Charles V (1500-1558) is famous for being one of the most powerful rulers in Europe, reigning over the Netherlands, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. Master of an immense empire over which “the sun never set,” the history of Charles V is unlike any other. Not only was he the first monarch to have a colonial empire in the newly discovered Amerindian continent, but he also benefited from a series of inheritances that placed him at the head of an immense domain in Europe. Throughout his reign, Charles V had to fight against France in the Italian Wars, the Ottoman Empire which invaded Eastern Europe, and the Protestant Reformation emerging in Germany.
The Inheritances of Charles V
The future Charles V was born in 1500 in Ghent, Flanders, not favored by nature but with a silver spoon in his mouth. French-speaking, he was steeped in the Burgundian tradition of the wealthy states of his father, Philip the Handsome, Duke of Burgundy, whose inheritance he received in 1506—Belgium, Artois, Luxembourg, southern Holland, and Franche-Comté. His maternal grandparents were none other than Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, the “Catholic Monarchs,” renowned for completing the Reconquista of Spain from the Moors, ruling over the Mediterranean, and overseeing the conquest of the New World initiated by Christopher Columbus in 1492.
Charles V definitively inherited their lands in 1518, adopting the title Charles I of Spain. After sidelining his depressive mother, Joanna the Mad, he also faced resistance from the Spanish, who were not pleased with the arrival of a Burgundian ruler.
To top it all off, upon the death of his grandfather, Emperor Maximilian I, he became Archduke of Austria, paving the way for his succession to the crown of the Holy Roman Empire, a crown he secured through considerable bribes to the prince-electors in 1519. His rivals, Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England, clearly saw the danger that this too well-born Charles posed to the balance of power in Europe and did not give him much respite.
Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire
Undoubtedly the most powerful ruler in Christendom, Charles V dominated a vast territory including the Spanish kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, the Italian states of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, the conquered territories in the Americas and Africa, the Netherlands, Flanders, Artois, Alsace, Franche-Comté, as well as the entire Habsburg possession. Faced with this new Habsburg power, the French ruler feared for his encircled lands.
In reality, the unity of such an empire was only theoretical, as Charles, whose education was steeped in French and Catholic tradition, remained a foreigner in Spain, and even more so in Germany. This difficulty in uniting such vast possessions under one name was quickly understood by Francis I, who sought to exploit Charles V’s weakness.
Charles V versus Francis I
Charles V, who married Isabella of Portugal in 1526, ruled both the New World and the Old. His possessions and origins made him, above all, a European monarch. It was said that he spoke to men in French, to women in Italian, to God in Spanish, and to his horse in German. Crowned Emperor in 1520 in Aachen, likely dreaming of a universal empire based in Europe, with his motto—”Always further”—reflecting his ambition. However, his ambition was soon thwarted by numerous obstacles.
To begin with, there was the obstacle of Francis I of France, a “thorn in his side,” as Charles had to traverse exhausting land and sea routes to reach his empire or move his armies. A fierce struggle ensued between the encircled French sovereign and the ambitious Emperor, lasting four decades. Despite some military victories—such as Pavia in 1525—the tenacious king of France did not give in, despite signing the Treaty of Madrid (1526), and both sides exhausted themselves in a series of wars that brought no lasting advantage to either.
Francis I did not relent, and he struck back at Charles V by allying with Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, who posed a serious threat to Habsburg possessions by besieging Vienna in 1529. Charles found solace in adding Bohemia, Milan, and the Netherlands to his possessions but failed in his attempts to establish a foothold in North Africa against the Turks. In 1529, a precarious peace (known as the “Ladies’ Peace”) was negotiated by Louise of Savoy on behalf of the French king and Margaret of Austria for the Emperor, and signed in Cambrai.
Threats to the Empire
During each conflict with France, Charles V sought to hasten peace to focus on defending the Empire from the Ottoman threat, in addition to dealing with internal religious wars. Sultan Suleiman I, after subjugating the Balkan Peninsula, declared war on Hungary in 1526 and won the Battle of Mohács the same year. Three years later, the Turks besieged Vienna. In 1535, the Genoese admiral Andrea Doria, in the service of Charles V, led an expedition in Africa, routing the Turks in Tunis and liberating approximately 20,000 Christian slaves. In 1538, the Holy League was formed by Pope Paul III and the Republic of Venice. The alliance did not last, and in 1547, Ferdinand I, king of Bohemia and Hungary, Charles V’s brother, had to sign a peace treaty with the Turks.
Another threat to the unity of his empire was the religious Reformation, which began and spread under his reign. Since 1517, the ideas of Martin Luther, followed by Calvin, had been spreading throughout Europe, aiming to profoundly change the practices and dogmas of the Church. The Reformation found support among German princes eager to resist the Emperor, who was constantly eroding “Germanic liberties.” They united in 1529 in the Schmalkaldic League. As Holy Roman Emperor and a devout Catholic, Charles V fought fiercely against the Reformation.
Despite a military victory at Mühlberg (1547) over the rebellious Lutheran princes, who were conveniently supported by Francis I, Charles V was powerless to stop the spread of the Reformation in Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. This was even more true because papal authority was very weak at the time, an issue to which Charles himself contributed in his continuous struggles against France in Italy (the sack of Rome in 1526 during the pontificate of Clement VII).
Ultimately, during Charles V’s reign, only the Netherlands experienced a period of growth, largely due to the commercial expansion of port cities such as Amsterdam and Antwerp. A political evolution also took place, with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 recognizing the existence of the Seventeen Provinces as an “indivisible and inalienable” entity.
During his reign, Charles V ruled his territories in the spirit of humanism, with figures like Erasmus, Andreas Vesalius, and Pieter Bruegel the Elder. However, a dark episode occurred when a revolt broke out in Ghent in 1539, incited by the French monarch, and was followed by harsh repression.
A Difficult End to the Reign of Charles V
Little by little, Charles V sees his dream of a Universal Christian Empire fade away. Despite the fabulous riches his ships bring back from the Americas, France prevents him from geographically unifying his empire, whose borders are threatened in the Balkans by the Turks, and he watches helplessly as religious division takes permanent root in Europe. In 1555, weary and worn out by the incessant wars he must fight on all fronts, sick and embittered, Charles V shocks the entire European continent by announcing his intention to abdicate.
It is a rare event, with the last precedent dating back to the Roman Emperor Diocletian. Clear-headed, he divides his vast empire between his brother Ferdinand and his son, the future King of Spain, Philip II. Having left his mark on the 16th century, he withdraws from world affairs to the Monastery of San Jerónimo de Yuste in Extremadura. He dies there on September 21, 1558, of malaria, taking his dream with him…
As a side note, Emperor Charles V almost married Renée of France, daughter of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany, in his youth. One wonders what the fate of Europe might have been if, through the fortune of another fortunate inheritance, Charles V had added France to his collection of crowns through this union…
KEY DATES OF CHARLES V
March 11, 1517: The Emperor Maximilian, Charles of Habsburg, and Francis I Ally in the Treaty of Cambrai
On March 11, 1517, Emperor Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire signed the Treaty of Cambrai with King Francis I of France and Charles V, King of Castile. This alliance stipulated that they would mutually guarantee their possessions and that they would fight together against the Turks. However, the latter clause remained very vague, indicating that none of the three sovereigns were ultimately willing to commit to a war that would have proven very costly against the Turks.
August 3, 1518: Opening of the Diet of Augsburg
The Imperial Diet held in Augsburg began on August 3, 1518, under the reign of Maximilian I. During this session, the emperor unsuccessfully attempted to have his grandson, Charles V, elected King of the Romans. He died a year later, in 1519, and was therefore unable to propose this idea again at subsequent Diets. Emperor Maximilian wanted to propose his grandson because his only son, Philip I of Castile, had died in 1506, apparently of typhoid fever.
June 28, 1519: Charles V Becomes Emperor
Charles I of Spain, aged 19, was proclaimed Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, under the name Charles V. This event marked the beginning of a long rivalry between the Kingdom of France and the Habsburg Empire. The emperor, who ruled an immense territory on which “the sun never set,” would abdicate in 1556 and retire to the monastery of Yuste (Spain). His empire would then be divided between his brother Ferdinand, who would become Emperor of Germany, and his son Philip, who would become King of Spain.
June 7, 1520: The Meeting at the Field of the Cloth of Gold
King Francis I of France and King Henry VIII of England met near Calais (Pas-de-Calais). This meeting was mainly about maintaining the balance of power in Europe and deciding what stance to take regarding the Holy Roman Empire, with Charles V having been elected emperor a year earlier. Now encircled by the emperor’s possessions, Francis I hoped to convince the King of England to form an alliance with France. To achieve this, he displayed all possible luxury and prestige to receive him at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. However, Henry VIII’s rapprochement with Charles V two weeks later erased all the benefits Francis I hoped to gain from this encounter.
February 7, 1522: Treaty of Brussels
On February 7, 1522, the Treaty of Brussels was signed, complementing the Treaty of Worms signed the previous year (1521). This treaty, initiated by Charles V, King of Castile and the Holy Roman Empire, recognized his brother Ferdinand’s possession of the five Habsburg states (Austria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tyrol, and Styria). Ferdinand was then appointed governor of Southern Germany, Tyrol, and Upper Alsace.
April 27, 1522: Francis I’s Defeat at Bicocca
The troops of Francis I, under the command of Lautrec, were defeated by the forces of Charles V at Bicocca. France was then forced to abandon the Duchy of Milan to its worst enemy.
June 19, 1522: Treaty of Windsor
On June 19, 1522, the Treaty of Windsor was signed between Charles V, King of Castile and the Holy Roman Empire, and King Henry VIII of England. This treaty came at the height of the Sixth Italian War (1521-1525), mainly pitting the Kingdom of France against Italy, Spain, and England. It revealed an agreement between the two signatories to invade France.
October 26, 1524: Francis I Takes Milan
The French army, led by King Francis I of France, seized Milan, which belonged to Charles V. The next day, the French laid siege to Pavia, where Francis I would be taken prisoner on February 24, 1525.
February 24, 1525: Francis I is Captured at Pavia
While the French cannons of Genouillac severely damaged the Spanish enemies at Pavia, the king, in his haste and impatience to win, charged at the enemy ranks on horseback. Fearing to injure the king, the French artillery immediately ceased firing. The Spaniards took advantage of this and surrounded the monarch. Francis I’s army was completely massacred, while the king was taken prisoner along with several of his generals. Francis I was imprisoned at the Charterhouse of Pavia and then transferred to Spain, where he became a hostage of Charles V. Thanks to the signing of the Treaty of Madrid on January 14, 1526, he was released in exchange for Burgundy and after renouncing Italy.
January 14, 1526: Francis I Signs the Treaty of Madrid
Prisoner of Charles V since February 1525, Francis I signed the Treaty of Madrid to gain his release. He agreed to cede Burgundy and renounce all his claims to Italy. However, the day after his release, in March 1526, the King of France would disregard all the treaty’s clauses, even though he had left his two sons as hostages in Spain.
March 17, 1526: Francis I’s Release
Prisoner of Charles V since his defeat at Pavia, the King of France was released from his prison in Madrid. The treaty negotiating his release required him to cede Burgundy to the emperor and to send his two sons, Francis and Henry, as hostages. Francis I would quickly renounce this agreement and ally with the Italian princes and the pope in the League of Cognac against Charles V. The war would immediately resume until the Peace of Cambrai in 1529.
May 22, 1526: League of Cognac
On May 22, 1526, under the initiative of Louise of Savoy, mother of King Francis I, who was then imprisoned, a league was formed against Emperor Charles V. This league included Pope Clement VII and Henry VIII of England, as well as the cities of Florence, Milan, and Venice. The League of Cognac marked the beginning of the Seventh Italian War, which would last nearly four years.
May 6, 1527: The Sack of Rome
The troops of Emperor Charles V invaded Rome in retaliation for Pope Clement VII’s alliance with Francis I. For eight days, the city was looted and pillaged.
August 3, 1529: Signing of the Peace of Cambrai
To end the war between France and the Habsburgs, Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of Charles V, signed the Peace of Cambrai, or “Ladies’ Peace.” To seal this agreement, Francis I, a widower for several years, agreed to marry Eleanor of Habsburg, the emperor’s sister. Additionally, he regained Burgundy but again promised to renounce Italy. Finally, in exchange for a large ransom, the king’s two sons were released. However, the king’s resentment would lead to another conflict in 1536.
January 1, 1530: Meeting between Titian and Charles V
Titian was introduced to the emperor during one of his stays in Italy. He then painted his first portrait of the emperor. This meeting marked a turning point in the artist’s career. It was during this period that he devoted himself to creating many portraits, with great innovation and talent. He also had the immense honor of being appointed Count Palatine (the “Counts Palatine” were the only nobles of the Holy Roman Empire with the right to vote in the election of the emperor) and Knight of the Golden Spur by Charles V.
February 23, 1530: Charles V is Crowned by the Pope
On February 23, 1530, Pope Clement VII presented Charles V with the Iron Crown, one of the symbols of the kings of Italy. The next day, Charles V was crowned Emperor of the Romans in Bologna, and he would be the last Roman emperor to be crowned by the pope following the Carolingian tradition. A year later, in January 1531, his brother Ferdinand of Habsburg would be elected King of the Romans.
June 25, 1530: Augsburg Confession
On June 25, 1530, the Augsburg Confession was presented to Charles V during the Diet of Augsburg (the Imperial Diets in Augsburg were assemblies of various leaders of the Holy Roman Empire). This confession was a text that laid the foundations of Lutheranism, initiated by the monk Martin Luther, which gave rise to Protestantism. Written by Philip Melanchthon and Camerarius, the Augsburg Confession contained 28 articles. It was ultimately rejected on August 3, 1530, by Catholic theologians who refuted the text.
February 27, 1531: Formation of the Schmalkaldic League
The Schmalkaldic League was formed on February 27, 1531. The German Protestant princes, led by Philip of Hesse and later by Elector John Frederick of Saxony, revolted against Charles V and the implementation of the Edict of Worms, which sought to ban Lutheranism. Francis I, the great rival of Charles V (allied with the Turks against Austria), signed an alliance treaty with this league, which would lead to the Schmalkaldic War in 1545.
July 23, 1532: Signing of the Peace of Nuremberg
On July 23, 1532, the Peace of Nuremberg was signed, symbolizing victory for the Protestants of the Holy Roman Empire. These Protestants, united under the Schmalkaldic League, obtained Charles V’s agreement not to impose the Edict of Worms, thanks to this peace treaty. Signed at the end of the Diet of Regensburg, this peace agreement was intended to maintain the unity of the empire against Turkish invasions. This was yet another political compromise that had to be made by Charles V.
February 4, 1536: Francis I Allies with Suleiman the Magnificent
The King of France signs the treaty known as the “Capitulations” with the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. At war against Emperor Charles V for the possession of Savoy and Turin, Francis I relies on this unprecedented alliance—between a Christian nation and a Muslim nation at the time—to confront his enemy on the Central European front.
June 18, 1538: Peace between Francis I and Charles V
Pope Paul III signs the Peace of Nice on June 18, 1538, between Francis I and Charles V. The King of France and the Emperor of Spain had entered into conflict to seize the lands of the Duchy of Milan after the death of Francesco II Sforza. Paul III urges the two sovereigns to form a bond and launch a crusade against England and the Turks.
January 2, 1553: The Setback of Charles V in Metz
January 2, 1553, marks the failure of Charles V and his defeated army in Metz. Charles V had laid siege to the city of Metz since September 1552, aiming to reclaim it from the King of France, Henry II, who had made his formal entrance into the city on April 18, 1552. However, Charles V is defeated by the resistance led by François de Guise. This is a bitter setback for the Holy Roman Empire’s army, 60,000 strong, which is forced to retreat to Thionville.
October 25, 1555: Charles V Abdicates
On October 25, 1555, the German Emperor, King of Spain and Sicily, and Lord of the Netherlands, Charles V decides to abdicate. The ceremony takes place in the Coudenberg Palace in Brussels. He bequeaths the County of Burgundy and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II. Afflicted by gout and worn down by his conquests, Charles V had begun his gradual withdrawal from power starting in 1540. He retires to a monastery and dies of malaria in 1558.
September 21, 1558: Death of Charles V
As Emperor of Germany, Prince of the Netherlands, and King of Spain, Charles V dies at the age of 58 in Yuste, Spain. Since his abdication in favor of his son Philip II, he had lived in seclusion in the monastery of the Order of Saint Jerome in Extremadura. Son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna the Mad, he had inherited Spain and Latin America through his mother and the territories of the Holy Roman Empire through his father. He ruled this vast empire “where the sun never set” from 1519 to 1556, while waging incessant struggles to impose his hegemony and ensure the triumph of Catholicism.
