ambition of constructing a cable across the Atlantic Ocean had been entirely dashed. Field had to put up with a lot of boasting and even accusations of fraud to keep his job. Because of the advent of the American Civil War in the 1860s, there were no more efforts made to lay another cable, for the first time.
One More Wire Preserves the Hope
But in 1865, a new Atlantic cable effort was made using new delivery techniques and, most importantly, a new and superior cable. This new attempt was made with the help of the scientist William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, who is now recognized as the namesake of the temperature unit Kelvin. The new attempt was successful. The transatlantic cable was installed by the ship “Great Eastern,” which was a remarkable technological wonder at that time.
But Field was not discouraged in the least when the new cable was severed on the first attempt to lay it around 600 miles (965 kilometers) off the coast of Newfoundland. The ship sailed once again from England on July 13, 1866, this time carrying a replacement cable. This time the laying did not give rise to any remarkable events, but it was a success.
Field sent a new transatlantic telegraph message to the Associated Press in New York on July 29, 1866, announcing the successful installation of the second cable. A few days later, the Atlantic cable linked to the existing telegraph network in the United States.
Rivalry Is Always Good for Business
With a fee of one dollar for every 15 words sent or received, using the Atlantic telegraph cable was set to be quite pricey at first. In the year 1869, a new telegraph cable owned by a French corporation was laid all the way from France to Massachusetts. After that, the cost of transatlantic communication began to drop, and it didn’t take long until it was used by the general public.
C. W. Field’s fortune improved dramatically as a result of the cable. He already had a fortune of six million dollars by the year 1880; adjusted for inflation, that number would be equivalent to 150 million dollars today. However, he would not be able to keep the money for long since, in 1887, he gambled it all away on Wall Street and lost everything. When he passed away in 1892, he had nothing to his name.
However, his legacy will live on in the shape of improved methods of modern communication across the continental regions of the globe. The Atlantic cable that was installed in 1866 was still in use after almost 100 years, right up until the 1960s. Moreover, today we pretty much use the same method, just with far more advanced cables.
September 4, 2022
Falu Red: The Story of Why All Swedish Houses Are Red
September 4, 2022
The Blackfoot Tribe and Their 10,000 Years of History
For thousands of years, indigenous people on the northern plains known as the Blackfeet tribe (really “Blackfoot” since the term in Siksika is singular) drove bison over cliffs. Buffalo hunting gave the Blackfoot everything they needed to live. A large granite face rises from the plains in southern Alberta. The sandstone cliffs dominate the picture from several miles away while approaching the Rocky Mountains from the east.
The plains look to continue forever from the Rocky Mountains. It culminates in cliffs where the granite drops nearly as steeply. Bison were originally driven here by Blackfoot tribes. Panicked animals leaped from the cliff into their deaths. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump was used as a slaughterhouse for around 6,000 years and is now a heritage site.
Buffalo skulls and bones piled up at the bottom of the 32-foot (10-meter) sandstone wall when Junius Bouton Bird of the American Museum of Natural History began digging there in 1938. Stone instruments were used by hunter-gatherers to carve their victims. Since then, scientists have found how Stone Age hunters trapped and processed animals. Several Blackfoot tribes of 80–240 people worked together to achieve the hunt.
Throughout history, hunting influenced the civilizations of these people. Buffalo-themed songs, art, beliefs, and mythology on the Buffalo Head-Smashed-In Jump’s sandstone cliffs are remnants of a highly sophisticated culture like Egypt’s pyramids, India’s Taj Mahal, and Peru’s Machu Picchu. In 1981, they were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
UNESCO added another Blackfoot site 125 miles (200 km) east in July 2019: Áísínai’pi, or Writing-on-Stone, is a park with several sandstone hoodoos sculpted by wind and water. On rock walls, over 100 Blackfoot figures are painted or carved. The hoodoos were revered by the Blackfoot. The Shoshone tribe, whose hunting grounds encircled Blackfoot, might have drawn here as well.
Rock Structures From the Ice Age
Six Blackfeet Chiefs by the North Saskatchewan River in Saskatchewan, Canada. The painter is Paul Kane. (Image: Wikimedia Commons)
The cult site was formed from the remains of a massive lake 85 million years ago when dinosaurs roamed the Earth. The pressure exerted by the overlying masses compacted the sand at the bottom of the body of water, transforming it into sandstone. Massive amounts of water eroded the sandstone as the last Ice Age glaciers receded 20,000 years ago.
Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park is located in one of these glacier valleys. Its northern bank is bounded by sandstone cliffs. Because of the “rain shadow” cast by the Rocky Mountains, the prairies are parched. Rain can wash porous sandstone cliffs into the Milk River.
The sun heats the area to 104°F (40°C) in the summer, while arctic air cools it to -40°F (-40°C) in the winter. The temperature differential and intense frost pulled pieces of the cliff away, resulting in strange rock formations. Prairie winds also sandblasted the rocks, carrying the sand away. This resulted in the formation of hoodoos, which typically consist of a hat-like, hard stone spire and a slender sandstone column.
For 4,000 years, Stone Age hunter-gatherers concealed themselves from the wind by hiding under hoodoos. The Blackfoot, and less often the Shoshone, Cree, and Assiniboine, journeyed to the Milk River, where beavers built dams and where species like mule deer still live today.
These animals were less difficult to dispatch than the big buffalo. The native people wrote about hunting bison, mule deer, and beaver in hoodoos, as well as some heroic actions and European colonization. The drawings were created by the Blackfeet or Blackfoot people using buffalo grease and red soil. Archaeologists are continuously discovering fresh petroglyphs today.
The Ford T in the Sandstones
The ages of these Blackfeet artworks are simply estimates. Around 1730, the Shoshone brought horses to the region. Around 1750, the Blackfoot started to hunt buffalo on horseback. Hunters probably employed buffalo-hide shields before 1750, as shown by petroglyphs. Personal insignia, similar to European coats of arms, are often displayed on the shields.
In those images, native folks raise their arms. Others, most likely dancers, support themselves on their hips or knees. Archaeologists are baffled by the pictures, but Blackfoot elders recognize their importance and refuse to share them with non-native Canadians.
A rock sculpture resembling a Ford T has been decoded by experts. Between 1908 and 1927, 15 million were produced in the United States. A Blackfoot dubbed “Bird Rattle” traveled from a Montana reservation to the Milk River hoodoos in September 1924 and carved a vehicle into the rock.
The Dangers of Buffalo Hunting
Alfred Jacob Miller (1810–1874), Hunting Buffalo. (Image: Wikimedia Commons)
Writing-on-Stone was a spiritual and cultural center for the Blackfoot, but Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump depicts aboriginal life before horses and weapons. The buffalo hunt was more difficult and deadly back then. The shoulder height of a bison bull is 5.75 feet (1.75 meters), putting it at eye level with a human. Bison may grow to be 10 feet (3 meters) tall and weigh up to 1800 pounds (800 kilos).
Buffalo calves were easier to hunt since they were half the size of humans. The 40-pound (18-kg) calves remained close to their mother for a year while being fully protected by her. However, even one-year-old bison weighing 450 to 650 pounds (200 to 300 kg) are not easy prey, so hunting buffalo was always tough until the Blackfoot began using horses and weaponry about 1750. Although bison were difficult to kill, aboriginal Americans such as the Blackfoot prized their meat, fat, hides, skins, bones, and horns.
Using Bison and Wolf Masks
Bison hunting was difficult for indigenous Canadians since the animals roamed in herds in Alberta and Montana. Because there were few trees on these plains, hunters like Blackfoot couldn’t sneak up on animals. The best time for this was about midday. On the grass, bison sat and chewed their cud. Because buffalo can’t see well in the wind, Blackfoot hunters approached them against the wind and on their knees.
A stalking hunt by a Blackfoot family provided food for many days. However, this method was not producing enough prey for the winter. Thus, hunter-gatherers in what is now Texas drove bison off a cliff 10,000 years ago to capture a large number of them at once.
Head-Smashed-In Buffalo is 32 feet (10 meters) tall. The Jump strata features the region’s first mass hunt evidence. Using C14 carbon dating, deep bison bones were dated at 5800 years. By that time, aboriginal hunter-gatherers were chasing bison over cliffs to hunt them all at once. Two stone spearheads discovered in a neighboring stream valley show that early people similar to the Blackfoot civilization were in the region 9000 years ago. It’s unclear if they were just passing by, setting up their winter camp in the canyon, or hunting on the cliffs.
Bow and Arrow Hunting, Spear Slings, and the Sandstone Cliff
The “stone tips” that were found with the buffalo bones under the cliff help to figure out how the Blackfoot tribe hunted. The tips are from stone arrows (or spearheads), indicating that when the buffalo survived the fall, the Blackfoot generally ended it with a bow and arrow. The oldest stone tools date back more than 1700 years. Before it, they used spear throwers.
The 1,6-foot (0.5-meter) sticks helped in the lengthening of the throwing arm and accelerated the wooden spears to approximately 90 miles per hour (150 km per hour). They were more powerful than a hand-thrown spear. This technique was developed by Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump 5800 years ago. And the locals did not employ spear throwers until 4200-3200 years ago since no spear points until this period were discovered on sandstone cliffs.
The Stone Age inhabitants drove buffalo over cliffs only at a certain time of year and established a large butchery in the fall. The reason was that the calves born in the spring were half a year old at this time, and the juvenile buffaloes were 1.5–2 years old. These ages were determined by experts using fossilized teeth since other animal remains are uncommon.
The buffalo had congregated in a hollow west of the cliffs before the fall hunt. The groundwater was high there, and fresh, healthy grass sprang abundantly. The Blackfoot shamans and elders agreed to begin the hunt if the weather was fair and the wind blew in such a manner that the animals didn’t notice the humans. However, this only occurred every few years. After all, there were additional “Buffalo Jump” stone cliffs found on the plains. However, the Stone Age slaughterhouse at Head-Smashed-In is the best preserved and reveals the most about Blackfoot hunting methods.
“Dead Men” Stones as Buffalo Scarecrows
The bison that roamed in the depression were in excellent condition. They’d put on winter fat and grow a thick coat. The Blackfoot got ready for the hunt by making a trail from the valley to the cliffs. Every few feet, they laid stones along the route. They were dubbed “death men” by Blackfoot. Many of them are still standing today, reminding us of Stone Age times. Small bushes were put into the piles to provide hair for the buffalo scarecrows. And the bison was terrified of this.
According to Blackfoot folklore, young Blackfoot males called “buffalo runners” came up behind the herd. They were dressed in animal skins. The buffalo were worried but not scared. They continued to graze while avoiding the disguised “dead men.” Animals cautiously approached the cliffs along these guardrails.
The Blackfeet men crept in front of the herd, dressed in bison calf skins and greased with bison fat. Thus, they stunk like buffalo. When they bleated like calves, the cows rushed to their aid. From behind the cairns, shouting Blackfoot men waved buffalo skins just before the edge. As a consequence, terrified bison stampeded. The animals were unable to halt at the cliff’s edge and fell to their deaths.
The cliffs were 65 feet (20 meters) high 5800 years ago, and most buffalo died as a result of the falling. The cliffs have stayed about 33 to 36 feet (10 or 11 meters) in height over time due to the accumulation of bones in the area.
Butchering of Prey
Blackfoot hunters utilized spearguns or bows and arrows to kill the animals below the cliffs. Then the real job began. Some of the stone rings that held Blackfoot tents to the ground are still visible today. Hundreds of Blackfoot people peeled bison skins using stone scrapers.
After the animal was hacked up, sinews and bones were used to make thread and tools. The Blackfeet used stone knives to cut buffalo meat into thin strips, which they sun-dried on wooden racks. To get the marrow, bison leg bones were shattered. They burned stones in a pit lined with fresh buffalo leather to remove fat from bone fragments.
From this, entrail tallow, and powdered beef pieces, the Blackfoot kneaded pemmican. Dried berries were used as a seasoning. The thing about Pemmican is that it preserves well and is nutritious. The Blackfoot were able to endure the winter because of this shelf-stable food. They ate it this way or dissolved it in hot water like instant soup.
The End of a Lifestyle
In 1874, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) established its first post in Blackfeet territory, and European settlers quickly followed. By 1881, bison were almost extinct. After losing their livelihood, the Blackfoot adapted to a new environment. Today, about 30,000 Blackfoot people live in Montana and Alberta, farming, raising cattle, and manufacturing crafts. Others are still unaware of their 1,000-year-old bison-centered lifestyle.
Sources and further reading:
- Grinnell, George Bird (1892). “Early Blackfoot History”. American Anthropologist.
- West, Helen B. (Autumn 1960). “Blackfoot Country”.
September 4, 2022
1973 Oil Crisis: When the Black Gold Stopped Flowing
September 4, 2022
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): Splitting the World in Two
Signed on June 7, 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas established an imaginary line running across the Atlantic to the west of the Cape Verde Islands, demarcating the overseas possessions of Spain and Portugal. By this treaty, which would later be ratified by a papal bull, the Catholic Monarchs and King John II of Portugal shared the New World, which was still unexplored. Other European maritime powers were denied any rights to these new lands.
King Francis I of France would demand to see “the clause of Adam’s will that excludes him from this division.” The Native American, African, and Asian populations, however, were not consulted during the negotiation of Tordesillas…
Spain and Portugal Divide the World
As early as the mid-15th century, Portuguese navigators and explorers ventured into the Atlantic Ocean in search of a new trade route to Asia, establishing trading posts along the African coasts. The passage around the Cape of Good Hope, the gateway to the Indian Ocean, by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias in 1488 paved the way to Asia. But soon, Portugal found itself in competition with the rising power of Spain. In the 1480s and 1490s, Portugal was forced to cede its territorial claims to the Canary Islands in favor of Queen Isabella, which was formalized by the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479.
It was especially the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus that made it urgent to establish a dividing line between the spheres of influence of the two Iberian countries. In 1493, a papal bull by Pope Alexander VI set the “demarcation” line from pole to pole 100 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This was a victory for the Spanish, but the King of Portugal soon requested that this line be renegotiated. Negotiations began in May 1493 in Tordesillas, in the province of Valladolid.
The Treaty of Tordesillas
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). (Image: Jl FilpoC, Wikimedia Commons, CC 4.0)
By the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed on June 7, 1494, between the Catholic Monarchs and King John II of Portugal, Spain and Portugal set the line dividing their future overseas possessions: this line, originally established by Pope Alexander VI in 1493 at 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde, was moved, at the request of the Portuguese, to 370 leagues. Any land discovered to the east of this line was to belong to Portugal; to the west, to Spain. The Treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in 1506 (Bull Inter Caetera). Henceforth, all lands discovered to the east of this line would be Portuguese, and all territories to the west would belong to the Spanish Crown.
The treaty reserved for Portugal the most coveted trade routes, those leading to the precious spices of the East, establishing trading posts along the African coasts and in Asia. The adjustment made by Tordesillas granted Portugal rights over the American continent, where the small Iberian kingdom would establish its only settlement colony, Brazil.
On the other hand, Spain would be able to create a vast empire beginning with Mexico and Peru, rising to the rank of Europe’s leading power. The wealth from the gold and silver flowing from the Americas would finance its wars in Europe while stimulating the economy of the old continent. By 1550, Spain controlled almost all of South America, Central America, Florida, Cuba, and in Asia, the Philippines.
The newly found areas outside of Europe were split between Portugal and Castile by the Treaty of Tordesillas (7 June 1494).
A Quickly Contested Treaty
By the 16th century, the two nations began to make breaches in the Treaty of Tordesillas. The Portuguese colony of Brazil expanded far beyond the demarcation line, and in Asia, Spain seized the Philippines and Ternate, which were supposed to be within the Portuguese sphere of influence. The demarcation line and all associated agreements were abolished in 1750 by a treaty settling a conflict regarding the southwestern border of Brazil. The 1750 treaty was itself abrogated in 1761, and new disagreements between the two countries were settled by another treaty in 1779.
The northern European maritime nations (England, France, and the Netherlands) paid little attention to the various treaties signed by Spain with the papacy and Portugal, and from 1520 onward, their merchant ships increasingly entered the Caribbean Sea, supplying the major islands with African slaves. In the 17th century, as Portugal and Spain declined, they could only watch helplessly as new colonial empires emerged within their spheres of influence defined by the Treaty of Tordesillas.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) at a Glance
Is the Treaty of Tordesillas still in effect today?
The Treaty of Tordesillas is no longer in effect, as it was superseded by subsequent treaties and agreements that shaped the geopolitical landscape in the centuries following its signing. However, its historical significance in shaping early European colonial expansion remains noteworthy.
What were the long-term consequences of the Treaty?
The Treaty of Tordesillas had significant long-term consequences for the division of colonial territories. It established Spain and Portugal as major colonial powers and laid the groundwork for their respective overseas empires.
How did the Treaty impact indigenous peoples?
The Treaty of Tordesillas did not consider the rights of indigenous peoples in the New World. As European colonization progressed, indigenous populations were often subjected to exploitation, forced labor, and cultural assimilation.
What led to the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas?
The signing of the Treaty was prompted by the 1493 papal bull, Inter caetera, issued by Pope Alexander VI. This papal bull divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal along a meridian line, giving each empire exclusive rights to claim and colonize territories on their respective sides.
What was the purpose of the Line of Demarcation in the Treaty?
The Line of Demarcation was a key element of the Treaty of Tordesillas. It was an imaginary line drawn north to south on a map, approximately 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Lands discovered to the west of this line would belong to Spain, while those to the east would belong to Portugal.
Bibliography
1. Roland Chardon, “The linear league in North America“, (1980).
2. Horst Pietschmann, Atlantic history: history of the Atlantic System 1580–1830, (2002).
September 4, 2022
Croesus: The Last King of Lydia, the Happiest Man Ever Lived
Croesus reigned as the last king of Lydia, an ancient nation located in Asia Minor, sometime between 560 and 546 BC. After a brief conflict with one of his half-brothers, he was able to take control of the majority of the Greek colonies that had been established along the coast. These victories gained him a great deal of loot, which led to his becoming infamously wealthy and giving rise to the well-known idiom “Rich as Croesus.”
The tale states that the wise man from Athens, known as Solon, made a trip to the capital city of Lydia, known as Sardis. Croesus questioned him about whether or not a person who had such riches might be thought of as the happiest of all mankind. The response from Solon was as follows: “Count no man happy until the end is known.” After a rule of around eleven years, Croesus was confronted with the devastating danger of the Persians and the downfall of his kingdom.
The Circumstances Surrounding Croesus’ Rule
Croesus and Solon by Gerard van Honthorst (1592-1656)
The Histories of Herodotus are the primary source for almost all of the information that we have about Croesus. This historian is a contemporary of the last conflicts of the Middle Ages (490–479 before our era). He is an essential witness to the struggle that arose between the Greeks and the Persian Empire of Xerxes, and he sets for himself the objective of tracing the origins of that conflict.
He remembers the life of Croesus, the first king of Asia Minor, who strove to dominate the Greek people by using the tales and testimony he acquired throughout his journeys. He gathered these tales and testimonies.
The “father of history,” Herodotus, suggests that the claim of the Persians to dominate Ionia, which includes the coast of southern Asia Minor (with cities such as Ephesus or Miletus) as well as the islands (Chios and Samos), was the cause of the battles that broke out throughout the Middle Ages. The kingdom of Croesus, which was situated in Lydia, a little farther north and inland, was next to this location. Lydia’s capital was called Sardis.
King Croesus’ ultimate goal was to consolidate even more power in his hands. According to Herodotus, this makes him “the first of the barbarians who had dealings with the Greeks, forcing some of them to become his tributaries, and entering into alliance with others.”
Croesus’ Wealth
The map of Ionia and Lydia around 50 AD. (Credit: Caliniuc, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 4.0)
The myth’s tale explains this declaration of reality. Croesus was the king of Lydia in the year 561 because it was his great-great-grandfather Gyges, who was the bodyguard of King Candaules, who killed his master and took authority by marrying the queen. Croesus is said to have inherited the throne through Gyges. The Oracle of Delphi, however, predicted that the descendants of Candaules would have their payback in the fifth generation, and Croesus belonged to this generation. He did not appear to be concerned by the prophecy, but he was unable to ignore it.
His overbearing desire is matched only by his abilities, and he immediately begins a series of missions against the Greek towns of Ionia and Insula. These expeditions are met with immediate success. In this way, he was able to successfully annex enormous territory to his state. The wealth that Croesus amassed came from several sources, including plundering, the selling of artifacts and people as slaves, tributes, and taxes.
The city that served as his capital, Sardis, rose to prominence during his rule. He constructed lavish palates there and made uncounted subsidies available to draw in a huge number of poets, thinkers, and painters.
The Lydians’ wealth seemed to have no limit, and Croesus established his rule over the whole Mediterranean basin in financial matters. In the ancient world, the ability to manipulate money was a particularly political privilege that demonstrated the independence of each state. On the other hand, Croesus’ financial situation was incomparably better than that of the other nations, to the point that his monetary standard was universally adopted. As a result, he earned the reputation of being a powerful person, particularly the wealthiest man of his time.
A Warning by Solon
Solon before Croesus, by Nikolaus Knüpfer (1609–1655).
Is it possible that his unending wealth has caused him to lose his mind? Croesus believed that he was the best and happiest man alive, and he once said this about himself. But a warning was given to him when a figure who had been drawn to the splendors of the court emerged in Sardis.
This character was the famed lawmaker Solon, who is believed to be the founding father of the democratic system in Athens. Given that he invited him to his palace and showed him his wealth and jewels, Croesus was not without naivety.
After traveling across all of Anatolia and into Egypt, Solon eventually arrived at the palace of Croesus in Sardis. After that, Croesus asked him, “You have lived long in the world, and have visited many countries. Tell me whom you consider to be the happiest man living?”
The sage Athenian then provided the following response: “You are, I see, very rich, and you rule over many subjects; but I cannot answer you until I hear that your death was a good one. The rich man is by no means happier than the man who lives from day to day, if the favor of fate does not remain faithful enough for him to end his career in full prosperity. In all things we must consider the end, for too many men heaven has shown happiness, only to destroy them altogether.”
The Fall of Croesus
Battle of Thymbra, and the defeat of Croesus, 546 BC.
Following this series of events, it seems that fate dealt Croesus a challenging hand. He received a warning in a dream that his son Atys, the commander of his forces, would perish from an iron spear wound. Despite all of the measures that were taken, the prophecy was certainly carried out: Atys was slain as a result of an accident that occurred while he was hunting.
After that, Croesus was put in a position where he had to make an important choice. When confronted with the expansion of Cyrus’s Persian Empire, he waffled between the options of dialogue and open conflict. In the end, he traveled to Delphi to seek guidance from the legendary oracle there, but not before lavishing the sacred site with gifts beforehand.
These gifts included golden vases and cups, purple garments and tunics, silver jars, and craters, and even 117 bricks made entirely of gold. Croesus was certain that the god Apollo would look favorably upon him as a result of this gesture of generosity. The Oracle, on the other hand, was fraught with a great deal of obscurity since it predicted nothing more than the fall of a tremendous kingdom.
But which one was it? Croesus assumed immediately that it was the Persians, and he launched an attack. However, he suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of his enemy, the Persians. Not long after the initial Battle of Thymbra, the Persians unexpectedly invaded Sardes, and Croesus was taken prisoner. As he was about to be burned at the stake and saw his city being destroyed, he had time to think about what the wise man Solon had said about how fragile human life is.
Croesus on Pyre, attic red figure amphora, c. 500–490 BC.
Cyrus, however, felt curious to witness Croesus repeating the name of Solon while the flames were growing toward him. As a result, he ordered the fire to be put out so that Croesus might explain the story. Cyrus felt compassion for him, first out of pity and then out of friendship. He was worried by the tale, fearing that if he sacrificed his victim, eventually the same might happen to him. He most likely did not return the king’s throne to Croesus but instead appointed him as an advisor. The abduction committed by the wealthiest man in the world’s great-great-grandfather nearly caused him to pay a terrible price.
FAQs
What was Croesus’ background, and how did he come to power in Lydia?
Croesus was born into the Mermnad dynasty, which had ruled Lydia for several generations. He inherited the throne from his father, Alyattes, and went on to expand the Lydian empire through conquest and diplomacy. Economic growth and cultural exchange with surrounding regions were hallmarks of his reign.
What was the significance of Croesus’ wealth, and how did it contribute to his downfall?
Croesus was famous for his immense wealth, which he accumulated through trade and conquest. However, his riches also made him a target for other rulers, including Cyrus the Great of Persia. When Croesus went to war with the Persian Empire, he was defeated and captured, and his wealth was plundered. This led to the end of the Lydian empire and marked the beginning of Persian dominance in the region.
How did Croesus’ reign influence the development of Greek culture and philosophy?
Croesus was known for his patronage of the arts and his support of intellectual inquiry. He welcomed philosophers, poets, and scholars to his court, and his reign is often seen as a golden age of intellectual and cultural exchange. Many Greek philosophers, including Herodotus and Xenophon, wrote about Croesus and his reign, and his legacy continues to inspire scholarship and artistic expression today.
What was the significance of the Battle of Pteria, and how did it shape the political landscape of the ancient world?
The Battle of Pteria was a key conflict between the Lydian and Persian empires that took place in 547 BCE. It was fought near the border between the two empires, and resulted in a decisive victory for the Persians. This battle marked the end of the Lydian empire and the beginning of Persian domination of the region, which would shape the political and cultural landscape of the ancient world for centuries to come.
References
Jona Lendering, “Alyattes of Lydia”. (2003)
James Allan Stewart Evans. “What Happened to Croesus?”. (1978)
Robert W. Wallace “Redating Croesus: Herodotean Chronologies, and the Dates of the Earliest Coinages”. (2016)
September 4, 2022
Nicolas Fouquet: Lavish Ambition for the Throne Led to a Tragedy
The French politician Nicolas Fouquet (1615–1680) was born into a rich bourgeois family, and his father had become a nobleman with the acquisition of a government post. Cardinal Mazarin, the Chief Minister, named Nicolas Fouquet Superintendent of Finance on February 7, 1653. A few years after reaching the pinnacle of his success, he dramatically fell from grace due to his involvement with personal gain.
Nicolas Fouquet, born in 1615, was originally intended for the church, but he rebelled and chose another route. His father gave in and secured him a seat as a counselor in the Parliament of Metz. When he was sixteen, this was his first job. Then, in 1636, he obtained one of the Master of Requests positions, which were established to raise money for the war that had been proclaimed against Spain. Given that he wasn’t 32 years old yet, Nicolas Fouquet was granted an exemption. Four years later, in 1641, he graduated with a law degree.
Nicolas Fouquet had a quick career: in 1642, he became intendant of justice, police, and finances in the army of Marshal de Châtillon in Flanders; in 1644, intendant of justice, police, and finances in Dauphiné; three years later, intendant in the army of Picardy; in 1648, intendant of the generality of Paris; and in 1650, at the age of thirty-five, he bought the office of attorney general of the Parliament, which he sold in August 1661, on the sneaky advice of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, a trusted man of Jules Mazarin, who was brought to the service of King Louis XIV after Mazarin’s death. So, after that Fouquet was no longer the subject of the Parliament.
To what heights can I not rise?
The Fouquet family motto was “Quo non ascendet?” (To what heights can I not rise?) and in 1653, Nicolas Fouquet became the great treasurer of the kingdom of France, which was the pinnacle of his professional career.
On February 7, 1653, he was named Superintendent of Finances at the age of 38. He could only hope to reach this position, as it was his ultimate goal. Although he was sought for the job after the death of the superintendent, he owed his appointment to his brother Basil, who was considered “a puppet” of Jules Mazarin, the young Louis XIV’s Chief Minister. However, Abel Servien, a more senior man, was chosen by the cardinal Mazarin to counteract Fouquet’s ambition. But Fouquet became the only supervisor when Servien passed away in 1659.
The holder of this high position had to meet the daily requirements of the state, which had been living on credit since 1635 and was deeply in debt. Nicolas Fouquet appealed to groups of creditors and lenders. Those in the financial industry who had faith in Nicolas Fouquet helped him build up a sizable network. Additionally, he made loans to the government at usurious interest rates, using the riches his father left him in 1640.
However, since the requirements of the French state were so crucial, he had to mortgage his possessions in the end. He played the affluent yet racked up significant debt for both the kingdom and his private spending (real estate acquisitions, maritime ambition, etc.). When Cardinal Mazarin passed away in March 1661, he had aspirations of becoming Chief Minister after rising to prominence in the French kingdom. He failed to see that the times had changed: Louis XIV was now preferring to rule without the assistance of a Chief Minister.
The Design of Versailles Was Inspired by His Chateau, Vaux-Le-Vicomte
Engraving showing Nicolas Fouquet’s Vaux-le-Vicomte chateau, which he owned as Louis XIV’s financial administrator.
Between the royal palaces of Vincennes and Fontainebleau, near Vaux-le-Vicomte, Nicolas Fouquet acquired a castle in terrible condition in February 1641. He expanded the estate via purchases in an effort to turn it into a luxurious residence. He commissioned the works from the best artists of the time. Above all, he enlisted the services of a triumvirate with a good reputation: Charles Le Brun (painter, in charge of interior decoration), André Le Nôtre (landscaper), and Louis le Vau (architect).
He pushed them to think beyond the box to create a distinctive ensemble. It was a success. Vaux-le-Vicomte is a marvel of architecture and landscape design, with viewpoints, terraces, waterfalls, basins, statues, the first formal gardens, and lavish interior ornamentation. Their skills would subsequently be put to use at Versailles by King Louis XIV.
France’s finance minister Fouquet had thrown a party in August of 1661 with a gala dinner, fireworks display, stage performance, and raffle to celebrate the opening of his beautiful new château (palace) Vaux-le-Vicomte. The guest of honor, King Louis XIV (1638–1715), envied the château so much that his face changed color from embarrassment, as if he was going to vomit.
Up to that point, Fouquet (1615–1680) had accomplished a significant amount of success in his life. Furthermore, he was just making predictions for the future of the office. Ultimately, he aimed for the position of Chief Minister. He’d be second only to Louis XIV in terms of authority if this happened. But Fouquet’s career came to an unexpected end after he put on the beautiful “fête,” or party, called Fouquet’s Fall today.
Ambitions of Becoming a Chief Minister
During the lavish celebration on August 17, 1661, in his castle of Vaux-le-Vicomte, Nicolas Fouquet welcomes Louis XIV.
On August 17, 1661, Nicolas Fouquet held the famous opening ceremony for his chateau, Vaux-le-Vicomte. He was a very influential figure in France at the time. He had become the government’s top lawyer and attorney general. His expectations were higher, however. In March of that year, Prime Minister Jules Mazarin (1602–1661), who had long ruled over state matters for the infant Louis XIV together with the Queen Mother, passed away. Mazarin’s departure has resulted in a political vacuum and complicated state finances. He and Fouquet were probably the only ones who knew who had authorized which funds, taken out loans, and paid them back. Fouquet’s fortune and the state’s treasury were not always clearly separated.
With Mazarin’s death, a key position in the government was left unfilled. Fouquet strongly suggested that the young monarch, King Louis XIV, name him as his heir, but the King did not agree. Louis had doubts about the self-assured newcomer. The King then announced, to widespread astonishment, that he intended to become a one-man government, eliminating the position of Chief Minister. Fouquet, like many of his fellow courtiers and politicians, thought that the King would soon abandon politics in favor of parties, hunting, and ladies. To be on the safe side, however, Fouquet did all in his power to discourage Louis from going through with it.
He intended to prepare a lavish banquet for the king. He was well aware that the House of Bourbon frequently credited a successful party with a promotion. Fouquet leaned in and gave it his all. A grandiose party was due in three weeks, and he was scrambling to pull it off. Nothing could go wrong since all the artists in his court were participating in the preparations.
The Danger of Wild Animals
Lion and Serpent (Lion au Serpent) (Image: Met Museum)
Fouquet planned a lavish dinner for Louis XIV, complete with 30 buffets, golden dinnerware, a theater, a raffle, and, of course, fireworks. The Sun King, however, was not in the least bit captivated. Only at royal festivities or significant triumphs were pyrotechnics permitted, and Fouquet had two fireworks displays that lit up the night sky. The King felt humiliated and intimidated by the event’s pomp and extravagant wealth. He started to believe that Fouquet was yearning for the throne. The only thing that could be said for sure was that Louis was completely over himself.
The Fronde, an uprising of nobles and parliament against the royal family from 1648 to 1653, occurred during Louis XIV’s childhood. He had dethroned the nobility of the sword and surrounded himself with courtiers to avoid another coup d’état by the nobles. But the bourgeoisie grew stronger because they could now buy offices and rise to the ranks of official nobility. Fouquet was such a citizen; rich, cultured, and ambitious. And to show that his ambition was not yet satisfied, Fouquet did not skimp on meaningful symbolism at his party.
Squirrels, which were important to the Fouquet family, were shown all over the castle, from the outside to the allegorical paintings. The motto “Quo non ascendet?” (To what heights can I not rise?) was inscribed on the family’s coat of arms. A painting of a squirrel interacting with a lion and a snake was perhaps the most intriguing thing for the Sun King.
The lions and snakes were symbols that one had to be careful with. Even before La Fontaine began concealing moral teachings in animal fables, this was common knowledge among contemporary people. The lion had always been seen as a strong leader, while the snake was seen as the lion’s sneaky advisor. The snake and the lion got together to eliminate the squirrel. Since Mazarin’s death, royal adviser Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683), whose coat of arms depicted a snake, had grown closer to the King. He, too, wanted to be Chief Minister, but Fouquet, a financial juggler and arts patron, was standing in his way.
One day, Colbert presented the King with an allegation that Fouquet had fortified the domain of Belle-Ile. Colbert claimed that his spy, disguised as a merchant, returned with the news and that Fouquet had a garrison of 200 men and a formidable arsenal (400 cannons, 3 or 4 warships, etc.). Louis XIV decided to arrest Fouquet at Nantes in the Estates of Brittany.
Colbert worked as a clerical assistant at the court. He had meticulously documented Fouquet’s misbehavior for quite some time. An opportunity presented itself after the feast when Louis XIV was boiling with jealousy. Colbert then gave the king his list. Nicolas Fouquet was among them.
He was taken into custody six weeks after the Vaux-le-Vicomte fireworks incident. Embezzling state money and committing high treason were the charges. Finally, after a three-year trial, the judges handed down a life sentence for Fouquet. His fortress was sealed up. But before that, the Sun King had the artwork, tapestries, and even trees inside the Vaux-le-Vicomte moved to his court, and he even brought the painters to himself. He was transforming his father’s former hunting lodge at Versailles into a home, and so he required the services of architects and painters like Le Vau, Le Brun, and Le Nôtre to pull it off.
A Protracted Trial That Was More Political Than Legal
Nicolas Fouquet was detained on King Louis XIV’s orders on September 5, 1661, at Nantes by D’Artagnan.
Nicolas Fouquet was accused of both lese-majesty (the insulting of a monarch; treason) and participating in a conspiracy against the royal authority. This included financial misconduct while performing his official duties. He was put on trial before an unusual court. Colbert and Louis XIV wanted this matter to be resolved soon, but more than three years passed due to the inquiry, legal disputes, and public arguments.
Additionally, things were not done in accordance with the rules: following Colbert’s orders, investigators fabricated papers; crucial witnesses were not heard; Nicolas Fouquet was held in isolation as a prisoner. Not to mention that the ingenious financial structures made it difficult to uncover proof. Additionally, since he was a smart, competent jurist, and lawyer, Fouquet defended himself and interfered with the trial.
Despite managing to save his life, Nicolas Fouquet was found guilty of embezzlement of public funds on December 22, 1664. Fouquet received the punishment of exile and property seizure. But Louis XIV raised the punishment to life in prison. For 26 years, Nicolas Fouquet was imprisoned in the Pignerol Fort. While waiting for his release, he died there in 1680.
The Lavish Celebration of August 17, 1661: The Fallacy of Grandeur
Nicolas Fouquet was also a great patron of the arts. And he supported the authors of the time like Madame Sevigne, La Fayette, Molière, Corneille, La Fontaine, and Charles Perrault. They were all affected by the folly of grandeur in his projects and his choices. Influential and powerful, he wanted to impress the gallery and please Louis XIV to win over the monarch. He had planned a celebration of unparalleled splendor just for this in his castle of Vaux-le-Vicomte in the summer of 1661. The feast he had prepared was of a magnificence never equaled until then, which left Louis XIV feeling humiliated.
Water jets shot out of basins and fountains as the carriages went by. He requested the famous majordomo François Vatel for supper, and he provided a meal that contained both savory and sweet foods. Les Fâcheux, an original comedy by Molière, was commissioned just for the occasion. As a result, he produced a comedy-ballet with musical interludes that would become highly popular with Louis XIV a few years later. This piece’s music had the Lully signature. And to cap off this very successful night, Nicolas Fouquet provided enormous fireworks, which were directed by Italian expert Torelli. The event was flawless, and charming for everyone in attendance.
According to legend, Louis XIV’s jealousy led him to decide to remove Fouquet, the director of finance, following this celebration. This is untrue, however, since the King chose to have this strong and troublesome person arrested in May. Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who wished to see Fouquet executed, was successful in persuading the monarch that the superintendent had committed misconduct. This was also because Fouquet was his rival for becoming Chief Minister.
On September 5, 1661, D’Artagnan, the captain lieutenant of the musketeers, captured Nicolas Fouquet in Nantes according to the king’s instructions. And on September 15, Louis XIV disbanded the Superintendence and replaced it with a Royal Council of Finance.
FAQ
What were Nicolas Fouquet’s main achievements as superintendent of finances?
As superintendent of finances, Nicolas Fouquet implemented several reforms that helped to modernize and centralize the French economy. He established a system of tax collection and introduced measures to regulate public spending. He also oversaw the construction of several public works projects, including canals and fortifications.
How did Nicolas Fouquet’s patronage of the arts and architecture influence the cultural life of France?
Nicolas Fouquet was a major patron of the arts and architecture, commissioning works by some of the most celebrated artists of his time. He was especially associated with the development of the classical French style, which was characterized by simplicity, order, and symmetry. His support for the arts helped to promote French cultural identity and establish the country’s reputation as a center of artistic excellence.
What were the circumstances of Nicolas Fouquet’s arrest and trial?
Nicolas Fouquet’s arrest and trial were triggered by his lavish spending on the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte, which was seen as a challenge to the authority of King Louis XIV. Although there is little evidence to support the charges of embezzlement that were brought against him, Fouquet was found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment. He spent the rest of his life in prison, where he wrote poetry and continued to receive visitors and correspondence.
How did Nicolas Fouquet’s downfall reflect the political and social tensions of the 17th century?
Nicolas Fouquet’s downfall reflected the political and social tensions of the 17th century, which were characterized by a struggle for power between the monarchy and the nobility. Fouquet was seen as a representative of the old nobility, which was perceived as a threat to the authority of the king. His trial was also influenced by religious and philosophical debates, as he was associated with the libertine movement, which advocated for individual freedom and artistic expression.
What was Nicolas Fouquet’s legacy in French cultural and political history?
Nicolas Fouquet’s legacy in French cultural and political history is complex and contested. On the one hand, he is remembered as a symbol of the excess and corruption of the old regime, whose downfall helped to consolidate the power of King Louis XIV. On the other hand, he is celebrated as a patron of the arts and architecture, whose vision and taste helped to shape the cultural identity of France. His life and career continue to inspire debate and discussion among historians and cultural critics.
What was the significance of the famous “Fête des Vaux” held by Nicolas Fouquet in 1661, and how did it contribute to his downfall?
The “Fête des Vaux” was a lavish party held by Nicolas Fouquet at his estate in Vaux-le-Vicomte in 1661. The party was attended by many members of the French court, and was widely seen as a display of Fouquet’s wealth and power. However, the party also drew the attention of King Louis XIV, who was jealous of Fouquet’s success and began to investigate his finances. This eventually led to Fouquet’s arrest and imprisonment.
References
Andrew Lossky, The Seventeenth Century: 1600-1715 (1967).
Jacques De Maupeou, La Mère De Fouquet (1949).
Inès Murat, Colbert (1980).
September 4, 2022
Johann Philipp Reis: Invented the First Telephone in History
September 4, 2022
George Dantzig: The Story of The Overlooked Genius
In 1939, George Bernard Dantzig, a doctorate candidate at the University of California, Berkeley, arrived a few minutes late to Jerzy Neyman’s statistics lecture while there were two homework problems posted on the board. He wrote them down and spent many days figuring out the answers. He was unaware that these were really two well-known statistics theorems that had never been proved before, not just regular exercise problems.
Dantzig subsequently said in an interview that:
A few days later I apologized to Neyman for taking so long to do the homework—the problems seemed to be a little harder than usual. I asked him if he still wanted it. He told me to throw it on his desk. I did so reluctantly because his desk was covered with such a heap of papers that I feared my homework would be lost there forever. About six weeks later, one Sunday morning about eight o’clock, we were awakened by someone banging on our front door. It was Neyman. He rushed in with papers in hand, all excited: “I’ve just written an introduction to one of your papers. Read it so I can send it out right away for publication.” For a minute I had no idea what he was talking about. To make a long story short, the problems on the blackboard that I had solved thinking they were homework were in fact two famous unsolved problems in statistics.
The most renowned statistician in the world at the time, Neyman, was then asked by Dantzig the next year what subject he should choose for his doctoral thesis. Neyman shrugged and said, “Just put your treatments of the two issues in a folder.” He would accept it as a doctoral thesis.
Dantzig’s Early Life
The eldest child of Tobias Dantzig and Anja Ourisson, George Bernard Dantzig was born in Portland, Oregon. The parents had met while attending Henri Poincaré lectures at the Sorbonne in Paris, where they were both students.
They moved to the United States after getting married, where Tobias Dantzig, a native of Lithuania, had to start out by working odd jobs like a road builder and a lumberjack due to language barriers before obtaining a Ph.D. in mathematics from Indiana University; his wife took the master’s degree in French.
The parents thought that their children would have better chances in life if they were given the first names of famous people. Thus, the younger boy was given the first name Henri (after Henri Poincaré) in the hopes that he would one day become a mathematician, while the elder son was given the name George Bernard in the hopes that he would one day become a writer (like George Bernard Shaw).
The father taught mathematics at different institutions, including Johns Hopkins (Baltimore, Maryland), Columbia University (New York), and the University of Maryland, while the mother worked at the Library of Congress in Washington, DC. A book he released in 1930 on the history of the evolution of mathematics, Number – The Language of Science, has been reissued several times (most recently in 2005).
Dantzig continued to struggle with arithmetic in the early grades, but owing to his father’s daily assignment training regimen, particularly in geometry, Dantzig finally received top marks.
George Dantzig started his mathematical studies at the University of Maryland because, despite the fact that both of his parents were employed, the family did not have enough money to finance his studies in physics and mathematics at a prestigious university.
George Dantzig moved to the University of Michigan after receiving a bachelor’s degree, where he went on to complete his graduate studies in 1937. He subsequently accepted a position at the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and participated in research on urban consumers’ purchasing habits after becoming weary of abstract mathematics.
Dantzig Was a Heartfelt Statistician
Dantzig first became interested in statistical concerns and techniques while working in this position. He requested Jerzy Neyman’s permission in 1939 to attend his PhD studies at the University of California, Berkeley (with a “teaching assistantship”). And thus, one day, the event that was described above occurred.
The PhD program was still in progress when the United States joined World War II. Dantzig relocated to Washington, D.C., and accepted a post as the director of the Statistical Control Division at the headquarters of the U.S. Air Force. He discovered that the military’s knowledge of the real inventory of aircraft and equipment was insufficient.
He devised a method to collect the necessary data in detail, particularly to make a thorough contract award, including the need for nuts and bolts.
Dantzig briefly returned to Berkeley after the war, where he eventually received his degree. Not simply for financial reasons but also because he preferred the chances and challenges of working for the Air Force, he declined an offer from the university to continue working there.
Dantzig saw the need to dynamize this rather static model and was motivated by the input-output analysis approach of the Russian-American mathematician Wassily Leontief, who had a position at Harvard University in Cambridge starting in 1931. Additionally, he aimed to improve it to the point where hundreds or even thousands of actions and locations could be recorded and optimized; at the time, this was a fascinating computing hurdle.
Dantzig’s Advancements in Military Planning
George Dantzig, Anne Dantzig, and President Gerald Ford (National Medal of Honor ceremony, 1971).
While employed by the Pentagon, Dantzig came to the conclusion that many planning choices were based solely on experience rather than objective criteria, yielding less than ideal outcomes. Linear inequalities are often used to characterize the requirements (restrictions), and specifying an objective function establishes the purpose of optimization, such as maximizing profit or decreasing resource consumption.
In English, the planning technique created by Dantzig is known as “linear programming,” where “programming” refers not to programming in the modern meaning of the word but rather to the phrase used in the military for the planning of procedures. The selected linear function modeling is referred to as being “linear.”
A half-plane in two dimensions and a half-space in three dimensions are both defined by a linear inequality. Convex polygons or convex polyhedrons are produced when many inequalities are taken into account; in the n-dimensional case, the corresponding convex structure is known as a “simplex”.
The so-called Simplex Algorithm, which Dantzig created in 1947, is a systematic approach for computing the best answer. Dantzig himself said of it: “The tremendous power of the simplex method is a constant surprise to me.”
The creation of the simplex algorithm, a technique for resolving linear programming problems, is widely regarded as one of Dantzig’s most important accomplishments. The goal of linear programming is to maximize a linear objective function within a set of linear constraints using a mathematical approach. The simplex algorithm has had a significant influence on many fields, including business, economics, and engineering, as a tool for tackling problems in linear programming.
His work on duality in linear programming is a cornerstone of modern optimization theory. To describe the association between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables, he also made significant contributions to the statistical procedure known as linear regression. George Dantzig is called “the father of linear programming” for that.
He Wasn’t Seen Worthy of the Nobel Prize
George Dantzig
When Dantzig visited Princeton University to speak with John von Neumann towards the end of the year, the algorithm saw its first refinement. This bright mathematician and computer scientist quickly saw similarities between the methods he and Oskar Morgenstern outlined in their newly released book, “The Theory of Games,” (1944) and the linear optimization approach.
The search techniques have significantly improved over time, notably with the advent of computer use. Although other strategies, such as nonlinear modeling, were also studied, Dantzig’s “linear programming” technique was finally proven to be adequate.
Tjalling C. Koopmans, professor of research in economics at the University of Chicago, realized the value of linear planning from an economic perspective after speaking with Dantzig. His famous theory on the optimal use of exhaustible resources was born out of this. To the surprise of everyone in the field, Dantzig was left unaccomplished when Koopmans received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1975, together with the Russian mathematician Leonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich, who had earlier proposed comparable methods in 1939. But it took the West two decades to learn about them. Dantzig, who was always kind to his fellow men, handled this with remarkable perseverance, demonstrating his high degree of expertise.
Dantzig went to the RAND Corporation in Santa Monica in 1952 to continue developing computerized execution of processes after his work with the Air Force. He established the Operations Research Center after accepting a post at Berkeley’s Department of Industrial Engineering in 1960.
When it was first published in 1963 by Princeton University Press, his book Linear Programming and Extensions established the field of linear optimization. Dantzig began working at Stanford in 1966, when he also established the Systems Optimization Lab (SOL). He oversaw a total of 41 PhD students over the course of more than 30 years; all of them had bright futures in academia and the workplace after receiving their degrees from Dantzig.
Dantzig has received multiple honorary degrees and memberships in academies in recognition of his significant scientific accomplishments, including the National Medal of Science and the John von Neumann Theory Prize. The George B. Dantzig Prize is given every three years by the Mathematical Optimization Society (MOS) and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM) in recognition of the scientist and his achievements.
His health quickly deteriorated shortly after a celebration of his 90th birthday in 2004; a diabetes condition mixed with cardiovascular issues ultimately caused his death.
The Two Unsolved Homework Problems That George Dantzig Solved
The doctoral student George Bernard Dantzig came late to Jerzy Neyman’s statistics lecture in 1939, when two homework assignments were already written on the board. He put them in writing and spent many days trying to solve them. To him, these seemed like ordinary math exercises, but upon further investigation, he discovered that they were, in fact, proofs of two well-known theorems in statistics that had never been proven previously.
1. “On the Non-Existence of Tests of “Student’s” Hypothesis Having Power Functions Independent of σ”, 1940
In the paper, Dantzig investigates whether or not the power function (i.e., the likelihood of rejecting the null hypothesis) of the statistical test for the “Student’s” hypothesis (commonly known as the t-test) can be designed to be independent of the standard deviation of the population (σ).
The “Student’s” hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis test used to evaluate whether the means of two populations are substantially different from each other; it was named after the statistician William Sealy Gosset, who wrote under the pseudonym “Student.” A common statistical procedure for comparing the means of two samples, the t-test is based on the “Student’s” hypothesis and has extensive use.
Dantzig demonstrated that a power function independent of σ cannot be designed for a statistical test of the “Student’s” hypothesis. He then explained his results and gave evidence for them. The study has received several citations because of its significance for the development of statistical theory.
2. “On the Fundamental Lemma of Neyman and Pearson”, 1951
In 1951, George Dantzig published an article in the Annals of Mathematical Statistics titled “On the Fundamental Lemma of Neyman and Pearson.” As a result of statistical theory, Neyman and Pearson’s fundamental lemma has to do with the power of statistical tests, which Dantzig proves in his article.
Neyman and Pearson’s “fundamental lemma” is a universal conclusion that establishes a connection between the null and alternative hypotheses in a statistical test. If the null hypothesis holds, then the likelihood of detecting a test statistic that is more extreme than a specified value (the critical value) is proportional to the sample size of the test. If the null hypothesis is correct, then the test’s power (the probability of rejecting the null) will be proportional to the test size.
Dantzig provides a demonstration of Neyman and Pearson’s fundamental lemma and examines how this finding has practical consequences for statistical testing in his work. The study has again received a lot of attention for its groundbreaking addition to statistical theory.
George Dantzig, the Real Good Will Hunting
A scene from the Good Will Hunting movie with the character inspired by George Dantzig,
The American drama film “Good Will Hunting,” starring Matt Damon and Robin Williams, was directed by Gus Van Sant and released in 1997. Will Hunting, a young guy from South Boston who is a math prodigy yet works as a janitor at MIT, is the protagonist of this film. An MIT professor sees potential in Will, encourages him to pursue mathematics, and ultimately helps him conquer his own personal issues.
A memorable scene from Good Will Hunting has Matt Damon’s character, a janitor at a university, tackling an almost impossible graph problem on a chalkboard. Certain details were changed for dramatic effect, but the basic tale is based on real events related to George Dantzig. One day, future renowned mathematician George Dantzig was running late to his statistics class when he saw two statistical questions written on the whiteboard and assumed they were homework assignments. Dantzig later casually solved the long-unsolved problems of statistics.
George Dantzig’s Discoveries and Contributions
George Dantzig made important contributions to operations research and mathematical modeling. These are the important discoveries and contributions he made that bear mentioning:
- The simplex algorithm: In particular, Dantzig is lauded for creating the simplex algorithm, a standard technique for resolving linear programming issues. If you have a linear objective function and linear constraints, the simplex method may help you find the best solution.
- The theory of duality in linear programming: Dantzig established a cornerstone notion in optimization theory known as the principle of duality in linear programming. The best solution to a linear programming problem can be found with the help of duality theory, which establishes a link between the original problem and its dual problem.
- Contributions to linear regression: Dantzig’s contributions to the field of linear regression are substantial. Linear regression is a statistical technique for modeling the association between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables, and Dantzig made significant contributions to this area.
- Work on the transportation problem: Dantzig also did important work in the area of transportation problems, a kind of linear programming issue that includes determining the best possible route for resources to take between different points on a map.
When taken as a whole, Dantzig’s contributions to the fields of mathematics and computer science were influential and shaped the manner in which modern corporations and organizations use mathematical modeling to address difficult issues.
References
Joe Holley (2005). “Obituaries of George Dantzig”.
Donald J. Albers. (1990). “More Mathematical People: Contemporary Conversations“
On the Fundamental Lemma of Neyman and Pearson – Projecteuclid.org
On the Non-Existence of Tests of “Student’s” Hypothesis Having Power Functions Independent of σ – Projecteuclid.org
Dantzig, George (1940). “On the non-existence of tests of “Student’s” hypothesis having power functions independent of σ“
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