The French Revolution, which erupted in 1789, was a period of profound social and political upheaval in France. It was characterized by the overthrow of the monarchy, the Reign of Terror, and the rise of radical political factions. The Law of Suspects, a significant legislative measure, emerged during this turbulent era. The Law of Suspects, enacted in 1793, played a pivotal role in the radicalization of the Revolution.
Origins and Implementation of the Law
The Law of Suspects. Print version from 1793. Image: Bnf-Gallica.
To understand the genesis of the Law of Suspects, it is imperative to examine the creation of the Committee of Public Safety. Created in April 1793, the Committee was designed to centralize power in a time of crisis. It was charged with the responsibility of protecting the Revolution and combating both internal and external enemies. Led by figures such as Maximilien Robespierre, it wielded enormous authority in revolutionary France.
The Law of Suspects emerged as a response to growing political tensions and perceived threats to the Revolution. It was introduced on September 17, 1793 as a legal measure to identify and eliminate potential enemies of the Revolution. It expanded the powers of the Revolutionary Court and authorized the arrest and prosecution of persons suspected of counterrevolutionary activities.
The implementation of the Law of Suspects was followed by a wave of arrests and trials. Accused individuals faced courts that often favored revolutionary zeal over due process. Suspects were subjected to a range of criteria, including their political affiliations, activities and expressions of loyalty to the Republic. The Reign of Terror, characterized by a climate of fear and political repression, resulted from the implementation of the law and caused significant social upheaval.
The Fundamental Provisions of the Law
The Law of Suspects provided a broad and somewhat vague definition of who could be considered a suspect. This definition encompassed individuals who displayed signs of not supporting the Revolution, failing to provide sufficient support for revolutionary principles, or being perceived as enemies of the Republic. This inclusive definition left room for interpretation and contributed to the widespread enforcement of the law.
Another significant aspect of the law was the establishment of Surveillance Committees. These committees were tasked with identifying and reporting suspects within their communities. The role of these committees played a crucial part in the enforcement of the law and the arrest and trial of individuals accused of counter-revolutionary activities.
The Law of Suspects outlined the main legal procedures for the arrest and trial of suspects. However, these procedures were often rushed and provided limited legal protection for the accused. The punishments imposed on suspects ranged from imprisonment to execution, with the severity of the punishment generally dependent on the perceived threat the suspect posed to the revolutionary government. The provisions of the law, particularly those related to punishments, reflected the radical nature of the French Revolution during that period.
Role in the Fall of Robespierre
Gendarme Charles-André Merda shooting at Maximilien Robespierre.
Although the Law of Suspects was designed to weed out counter-revolutionaries, it faced significant criticism and opposition. Many within the revolutionary government believed that the law’s criteria for suspicion were too broad and open to abuse.
Maximilien Robespierre, a key figure in the Committee of Public Safety, staunchly defended the Law of Suspects. His support for the law stemmed from his belief that it was a necessary tool to protect the Revolution from internal and external enemies.
Ironically, the law Robespierre supported would play a role in his downfall. The Law of Suspects contributed to the atmosphere of suspicion and paranoia in Revolutionary France. Robespierre himself would eventually become a target of the law and would be arrested and executed during the Thermidorian Reaction.
With the fall of Robespierre and the Jacobins, the excessive fervor of the French Revolution subsided. The Law of Suspects in particular came under scrutiny for its role in the excesses of the Reign of Terror. In late 1794, the law was repealed and its application gradually declined. However, the scars of this turbulent period remained and France faced the challenge of rebuilding a stable society.
The Law of Suspects is a grim reminder of the extremes to which political ideologies can be carried in times of revolution. It highlights the dangers of using general accusations and collective punishment as a means of political control. Although the law was eventually repealed, its legacy has continued to influence the course of French history and provides valuable lessons about the importance of protecting individual rights and the rule of law in times of political turmoil.
Articles of the Law of Suspects
The law is divided into ten articles. Article 1 orders the arrest of all suspicious individuals who are present on the territory of the Republic. Article 2 defines, in a very broad sense, who is to be considered suspicious:
Persons who, due to their behavior, expressions, or personal connections, have proven themselves “as supporters of the tyrants, federalism” (referring to the Girondins), “or as enemies of liberty.”
Persons who cannot prove the origin of their income or the fulfillment of their civic duties—referring to speculators
Persons who have been denied citizenship.
Suspended or deposed officials of the Ancien Régime.
Former nobles, unless they have constantly demonstrated their allegiance to the Revolution.
Returned emigrants.
Article 3 assigns surveillance committees to issue arrest warrants for the mentioned individuals, which the military commanders must execute under the penalty of removal. Article 4 stipulates that the committees could decide on arrests only with the majority of at least seven present members. According to Article 5, the detainees were to be initially brought to an investigative prison. If there was not enough space, they were placed under house arrest instead. Article 6 stipulates that they must transfer to one of the prisons set up by the departmental administrations no later than one week.
According to Article 7, they were allowed to bring their own necessary furniture there. The end of the detention period was set as the date of the peace treaty, of which no one knew yet. Article 8 specifies that the detainees have to bear the costs of their detention equally. Article 9 obliges the surveillance committees to report all arrests to the Security Committee. Article 10 authorizes civil and criminal courts to send individuals to the new detention facilities as suspects who have been exempt from prosecution for an offense or have been acquitted.
Many nations celebrate Halloween on October 31, and the owl is a very important symbol of it. Since the Middle Ages, owls have been a continuous symbol of Halloween, which evolved from All Hallows’ Eve, when the dead would rise from their graves and haunt the streets. There are at least two reasons why owls are associated with Halloween. The first factor is related to ancient Celtic mythology, while the other is related to ancient Greece and Rome.
The owl was associated with the soul in ancient mythologies.
Samhain, a Nocturnal Festival
The Celtic harvest feasts and festivities are the main source of the owl’s place in Halloween lore. Before Halloween was ever a thing, there was Samhain. This festival dates back 2000–3000 years. On the day of Samhain, October 31, people thought the veil between the living and the dead was at its lowest point and ghosts began wandering the land. Due to their nocturnal nature and air of mystery, owls were often seen as intermediaries between the living and the dead.
During this Celtic New Year, when the spirits emerged from their graves to haunt the living, the owls were often mistaken for these spirits, silently flying around the forest and graveyards. However, Celtic people at the time also saw owls as guardians of the underworld, nighttime rulers, and clairvoyants.
During Samhain night, owls would descend from the sky and feast on the spirits of the departed. The hooting of an owl at midnight was a death omen. In fact, it was thought that terrible news was on the way if an owl was seen circling during the day. Now, you can’t keep something like this from becoming a Halloween theme.
Owl in Greek and Roman Mythology
The Greeks and the Romans are also responsible for some of the first allusions linking owls to Halloween. They often held the owl in high regard. In ancient Greece, the owl called Athene noctua was strongly associated with Athena, the goddess of strategic combat, bravery, and wisdom. It was considered a holy and trusted advisor to the Greek goddess. The ability of owls to see clearly at night was formerly thought to come from some kind of internal light. Armies would take these birds into combat with them.
The hooting of an owl was seen as a portent or a divine messenger by the ancient Romans. Myth has it that Minerva (or Athena) was able to see the complete truth thanks to an owl (the owl of Minerva) perched on her blind side. The owl was thought to represent the afterlife and people associated the animal with the spirit of the deceased.
The Influence of Pagan Traditions on Romans
The Roman legions were constantly on the move across the ancient world. Especially in times of conflict, they would take owl sightings seriously as warnings of impending disaster. Since the British Isles were a site where animistic pagan faiths were popular, it is possible that Druid beliefs were integrated when the Romans invaded the northern British Isles many times since Julius Caesar‘s first landing in Kent in 55 BC.
Not everything was in good light with owls. In his ten-volume encyclopedia “Natural Histories,” Pliny the Elder characterized the owl as a bird of the funereal and a portent of doom whenever it appeared in public. In addition, he said that “when it appears, it foretells nothing but evil” and called the owl “the very monster of the night.”
While Pliny acknowledged the dangers of owls, he also thought that, when correctly treated, owl viscera might restore health and cure pain. A useful remedy for an earache, for instance, is an elixir made of owl brain and oil that is inserted straight into the ear canal. These mythical attributes later contributed to the owl’s association with Halloween.
Three Factors That Link Owls to Halloween
Thus, the owls have become a Halloween symbol because of their associations with wisdom, mystery, and the occult in ancient times:
Paranormal: Like witches, owls are nocturnal animals with a history of being linked to the paranormal. They roam the skies at night doing nefarious acts.
Nocturnal Animals: Scariness is heightened by the owl’s reputation as a dangerous, nocturnal, aerial predator.
Moon Cycles: The moon is a well-recognized Halloween symbol, and owls are linked to the moon’s cycles. They communicate differently when the moon is full (or new).
How Owls Became Associated with Halloween
Full Moon
The full moon is a prominent symbol of Halloween since owls are known to be more active at this time of the month. They are nocturnal creatures that are attracted to the glow of the moon, which accounts for their increased activity after dark. The unique hoots of owls are shown to increase in volume and speed up on moonlit evenings, according to studies of owl communication. The ancient people, not acquainted with owl activity, interpreted these noises as ghostly, and these animals have always been more common in isolated, rural regions. As a festival held at night, it makes sense to associate the owls with Halloween.
Witchcraft
In both Greek and Roman mythology, owls represent the underworld and the things to be feared. Like black cats, they were considered a sign of witchcraft throughout the Middle Ages. Many spells call for their feathers, eyeballs, or even the pellets they regurgitate. They are affixed to doorframes as a protective measure against misfortune. The barn owl (Tyto alba), which exists in most of the world, was a particular target of this misconception, which survived until the 19th century. Its eerie screech and quiet flight struck fear into the hearts of many.
Strictly Nocturnal
Owls are strictly nocturnal, so you can expect to see them flying about at night. Since owls are most active in the evening and night, Halloween is a holiday that coincides with their waking hours. The predatory owls served as inspiration for the Strix, an ill-omened owl of ancient mythology that feared to prey on people at night.
There are several historical and cultural roots behind the owl’s traditional role as a Halloween symbol. Their nocturnal habits, quiet flight, and haunting sounds made them a scary creature. With so many common attributes of owls in different cultures, the owl has inevitably become a symbol of Halloween.
During the Halloween season, they are utilized as decorations. It is not uncommon to see stuffed owls and other owl-themed decorations around houses. They are commonly used to increase the eeriness and tension of Halloween tales and films.
The Symbolism of the Owl in Other Cultures
By investigating the symbolism of owls in different cultures, you can better understand why they are associated with Halloween.
The most prominent themes in owl mythology are death, metamorphosis, and reincarnation. Owls have symbolized the unknown spiritual world that lies beyond the cover of night, as well as supernatural signals, spiritual messages, and shapeshifters.
Greek and Roman mythologies: The owl was often associated with the virgin goddess of knowledge, Athena, in Greek mythology or with her syncretic incarnation, Minerva, in Roman mythology. The owl was a western emblem of knowledge, intelligence, perspicacity, and erudition. This animal was thought to represent the soul.
In Native American tradition, the owl is a symbol of wisdom and foresight, and its whistle is seen by the Cree as a spiritual cry to the other side. Dreaming of an owl was seen as a portent of impending death by the Apache. The Eastern Screech Owl served as an adviser to the Cherokee on matters of punishment and illness.
In Christian symbolism, the owl stands for mystery and the unknown. In the Bible, owls are depicted as unclean or evil. Many people thought that seeing an owl was a foreboding omen that portended further trouble ahead.
In Judaism, owls are often used to indicate the end of a civilization or the beginning of its decline and decay, an attribute similar to the spooky nature of Halloween.
Other Animals Associated with Halloween
Animals, both real and fictional, have long been linked to Halloween’s spooky vibe. These creatures add to the holiday’s eerie atmosphere with their one-of-a-kind qualities and rich history. Some of the most well-known are:
Black cats: They have been linked to the Halloween holiday since medieval times. They were called “familiars” because witches kept them as continuous companions, guardians, and helpers in their magical work.
Rats: Due to their nocturnal habits and historical link with sickness and death, rats, and especially black rats, are often associated with Halloween.
Bats: Bram Stoker’s Dracula, published in 1897, is largely responsible for associating bats with Halloween. The vampires in the book are able to hide their bloodthirsty activities by transforming into bats at night.
Spiders:Halloween is generally linked with spiders because of their creepy, crawly nature and the elaborate webs they spin. Many associate them with dark and dangerous things.
Ravens:The dark color of ravens and their historical connection with death and the occult make them a popular symbol.
Conclusion
Throughout history, owls have been used as a religious emblem in a wide variety of faiths and civilizations. Wisdom, knowledge, transformation, the cultivation of intuition, faith in the unknown, and openness to new experiences were all concepts linked to them. The appearance of an owl could be a sign that you should trust your gut. They were divine visitors with knowledge of the mysteries of life and the means to navigate them.
Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) are permitted to celebrate Halloween since the holiday has a history with the Mormons. Despite the alleged legend of Halloween being the devil’s birthday, there is nothing in the teachings of the Mormon Church that would prevent a member from taking part in Halloween’s cultural traditions. It just does not approve of any celebration or promotion of bad deeds or worship. Whether or not Mormons choose to observe Halloween is entirely up to their own discretion.
Origin of Halloween
Old Halloween postcard.
Allhallowe’en, All Hallows’ Eve, and All Saints’ Eve are all the various names for Halloween which is celebrated on the 31st of October. It is the beginning of Allhallowtide, a period of remembrance for the deceased that includes saints (hallows), martyrs, and all the faithful departed, and occurs on the eve of the Western Christian feast of All Saints’ Day.
The ancient Celtic celebration of Samhain, in which people lit bonfires and wore costumes to scare away spirits, is the inspiration for this custom. The Samhain festival has roots that date back to 2000–3000 years. Trick-or-treating, jack-o’-lantern carving, parties, dressing up, and eating candy in modern celebration all have ancient roots.
The Mormon Church was officially organized in 1830 and Halloween in its modern form has been celebrated in the United States around the same time since the 19th century. Given that the LDS Church is based in the United States and has a history of participating in cultural celebrations, it’s likely that Mormons have been celebrating Halloween since the beginning.
How Do Mormons Celebrate Halloween?
Since pumpkins and other vegetables are often carved and put on display during Halloween, these customs are also observed by members of the Mormon religion. Mormons observe Halloween in the following ways:
Going to the Pumpkin Patch:Halloween is also a time for Mormon families to come together and have fun. Family Home Evening is a weekly family activity in Mormon traditions and some families choose to spend their night together at the pumpkin farm.
Pumpkin Carving: Picking pumpkins from a farm without carving them afterward would be pointless. Pumpkin carving is also practiced by Mormons.
Decorating the House: Some Mormon families also go all out with their Halloween decorations to add some merriment to their houses.
Baking Treats: Mormons also like to make Halloween-themed cookies and other snacks as one of the best Halloween traditions.
Clothing: However, Mormons try not to wear revealing clothing since they see their bodies as sacred temples.
Family Histories: Some Mormons use this time to investigate their family histories on places like FamilySearch.org, the biggest online database of freely accessible family trees, genealogical records, and related tools.
Not All Mormons Celebrate Halloween
Some Mormons prefer not to celebrate Halloween at all, while others do so in a fashion that emphasizes the gospel. In most Mormon communities, members celebrate Halloween by dressing up in costumes, hosting trunk-or-treat vehicle parties, and visiting neighbors’ homes to collect candy.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a firm stance against Satan worship, and some members of the faith are disturbed by the alleged violence that is supposedly connected with Halloween. Other families are also discouraged by the fact that the celebration is sometimes associated with revealing costumes (she-devil, Catwoman, etc.).
So, it’s fair to say that Mormons have their own special method of commemorating this festival while still adhering to some of the general customs associated with the occasion (such as carving and decorating pumpkins).
What Does the Mormon Church Say for Halloween?
The Word of Wisdom
Mormons observe Halloween in a way that is consistent with Mormon doctrine and the Word of Wisdom. Mormons do not participate in Halloween festivities that entail excessive alcohol use because they adhere to the Word of Wisdom. Instead, they usually do things like trick-or-treating, carving pumpkins, and having parties with their kids.
The Mormon Church provides a health code called the Word of Wisdom. In their belief, God revealed this to the Prophet Joseph Smith on February 27, 1833, and it is currently included in Section 89 of the Doctrine and Covenants. The Word of Wisdom promotes well-being by forbidding harmful activities and drugs. Specifically, alcoholic beverages are not allowed.
The Church’s Stance
The Mormon Church (LDS) does not ban its members from celebrating the cultural traditions associated with Halloween. The decorations for ward parties or holiday celebrations are not permitted in the chapel or on the outside of the building unless allowed by the stake president (a volunteer), according to the Mormon Church’s handbook. But these guidelines still don’t touch on Halloween per se.
Church officials haven’t spoken out against Satanism per se on Halloween, but they have spoken out against specific actions linked with the holiday. Elder Boyd K. Packer issued a warning to young people in 1989 to stay away from witchcraft and other forms of dark spirituality. The President of the LDS Church, James E. Faust, also emphasized this theme.
For Halloween-related outings like trick-or-treating, costume parties, and car trunk candy giveaways, the Family: A Proclamation to the World states that “Successful marriages and families are established and maintained on principles of faith, prayer, repentance, forgiveness, respect, love, compassion, work, and wholesome recreational activities.”
This would indicate that Mormons are free to participate in Halloween festivities so long as they don’t go against these values or normalize conduct that goes against the teachings of the LDS Church.
Origin of Halloween Traditions
Samhain festival.
Samhain was where Halloween customs involving skeletons and spirits also emerged some thousands of years ago. In Halloween depictions, death, evil, and fantastical beasts feature prominently, and black cats, traditionally linked to witchcraft, are also often seen around.
Beets and turnips
In the past, the ancient villagers used to cut and display beets and turnips in front of their homes instead of pumpkins. They were left as offerings on doorsteps and in graves in the form of carved skulls. The pumpkin became the standard once the celebration was brought to North America, where this food is more widely available. And most importantly, larger. Beets, turnips, and pumpkins helped make black, orange, and purple the traditional colors of Halloween.
Jack-O-Lantern
An ominous Irish tale served as inspiration for the well-known pumpkin lantern. Should Jack pass away, his mockery of Satan will deprive him of the choice between heaven and hell. Stuck in oblivion, Jack removes the flesh of a turnip and places charcoal inside to light his path. He has supposedly returned to Earth every Halloween since then.
Trick or Treat
Food collection by going door to door on Halloween has its origins in the Middle Ages. It is believed that trick-or-treating evolved from this custom. In return for ‘soul cakes’, the destitute would sing prayers for each family’s departed members. The children would later sing in exchange for money, fruit, or nuts.
Other Cultures That Celebrate Halloween
There are now many nations in the world that celebrate Halloween. Costume parties, trick-or-treating, pranks, and games are common Halloween activities in the United States, Canada, and Ireland. Different cultures commemorate the event in their own unique ways.
The dead are celebrated on Dia de los Muertos (the Day of the Dead) in Mexico and other Latin American nations.
Bonfires and fireworks are lit to celebrate Guy Fawkes Day on November 5 in England.
Tomb Sweeping Day is observed in early April in China. Ancestral tombs are to be visited and cleaned during this period.
Lighting candles and placing them on graves is a common practice in certain European nations.
In several African nations, the harvest is celebrated with music, dance, and food.
The History of Halloween
One of the world’s oldest festivals is Halloween, which is celebrated every year on October 31. It has its roots in Samhain, a celebration performed by the ancient Celts. The ancient Celts who inhabited what is now the island of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and northern France marked the beginning of the year on November 1. A time of year typically connected with human mortality, this day signaled the end of summer, the harvest, and the beginning of the dark, bitter winter.
The Celts thought that on the eve of the new year, the line between life and death blurred. Samhain was celebrated on October 31 because it was the night the dead were thought to return to Earth. Huge holy bonfires were constructed by Druids to mark the occasion, and people gathered around them to burn offerings to the Celtic gods.
Later, the early Church adopted the custom and Christianized it as All Hallow’s Day and its eve. All Hallows’ Eve, or Halloween, is the night before All Saints’ Day. Trick-or-treating, jack-o’-lantern carving, parties, dressing up, and eating candy have all become the foundations of modern Halloween celebrations.
There is no truth to the urban legend that Halloween is the devil’s birthday. Nothing points to October 31st being the devil’s birthday in the Bible or any other holy recordings or if the devil was “born”. The concept of Halloween as the devil’s birthday developed in Christian contexts to alienate Europeans from a popular non-Christian festival. To justify the persecution of Pagans like the Celts, Christians in the Middle Ages sought to portray Halloween as a festival of evil by linking it to Satanism and witchcraft. Claiming Halloween as the devil’s birthday is one of the ancient Christian propagandas that still persists to this day.
The Origin of Halloween
Samhain festival.
The ancient Celtic holiday Samhain is the inspiration for the modern-day Halloween celebration. The Celts, who inhabited what is now the island of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and northern France some 2,000 years ago, marked the beginning of the year on November 1. It was at this time that the gloomy, chilly winter had begun, signaling the end of summer and the crop.
In Celtic tradition, the line between the living and the dead blurred on the eve of the new year, October 31. Samhain was celebrated on the evening of this date because it was thought that the spirits of the dead came back to the world at this time.
Halloween in North America
Therefore, Samhain marked the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter. However, Christian elements were introduced into the Pagan Halloween celebrations over time. Pope Gregory III in the 8th century established All Saints’ Day on November 1. All Hallows’ Eve was the evening before All Saints’ Day and the three holidays of All Saints’ Day, All Souls’ Day, and Samhain eventually fused into one holiday known today as Halloween.
Halloween has a long and storied history in Ireland and Scotland, and in the 19th century, immigrants from those countries brought many of their Halloween traditions to North America. Trick-or-treating, carving pumpkins into jack-o’-lanterns, having bonfires, apple bobbing, divination games, playing pranks, going to haunted attractions, and telling frightening tales have been introduced to North America by the grandchildren of the Celts, who have celebrated Samhain in the same fashion.
Why Halloween is Called the Devil’s Birthday
Modern Christian interpretation and popular culture have contributed much to the legend that Halloween is the devil’s birthday. However, neither the Bible nor history support this view. This claim seems to have developed with Christian hostility toward Pagan traditions.
Some Christians reject Halloween because they believe it has pagan roots and even demonic overtones. This point of view, along with Halloween’s common link with scary costumes, trick-or-treating, and themes of death and the occult, aided in the spread of the myth that the festival has satanic overtones.
Satanism and Halloween
The Church of Satan and other similar organizations celebrate Halloween, although they do not consider it the devil’s birthday. As it is a religion focused on the individual, Anton LaVey, who formed the Church of Satan in 1966, mandated three festivals for Satanists to celebrate: the individual’s birthday, Walpurgisnacht (April 30), and Halloween (October 31). LaVey, however, used Halloween more as a gag on people who superstitiously hated it than because of any inherent Satanic symbolism in the day.
No Proof in History
Neither the Bible nor history provide any proof that October 31 is the devil’s birthday or that he was indeed born. The Bible is silent on the subject and there is no evidence that Halloween’s origin lies in a satanic celebration.
Scholars contend that Satan lacks a birthday since he was allegedly formed by God with the rest of the angels. Ironically, it would be disrespectful to God, who created all the days, to assign Satan a birthday.
Origins of Halloween Traditions
Old Halloween postcard.
In many Halloween depictions, death, evil, and fantastical beasts feature prominently. Black cats, traditionally linked to witchcraft, are also often seen around. Samhain was where the Halloween customs involving skeletons and spirits first emerged.
Beets and turnips
In the past, the villagers used to cut and display beets and turnips in front of their homes instead of pumpkins. They were left as offerings on doorsteps and in graves in the form of carved skulls. The pumpkin became the standard once the celebration was brought to North America, where this food is more widely available. And most importantly, larger. Beets, turnips, and pumpkins helped make black, orange, and purple the traditional colors of Halloween.
Jack-O-Lantern
An ominous Irish tale served as inspiration for the well-known pumpkin lantern. If Jack dies, he won’t be able to choose between heaven and hell because of all the times he made fun of Satan. He removes the flesh of a turnip and places charcoal inside to light his path. He has supposedly returned to Earth every Halloween since then.
Trick or Treat
Food collection by going door to door has its origins in the Middle Ages. It is believed that trick-or-treating evolved from this custom. In return for ‘soul cakes’, the destitute would sing prayers for each family’s departed members. The children would later sing in exchange for money, fruit, or nuts.
The Actual “Devil’s Birthday”
If there’s a “devil’s birthday,” it doesn’t lie on Halloween. The term “the devil’s birthday” is used jokingly in Denmark and Norway to refer to December 11 and June 11. King Frederick III of Denmark issued a proclamation on December 17, 1656, mandating these two dates for the repayment of loans and the payment of interest. This announcement turned these days into “devil’s birthday.”
Outside of Denmark and Norway, however, the “devil’s birthday” has little to no historical or cultural weight in any other region.
Meaning of Halloween in Other Cultures
Several nations throughout the world also observe Halloween. Costume parties, trick-or-treating, and pranks are common Halloween activities in the United States, Canada, and Ireland. There are further celebrations of this event in other countries.
Dia de los Muertos, or the Day of the Dead, is a celebration held in Mexico and other Latin American nations in memory of departed friends, family members, and ancestors. Guy Fawkes Day is celebrated with pyrotechnics and bonfires in England on November 5th.
Pangangaluluwa is a Filipino custom in which children knock on neighbors’ doors to beg for prayers for the souls of the dead who are still in purgatory. On the fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month, Hong Kongers commemorate the Hungry Ghost Festival.
When This Myth Gained Traction
It’s only in recent years that belief in Halloween as the devil’s birthday has gained widespread popularity. The extensive consumption of horror movies around the turn of the 20th century is credited with inspiring this trend among the American masses.
The widespread portrayal of Satan as the protagonist of Halloween movies helped perpetuate the myth that Halloween celebrates the devil’s birthday.
Satanists do not celebrate Halloween as the devil’s birthday, despite popular belief. Satan is a metaphor for their faith. Further, October 31 is described by the Church of Satan as “the Fall climax” and a day to dress as one’s true self or remember a recently departed loved one.
Panoply was the name of the set of armor worn specifically by Hoplites and other heavy soldiers in ancient Greece. The word is “panoplia” in Ancient Greek and it literally means “complete armor,” from pan “all” and hoplon “weapon.” It actually meant the complete arsenal of gear used by the Hoplites, the citizen-soldiers of Ancient Greece who fought in phalanx formation.
The panoply of armor and weapons used by the Hoplites.
The Hoplite’s full arsenal of Panoply included both offensive and defensive pieces of equipment. These were typically a short sword, a long spear, a large helmet, a mid-sized shield, and a modest breastplate. The weight of the whole panoply of armor and weapon wore by the Hoplites was around 48 to 77 pounds (22–35 kg).
From a Greek workshop in South Italy, 500–490 BC.” class=”wp-image-43725″/>Greaves, Corinthian helmet, and spear tip from the tomb of Denda. The name of the warrior (Denda) is engraved on the left greave. From a Greek workshop in South Italy, 500–490 BC.
In ancient Rome, after a victory, the captured weapons were decoratively placed under the armor of the defeated commander. The word panoply was later used to describe the decorative trophies and themes seen in the friezes of numerous Roman structures. In the centuries that followed, these designs became popular wall decorations.
During the early modern period (c. 1500–1800), the military officers called back on this ancient Greek term and put it into reuse to refer to a full suit of plate armor covering the whole body of a soldier.
Modern Times
However, it didn’t end there; later in modern times, the term “panoply” has evolved to mean any comprehensive or extensive collection of things because of its original meaning of a “complete series of various components” in ancient Greek. Examples today include anything such as “panoply of flags” or “panoply of ideas“.
In Renaissance and Baroque art, panoply was a decorative composition of elements of ancient armor, shields, weapons, and flags (reminiscent of the ancient Roman tradition mentioned above).
The Panoply carved in stone, was used as an element of decoration on facades and interiors. It often appeared in coats of arms and military decorations.
Louis XIV pushed France into the Dutch War with the intention of weakening the United Provinces of the Netherlands. After a concerted diplomatic effort to convert Sweden and England to the French cause a few years earlier, he began the attack in 1672. On March 28, 1672, England, an ally of France, was the first country to engage in the war. On April 6, France launched a counterattack against the United Provinces.
The Dutch Stadtholder, William III of Orange, put up a strong fight against the French despite their effective progress in the early months.
He managed to rally his troops and form an alliance against France, which included the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, Brandenburg, and Denmark. Attacked on three fronts, France ultimately forced the coalition to sign the Treaty of Nijmegen in 1678. France relinquished the United Provinces but secured its northern and eastern borders.
Causes of the Dutch War
The map shows the military campaign of Louis XIV against Holland in 1672. Vauban, Turenne, Condé.
Louis XIV initiated the Dutch War with the aim of weakening the United Provinces and countering the Triple Alliance (England, Sweden, and the United Provinces). The United Provinces, referring to the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands, had established themselves as a major naval and commercial power in Europe for several decades. Louis XIV was concerned that the United Provinces would thwart his expansionist goals by preventing him from acquiring the Spanish territories that made up the Spanish Netherlands.
Before the conflict began, France unsuccessfully attempted to impose highly protectionist customs duties to reduce the commercial competition from the United Provinces. Seeing that this strategy had no effect, France chose to pursue an aggressive diplomatic campaign by forming alliances with England and Sweden.
By doing so, Louis XIV isolated the United Provinces from their Triple Alliance allies. Ultimately, it was England that declared war on the United Provinces on March 28, 1672, followed by France on April 6, 1672.
The war began due to Louis XIV’s territorial ambitions and his desire to annex portions of the Spanish Netherlands. He claimed that he had the right to these territories through his marriage to the Spanish Infanta Maria Theresa.
Course of the Dutch War
The Burning of the ‘Royal James’ at the Battle of Solebay, 28 May 1672.
The Dutch War involved multiple fronts, including the North Sea, the Spanish Netherlands, Franche-Comté (a Spanish territory at the time), and Alsace. Some battles even took place in the Mediterranean, pitting the French admiral Duquesne against his Dutch counterpart, Ruyter. Less than three months after the war’s outbreak, the United Provinces, though outnumbered, dealt a blow to the Franco-English fleet at the Battle of Solebay on June 7, 1672, off the east coast of England. This naval battle resulted in significant losses on both sides, but the Franco-English blockade plans against Dutch ports failed.
While the maritime invasion proved disastrous for the French, the land invasion promised a more favorable outcome. Conquests were made at Orsoy, Wesel, and Rheinberg. On June 12, 1672, the Rhine was crossed, and other towns were besieged, thanks in part to the efforts of the Duke of Luxembourg. The Prince-Bishop of Münster, an ally of Louis XIV, began the siege of Groningen on July 9, 1672. However, Dutch forces eventually halted the offensive after a month and a half of fighting. In June 1673, the French captured Maastricht, a particularly significant gain.
A year later, Turenne, tasked with containing the Imperial forces, crossed the Rhine and achieved victories at Sinsheim and Ladenburg in June and July 1674, respectively. On the northern front, it was Condé who thwarted William of Orange’s troops on August 11, 1674, at the Battle of Seneffe. Fought on three fronts, namely Franche-Comté, the Spanish Netherlands, and Alsace, the war left its mark, compelling the coalition to seek peace.
Commencing on March 28, 1672, the Dutch War concluded with the Treaty of Nijmegen on August 10, 1678, signed with the United Provinces. Nevertheless, the conflict continued with the other belligerents, each signing separate treaties with France (the Treaty of Nijmegen for the Holy Roman Empire, the Treaty of Fontainebleau for Denmark, and the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye for Brandenburg).
Naval warfare played a crucial role in the Franco-Dutch War. King Charles II oversaw the British Royal Navy, which played a complicated role. Although nominally part of the Triple Alliance, Britain protected its own interests and sometimes cooperated with France. Notable naval conflicts included the Battle of Solebay in 1672, where English and French fleets clashed with the Dutch.
These naval conflicts had a lasting impact on the balance of power in Europe.
Participants in the Dutch War
Louis XIV at the siege of Maastricht, 1673.
From the perspective of states, the Dutch War pitted the Quadruple Alliance against France’s allies. The Quadruple Alliance united the United Provinces, the Archduchy of Austria, the Spanish Catholic Monarchy, and the Duchy of Lorraine. Their common enemy was the Kingdom of France under Louis XIV. To weaken the powerful United Provinces, France allied itself with England, Sweden, Bavaria, Liège, and the Principality of Münster.
Leading figures in Europe were also involved in this war. King Louis XIV could count on the support of Charles II of England and Charles XI of Sweden. On the opposing side, the main leaders of the Quadruple Alliance included William III of Orange, the Stadtholder of the United Provinces, as well as Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, Frederick William I of Brandenburg, Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, and King Christian V of Denmark and Norway.
William III of Orange, also known as William of Orange, was a prominent Dutch leader who played a crucial role in leading the Dutch Republic’s defense against French forces during the war. He later became King William III of England.
Outcome of the Dutch War
Illustration showing all the fortified towns in the Netherlands conquered during the Franco-Dutch war in 1672.
After years of war and despite several remarkable achievements, the Dutch suffered significantly from the conflict, with colossal human and commercial losses. However, in 1677, the marriage of Mary of York, niece of Charles II of England, to William of Orange marked a turning point by cementing an alliance between England and the United Provinces. Fearing the effects of this alliance, Louis XIV intensified his efforts and, at the beginning of 1678, ordered the capture of Ghent, Ypres, and Puycerda.
During the negotiations in Nijmegen, the negotiators agreed on the main conditions of peace. Louis XIV insisted that Sweden, his devoted ally, reclaim the Swedish territories that Denmark and Brandenburg had taken during the war.
However, the major winner was France, which saw its northern and eastern borders strengthened at the expense of Spain, which had to cede Franche-Comté. Even before that, England and the United Provinces had settled their differences in the Treaty of Westminster in 1674, resulting in a status quo ante bellum.
Important Battles and Campaigns
Battle of Solebay (1672)
The Battle of Solebay was an important naval engagement that took place on May 28, 1672, during the Franco-Dutch War. It took place off the coast of Suffolk, England, near Solebay (now Sole Bay). The Duke of York (later King James II of England) and Admiral Comte de Tourville, leading the English and French fleets, respectively, engaged the fleet of the Dutch Republic under Admiral Michiel de Ruyter.
Traditionally wary of the Dutch Republic’s dominance in trade and sea power, the English joined forces with the French to challenge Dutch naval supremacy. Ultimately, it ended inconclusively, with both sides claiming victory. However, the Dutch fleet managed to hold its position, preventing the British and French from achieving their objectives, which included the planned invasion of the Dutch Republic.
Siege of Utrecht (1673)
The Siege of Utrecht was a land battle that took place between June 13 and July 30, 1673, during the Franco-Dutch War. The city of Utrecht, in the heart of the Dutch Republic, was a strategic target for French and English forces. The siege marked a critical stage in the conflict, demonstrating the resilience of the Dutch defenses.
With assistance from British forces, Louis II de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, led the French army as it besieged Utrecht. The Dutch, led by William III of Orange, mounted a determined defense using innovative fortifications and a network of water defenses. The protracted siege and the tenacity of the Dutch led to a stalemate and eventually the siege was lifted. The failure to capture Utrecht was a significant setback for the Franco-British alliance.
Naval Battles in the Mediterranean
In addition to major conflicts in the North Sea and the English Channel, the Franco-Dutch War also saw several naval battles in the Mediterranean. These conflicts occurred as part of the wider struggle between France and the Dutch Republic and had far-reaching consequences for trade and colonial interests. The Mediterranean theater was the scene of battles between the French and Dutch fleets, and at times other Mediterranean powers joined in.
Treaty of Westminster (1674)
The Treaty of Westminster was signed on February 19, 1674, and determined the outcome of the Franco-Dutch War. The treaty was negotiated between England and the Dutch Republic. The treaty effectively ended England’s participation in the war after it withdrew from its alliance with France.
The terms of the treaty included provisions on mutual defense, trade agreements, and territorial arrangements. Key agreements included the return of British colonial conquests, such as New Netherland to Dutch control. This treaty significantly changed the balance of power in Europe and paved the way for a more favorable period in Dutch-British relations.
The Treaty of Westminster had lasting effects not only in the context of the Franco-Dutch War but also in the context of European politics and colonial possessions in the late 17th century. It reshaped alliances and rivalries in the region and contributed to the relative decline of French influence.
Consequences of the Dutch War
Peace of Nijmegen – The signing of the Peace between France and Spain.
The Dutch War and the Treaty of Nijmegen somewhat altered the landscape of Europe. France emerged as the major winner, with smoother northern borders. With fewer enclaves due to gains in various strongholds such as Ypres, Saint-Omer, Cambrai, and Valenciennes, France became easier to defend and administer. However, this came at the expense of returning several enclaves, like Maastricht and the Principality of Orange, to William III, as well as Charleroi and Courtrai to Spain.
Louis XIV also acquired Franche-Comté from Spain. Regarding Lorraine, it was returned to its duke by Emperor Leopold I of Habsburg under the Treaty of February 5, 1679. However, as the duke refused to comply with the treaty, Lorraine remained occupied by France.
The Treaty of Nijmegen was a humiliation for Spain. It was the major loser in the territorial division. Despite some concessions in the Spanish Netherlands by France, such as Charleroi, Binche, and Courtrai, Spain had to part with Franche-Comté and several strongholds like Cambrai, Saint-Omer, Ypres, or Valenciennes. The military defeat also had diplomatic repercussions for Spain.
Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England, William of Orange, husband of Mary Stuart, daughter of James II, ascended to the English throne alongside Mary. The Glorious Revolution was partly motivated by the fears of the English elite regarding the possible restoration of Catholicism in England under James II’s reign. William of Orange, as a Protestant and Stadtholder of the United Provinces, was seen as a leader capable of ensuring the preservation of Protestant liberties in England.
Pope Paul III called the Council of Trent, which took place from December 1545 to December 1563. It was held mainly in the Alpine town of Trent. Its aim was to counter the expansion of the Protestant (Lutheran or Calvinist) movement in Europe. It aimed to clarify the Church’s position on religious doctrines and dogmas but also to reform the Catholic clergy, under fire for various scandals. The Council spread the Counter-Reformation movement throughout Europe in opposition to the Protestant Reformation.
The outcomes of the Council of Trent included the emergence of numerous committed ecclesiastics and the establishment of new religious orders, such as the Jesuits and Carmelites. This led to a revival of the Catholic faith during a period of crisis. However, it also exacerbated religious divisions, resulting in multiple wars of religion between Catholics and Protestants in Europe. For a deeper understanding of the Council of Trent and its historical, political, and religious consequences, please read on.
The Council of Trent convened in 1545 in the northern Italian city of Trent (Trento). It was held in several sessions over the course of 18 years, concluding in 1563.
Who Convened the Council of Trent?
Pope Paul III, convener of the Council of Trent.
The Council of Trent was convened by Pope Paul III (Alessandro Farnese) with the aim of reforming the Catholic clergy and clearly distinguishing Catholic doctrine from Protestant ideas. This ecumenical council officially began on December 13, 1545, and it was one of the longest councils in Catholic history, spanning eighteen years, with three main sessions and twenty-five sessions in total.
The council took place primarily in the city of Trent, in the Tyrol region, which is now part of Italy. It was held in various locations, including the Cathedral of San Vigilio in Trent and the church of Santa Maria Maggiore in Trent. The Council of Trent is considered one of the most significant events in the history of the Catholic Church.
The Council of Trent is often seen as the centerpiece of the Counter-Reformation, a Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation. It led to a revitalization of the Catholic Church and helped counteract the spread of Protestantism.
What Was the Purpose of the Council of Trent?
Council of Trent by Pasquale Cati.
The Council of Trent aimed to counter Protestant ideas and reform the Catholic clergy, which had faced criticism for many years. It took place in the context of a significant religious upheaval, which began when a German monk named Martin Luther denounced various scandals within the Church in 1517. This led to the birth of Protestantism, with reformers advocating for a return to the Bible as the central tenet of faith rather than relying on religious authorities. Reformers also rejected the veneration of saints and the Virgin Mary. In 1536, the Frenchman Jean Calvin’s theological work, “Institutes of the Christian Religion,” further influenced the Protestant movement. Calvinism emphasized the complete sovereignty of God, including in matters of salvation.
In the backdrop of this Counter-Reformation, aiming to oppose the Protestant Reformation and address the crisis within the Catholic clergy, the Council of Trent reaffirmed the sacraments and introduced disciplinary measures within the Church. The reform of the clergy sought to end unacceptable practices, including avarice, corruption, the appointment of young priests, a lack of education, scandalous lifestyles, and immorality. By demanding irreproachability from the Catholic Church, the council aimed to combat Protestantism while clarifying the dogmas, beliefs, and institutions of Catholicism.
How Did the Catholic Church Reform at Trent?
During the Council of Trent, bishops and theologians reaffirmed key doctrines of the Catholic faith, leading to what is often called the “Tridentine” or Catholic Reformation, in contrast to the Protestant Reformation. The council affirmed the importance of sacred Scriptures, including the Old and New Testaments, Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles of the Apostles (Epistula Apostolorum). The Vulgate (St. Jerome’s 4th-century Latin translation of the Holy Scriptures) is considered the only official text.
The council also reaffirmed the existence of purgatory and the necessity of striving for salvation through religious faith, contrary to Protestant beliefs. The doctrine of original sin was likewise reaffirmed. In this quest, the seven sacraments conferred by a priest are major milestones: Baptism, Eucharist, Confirmation, Reconciliation through Confession, Anointing of the Sick, Marriage and Ordination. The religious ceremony during marriage became mandatory for Catholics, and the dogma of transubstantiation (the transformation of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ) was also reaffirmed.
The council confirmed the veneration of saints and the Virgin, as well as the use of religious images and relics. The practice of indulgence continued.
Reforms were also introduced within the clergy’s organization. Priests were required to maintain celibacy, curates had to reside in their parishes, and bishops in their dioceses. The minimum age for priesthood was set at 27, and seminaries were established to provide education to future priests, emphasizing both cultural and religious duties.
The role of bishops was strengthened, requiring them to preach and visit all churches in their diocese annually.
Who Were the Key Figures in the Catholic Reformation?
The Catholic Reformation saw the emergence of several highly influential ecclesiastics. Some, like John of the Cross, Charles Borromeo, and Teresa of Avila, would even be canonized as saints. Five popes played a role in supporting the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Pope Clement VII initially considered the idea of the council but was thwarted by the conflict between Charles V and Francis I. Pope Paul III initiated the first measures to reform the clergy, convened the Council of Trent, and encouraged the formation of new religious orders. The Council of Trent continued under the pontificates of Popes Julius III, Paul IV, and Pius IV.
Among the prominent figures of the Catholic Reformation, Ignatius of Loyola stands out as the founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). This Spanish Basque priest, who had lived a life of courtly pursuits and vanities in his youth, underwent a radical conversion. Inspired by Saint Francis of Assisi, he adopted a life of hermitage and missionary work. As the founder of the Society of Jesus, he directed the congregation toward missionary activities in India, Africa, and South America.
Teresa of Avila is another influential figure whose impact on the religious world endured. This Spanish nun, deeply mystic, left numerous writings and reformed the Carmelite order to return to austerity and poverty. She established several convents in Spain and was later canonized, becoming the first woman to be named a Doctor of the Church in 1970.
Other notable figures include John of the Cross, a mystic and poet who led the male Carmelites, and the Italian prelate Charles Borromeo, a strong advocate for the Tridentine reform in his diocese.
What Were the Consequences of the Council of Trent?
The Council of Trent led to a revival of religious orders, which became more moral, educated, and dedicated to serving others. The reforms initiated by the council strengthened Catholicism, and there was even a significant resurgence of the Catholic faith in France. The theological and idealistic aspects played a role in this religious attraction.
However, the turmoil persisted, and the end of the council coincided with the onset of the French Wars of Religion. Eight Wars of Religion unfolded between 1562 and 1598, resulting in bloody conflicts between Protestants and Catholics. The St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, which occurred in Paris and throughout the country in 1572, was a major event during this turbulent period. Catholics, particularly those aligned with the Guise family, opposed the Huguenot Protestants.
In the Netherlands, the Wars of Religion (Eighty Years’ War) led to territorial conflicts between Calvinists and Catholics. Europe became embroiled in the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), a conflict between the Habsburg camp of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire (backed by the papacy) and Protestant states in Germany (later supported by Scandinavian countries and France). Religious divisions remained strong after the Catholic Reformation, resulting in numerous wars across Europe.
Agreements Adopted in the Sessions
Sessions I and II: Held on December 13, 1545 and January 7, 1546, respectively. Preliminary questions and order of the council.
III: Held on February 4, 1546. The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed was reaffirmed.
IV: Held on April 8, 1546. Acceptance of the Sacred Books and the Apostolic Tradition. Apostolic Tradition and the Holy Scriptures were declared as the two sources of revelation. The Vulgate was considered the accepted translation of the Bible.
V: Held on June 17, 1546. Decree on Original Sin.
VI: Held on January 13, 1547. Decree on Justification in 16 chapters (reaffirmed the value of faith together with that of good works). Canons on Justification. This was the most important session of the first period.
VII: Held on March 3, 1547. Canons on the sacraments in general. Canons on the sacrament of baptism. Canons on the sacrament of confirmation. Reform of pluralities, exemptions and legal matters of the clergy.
VIII: Held on March 11, 1547. Accepted transfer to Bologna to escape the plague.
IX: Held on April 21, 1547 in Bologna. Extension of the session.
X: Held on June 2, 1547 in Bologna. Extension of the session.
Suspension of the council by the pope.
XI: Held on May 1, 1551. Continuation of the council.
XII: Held on September 1, 1551. Prorogation.
XIII: Held on October 11, 1551. Decree and canons on the sacrament of the Eucharist. Reform of episcopal jurisdiction and supervision of bishops.
XIV: Held on November 25, 1551. Doctrine and canons on the sacrament of penance and extreme unction.
XV: Held on January 25, 1552. No decisions are made.
XVI: Held on April 28, 1552.
Agreement to suspend the council.
XVII: Held on January 18, 1562. Reopening of the council.
XVIII: Held on February 26, 1562. Necessity of a list of forbidden books.
XXI: Held on July 16, 1562. Doctrine and canons on communion under the two species and the communion of infants. Reform of ordination, priesthood and the foundation of new parishes.
XXII: Held on September 17, 1562. Doctrine on the most holy sacrifice of the Mass.
The Eucharist was dogmatically defined as an authentic atoning sacrifice in which the bread and wine were transformed into the authentic flesh and blood of Christ. Reform of the morals of the clergy, the administration of religious foundations and the requirements to assume ecclesiastical offices.
XXIII: Held on July 15, 1563. Doctrine and canons on the sacrament of orders (ordination). Ecclesiastical hierarchy. Obligation of residence. Regulation of Seminaries.
XXIV: Held on November 11, 1563. Doctrine on the sacrament of marriage.1 The excellence of celibacy was reaffirmed. Reformation of Bishops and Cardinals.
XXV: Held on December 3 and 4, 1563. Decree on purgatory. The existence of purgatory and the veneration of saints and relics were reaffirmed. Reform of monastic orders. Suppression of concubinage among the clergy. The Pope was tasked with compiling a list of prohibited books, creating a catechism, and revising the Breviary and Missal. Regarding the Trinity and the Incarnation (against unitarians), Tridentine profession of faith. The council’s closure.
Triangular trade, or Triangle trade, was a system that facilitated black slavery on a global scale. The system spanned three continents: Ships loaded with goods were sent from Europe to Africa. There, merchants sold them and filled them with black slaves before sailing to the Americas, where they were sold and merchants filled their warehouses with exotic goods such as cotton, rum, coffee, cocoa and sugar. Finally, the ships sailed back to Europe and the cycle began again.
Even if slavery existed before the triangular trade, this is a turning point in history in terms of the scale and logistics of organization. It was a well-functioning system that continued for several centuries, from the 15th to the 19th century, and intensified in the 18th century. The three most profitable countries from this trade were Britain, France and Portugal. The description of the triangular trade also helps us to understand the foundations of the European colonies established in America, which benefited from a large and free labor force thanks to slavery.
Causes of Triangular Trade
The Triangle Trade or Triangular Trade between Western Europe, Africa and the Americas.
The main reason for the triangular trade was the need for durable labor. This is why the Portuguese bought black Africans in the 15th century. These slaves were not only employed in Portugal but also on merchant ships. The Portuguese were great travelers, trading all over the world. These long journeys led to high mortality rates because the Portuguese, unlike the Africans, could not tolerate the tropical climate of the colonies (Cape Verde, Sao Tomé, Principe, etc.).
The Spanish followed in the Portuguese footsteps and filled their American possessions with slaves to work in the fields and mines. While the existing natives could not withstand this grueling labor, the Africans proved to be more resilient.
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The Three Stages of the Triangular Trade
The slave ship Luxborough Galley burns and sinks on the last leg of the triangular trade between the Caribbean and England in 1727. Twelve of the crew survived because they practiced cannibalism in the lifeboat.
The Triangular Trade involved three main routes: European ships carrying manufactured goods sailed to Africa, where these goods were traded for enslaved Africans. The enslaved Africans were then transported to the Americas as part of the transatlantic slave trade. In the Americas, they were forced to work on plantations, producing goods like sugar, tobacco, and cotton. The raw materials from the Americas were shipped back to Europe to complete the triangle. The main commodities exchanged in the Triangular Trade included European manufactured goods (such as textiles, firearms, and alcohol), enslaved Africans, and colonial products like sugar, tobacco, cotton, and other raw materials.
When and Where Did the Triangular Trade Take Place?
A slave trader in Gorée.
Between the 15th and mid-16th centuries, the triangular trade was taking shape. The demand for slaves was still low and Spain and Portugal were the main suppliers of slaves, which were mostly sold in Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic) in the Americas. With the arrival of the French and English on the African coast in 1674, the situation changed and competition increased. Slave prices rose, sources of supply changed, and slaves were sold mainly in Jamaica, Santo Domingo, Barbados, Guadeloupe, and Martinique to increase sugar cane production.
The 18th century was a period of great expansion for the triangular trade. Liverpool in England, Nantes and Bordeaux in France were the major slave trading ports in Europe, surpassed only by Rio de Janeiro, the world’s leading port. The slave trade went into decline in the 19th century: the Kings of Denmark and Norway banned the import of slaves in 1803, France abolished the slave trade in 1794 (reinstated by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802), and then in 1807 it was the British turn. But the abolition of the slave trade did not mean the abolition of slavery, and the trade continued to be illegal in many places.
How Were Slaves Treated in the Triangular Trade?
Slave lock on a ship. Musée de la Marine, Paris. Image: Wikimedia.
Europeans started by trading black slaves in the interior for the goods they brought with them. Soon, however, military expeditions were organized to capture slaves in Africa. Even middlemen were armed to make it easier for the traders. Conditions during the journey to America, which could take 30 to 80 days depending on the port of departure and destination, were deplorable. Slaves were chained in pairs. Men were separated from women and children. Mortality peaked at 22.6% in the 16th century, then stabilized at around 10% between 1750 and 1864, averaging 11.9%.
Once in America, slaves were sold after a period of quarantine, then isolated from all their roots and families for a period of acclimatization.
They were then given new names. Then, with quotas to meet and the threat of the whip, they went to work on plantations. However, because their masters valued them as a labor force, they did not consistently mistreat them.
Moreover, it was their masters’ duty to Christianize them. For the French, the Code Noir promulgated by Louis XIV in 1685 laid down the rights and duties of masters and slaves.
How Many Slaves Were Taken in the Triangular Trade?
Europeans inspecting slaves at the slave market in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) before 1857. Artist: Edward Francis Finden. Image: Welcome Collection.
In total, more than 12 million black Africans were deported as part of the triangular trade. About 4.8 million of them came from Central Africa and 2 million from the Gulf of Benin. They were mostly taken to Brazil (4.8 million), the British West Indies (2.3 million) and the French West Indies (1.1 million). France abducted almost one and a half million slaves, far behind Portugal (4.8 million) and Great Britain (3.2 million).
An estimated 12.5 million slaves were transported from Africa to colonies in North and South America, according to research provided by Emory University. The website Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database brings together data on the slave trade from Africa in the past. It shows that the top four countries were Portugal, Great Britain, France, and Spain.
Prices evolved over the course of four centuries of Western African slave trade, both on the English and French sides.
The arrival of the French and the English in 1674 on the African coast, previously dominated by the Dutch, abruptly raised the price of slaves. This price multiplied by six between the mid-17th century and 1712, leading to the development of new supply routes within the continent, weakening traditional African societies.
The mass arrival of new slaves in the Caribbean simultaneously lowered their purchase price for sugarcane plantation owners, increasing production, which resulted in reducing the price of this commodity on the world market and encouraging its consumption. This, in turn, led to a significant expansion of the sugar economy and the slave trade.
On the English and Spanish side, Hugh Thomas presents the following list:
1440s: In Senegambia, a horse was worth 25 to 30 slaves.
1500: A slave was worth 12 to 15 manillas on the Guinea coast.
1500-1510: In Senegambia, a horse was worth 6 to 8 slaves; in Benin, a slave was worth 20 to 25 manillas.
1698: In Guinea, prices had increased by 3 to 4 British pounds.
1701: In Calabar, a man was worth 12 bars, and a woman was worth 9 bars.
1750s: From 12 to 16 pounds at the mouth of the Gambia.
1753: A slave from the Gold Coast was worth 46 pounds; from the Windward Coast, from 35 to 43.
1801-1810: The average price of a Senegambia slave was 29 pounds 5 shillings, 2 and a half pence.
1850: In Saint Louis, Senegal, the average price was 28 British pounds.
1851: The price of slaves in Mozambique was about 3 to 5 dollars; in Pongas, about 12; in Luanda, about 14 to 16.
On the French side, historian Serge Daget (1927-1992) also provides the following information:
In the mid-17th century, in Ouidah, the cost of an average captive was equivalent to 72 livres tournois.
In 1670, in Ouidah, the cost of an average captive rose to 192 livres.
In 1712, on the Gold Coast, a captive cost 384 to 410 livres tournois.
By the end of the 18th century, in Ouidah, it could reach 480 livres.
Between 1830 and 1840, in Ouidah and Lagos, a captive was worth 360 to 480 francs.
In 1847, in Ouidah, it cost 1,680 to 1,920 francs.
In 1847, in Lagos, the cost of a captive was 480 francs.
When and How Did the Triangular Trade End?
African slaves being loaded onto a British slave ship.
At the end of the 18th century, protests against the slave trade became increasingly vocal. Slaves revolted in the colonies. In France, the slave trade was first abolished in 1794, then reinstated by Napoleon in 1802 and abolished again by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Slavery was definitively outlawed in France in 1848. In Great Britain, the slave trade ended in 1807 and in the United States, in 1863, following the American Civil War. The independence of Latin American countries accelerated the process, and slavery was abolished in Chile in 1823, Cuba in 1886, and Brazil in 1888.
What Were the Consequences of the Triangular Trade?
After enriching Europeans for several centuries, the slave trade paved the way for colonization. The triangular trade also altered the demographic composition of the Americas, where people of African origin are highly present in certain countries. Their integration after the abolition of slavery did not occur without difficulty.
Racial segregation in the United States is one example of this. In Africa, the massive deportation of young inhabitants of working age hindered economic development, encouraged conflicts between Africans in exchange for weapons, and led to population movements.
After the end of the triangular trade, there was a social, economic, and political decline in the affected regions of Africa, accompanied by more violent interactions among the population.
Key Dates of the Triangular Trade
October 12, 1492 – Christopher Columbus Discovers America
After two months of sailing, Christopher Columbus and his three caravels (the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria) reached land. However, it wasn’t Asia, as Columbus had hoped; it was the island of Guanahani in the Bahamas, which he claimed in the name of the King and Queen of Spain. This date is now Spain’s national holiday. The colonization of these new lands would lead to a massive demand for labor, pushing Europeans to source slaves from Africa.
February 12, 1635 – Creation of the Company of the American Islands
In 1626, sailors Pierre Belain d’Esnambuc and de Roissey proposed the creation of a “Company of the Lords of Saint-Christophe” to King Louis XIII, with support from Cardinal Richelieu. It was officially founded on July 12, 1635, under the name “Company of the American Islands,” with the goal of expanding French presence and commerce in the Caribbean. In 1649, Charles Houël du Petit Pré purchased Guadeloupe and Les Saintes. The company thrived largely due to the triangular trade and the importation of slaves for the sugar cane plantations.
March 11, 1671 – Foundation of the Danish West India Company
After colonizing the American Virgin Islands and establishing themselves in Saint-Thomas in 1670, the Danes founded the Danish West India Company. It operated on the triangular trade model, exchanging African slaves for sugar and molasses. In 1754, the Danish government took over the company. In 1765, the Guinea Company was created, but economic problems led to its dissolution in 1776.
November 8, 1673 – Colbert Founds the Senegal Company
Under the orders of King Louis XIV, Jean-Baptiste Colbert founded the Senegal Company to take advantage of the flourishing triangular trade dominated by the Dutch. It replaced the West India Company. Its first director was Jean-Baptiste du Casse. However, the company became a financial ruin, as the lack of a monopoly led to an increase in slave traders and a significant rise in the price of African slaves.
August 23, 1791 – Slave Revolt in Haiti
Led by the voodoo priest Boukman, the revolt was the first successful slave uprising. The insurrection began in the northern part of the island and soon spread. Haiti, a major French colony producing sugar and coffee, gained its independence in 1804 after 13 years of battle, forming the first Black state.
February 3, 1794 – The Convention Abolishes Slavery
The French revolutionaries were not immediately in favor of abolishing slavery. The law was drafted by deputy Lacroix of Eure-et-Loir and was passed amid cheers. Representatives from Haiti (then known as Saint-Domingue), which had experienced a major revolt, were present. In 1802, Napoleon reinstated slavery, which was not fully abolished until 1848 under the Second Republic.
March 2, 1807 – England Bans the Slave Trade
The British abolished the trade of Black slaves between Africa and America. Denmark had already implemented this measure three years earlier. England pressured all European nations to renounce the slave trade and did not hesitate to search suspected slave ships, acting as “sea police.” In 1833, England became one of the first countries to definitively abolish slavery.
August 1833 – Abolition of Slavery in the British Empire
By 1833, abolitionist sentiments were growing in Britain, with the government receiving more than 5,000 petitions demanding the end of slavery, representing over a million and a half signatures. In August 1833, the British Empire proclaimed the abolition of slavery in its colonies. Parliament passed the Abolition Bill on August 8, which was confirmed by King William IV on August 28.
April 27, 1848 – Abolition of Slavery in French Colonies
Slavery was first abolished during the French Revolution in 1792, thanks to Henri Grégoire. However, it was restored under Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1848, during the provisional government of the Second Republic, the measure was permanently adopted. Victor Schœlcher, undersecretary to Minister François Arago, played a key role in passing the decree abolishing slavery in the French colonies on April 27, 1848.
September 22, 1862 – Lincoln Proclaims the Emancipation of Southern Slaves
Following the Union victory at Antietam, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln announced the emancipation of Black slaves in the Southern states. This did not outright abolish slavery; slaves in rebellious states were declared free without compensation to their owners, while slaves in border states loyal to the Union saw a more gradual emancipation process. Lincoln set January 1, 1863, as the deadline for emancipation.
January 31, 1865 – Abolition of Slavery in the United States
On this date, the U.S. Constitution was amended with the 13th Amendment, officially and definitively ending slavery. Three years earlier, Lincoln had already emancipated the American slaves, earning him the title of “The Great Emancipator.” His commitment to this cause led to his assassination in 1865, shortly after being re-elected, by a Confederate sympathizer.
In the city of Şanlıurfa, Turkey, a prehistoric anthropomorphic figure known as the Urfa Man (Turkish: Urfa Adamı), or Balıklıgöl Statue, was uncovered during construction work. The age of the Urfa Man is 9000 BC, which places it in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic time period (c. 10,000–6500 BC). There are only a few miles between the Urfa Man and other prehistoric sites, Göbeklitepe (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A/B) and Nevalı Çori (Pre-Pottery Neolithic B).
The Urfa Man is the oldest known representation of a life-sized human sculpture. This makes it the oldest known statue in the world.
The Urfa Man was discovered in 1993 during road work in the Yeni Mahalle neighborhood north of Balıklıgöl (“Fish Lake”). Nevertheless, the precise location of its discovery has been lost to history. The Urfa Man was discovered while dismembered into four separate parts. It is unknown if the statue’s dismemberment was caused by the road work.
Even though the statue was dismembered, it was still whole. It was discovered under the foundations of the ancient Urfa dwellings that were near large water sources close to the north of Balıklıgöl during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Period (10,000–6500 BC).
The findings confirmed in 1997 that the region had been continuously occupied since the time the statue was created.
The discovery of Pre-Pottery Neolithic “terrazzo floors” and other artifacts, such as distinctive flint tools, attest to this settlement’s existence.
Age
The estimates put its age between 11,000 and 9500 BC but the recent data points to c. 9000 BC. The statue may have been carried from the nearby Urfa Yeni-Yol site, which is from Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (c. 10,000–c. 8,800 BC). This site is also close to the other Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites, Gürcütepe and Göbeklitepe (the oldest known temple in human history).
The statue is made of light sandstone and stands around 6 feet 3 inches in height (190 cm). The body is 21 inches in width and 25 inches in depth. It has no mouth and instead has two depressions inlaid with black obsidian for eyes, which is a natural volcanic glass highly valued back at the time.
The statue is completely naked, save for a V-shaped collar.
This object might as well be a metal necklace. The Urfa Man’s hands seem to clasp and conceal the genital region, and it has no visible feet or legs; instead, it tapers to the ground for support. No evidence suggests why this statue was created or utilized in the first place.
The statue stands on no legs. He has no facial hair or beard and no mouth. Many theories have been put forth to explain the missing mouth, such as that the person shown is wearing a mask or is concealing some truths. When seen from the front, the hands are joined at the navel. The museum notes that “the statue unquestionably represents male sexuality predominantly”. Since it is near the Göbeklitepe, a similarly dated religious sanctuary, the Urfa Man might be representing a local god.
Some Older Statuettes
Both the Lion-Man (Löwenmensch) figure and the Venus of Hohle Fels from Germany from the same time period (aged 35,000–41,000 years) are the earliest known statuettes in the world. Other oldest Upper Paleolithic statuettes include the Venus of Dolní Věstonice (aged 25,000–29,000 years), the Venus of Willendorf (aged almost 30,000 years), and the Venus of Brassempouy (aged 21,000–26,000 years), which existed before the discovery of the Urfa Man.
Are There Possibly Older Statues?
One of the oldest statues that are similar to the Urfa Man in appearance is from ʿAin Ghazal, an archaeological site in the Levant, Jordan. This site yielded anthropomorphic statues created between 7200 BC and 6250 BC.
The Urfa Man is shown prominently at the Şanlıurfa Archaeological Museum. Created around 11,000 years ago, it is the oldest statue in history. However, looking at the elaborated statuettes, which are incredibly older, there are likely statues that are many millennia older than the Urfa Man waiting to be unearthed (likely in Turkey again, the birthplace of civilization).
At the end of the 17th century, during the reign of the Sun King, France was flourishing. Its economy was booming, and the Triangular Trade was in full swing. More and more slaves from Africa were being sent to the American colonies. They worked in sugar cane plantations, which were of great importance to France. In March 1685, Louis XIV promulgated a historic royal ordinance that defined the legal status of slaves in the Caribbean colonies.
The “Code Noir” was drafted by Colbert, who was the Secretary of State for the Navy and the chief minister of the king for 20 years. This text provided a clear legal framework for practices already in place in French overseas possessions and laid the foundation for French colonial law. The Code Noir continued to be in effect until the second abolition of slavery during the French Second Republic in 1848.
There were several notable slave revolts and acts of resistance against the conditions imposed by the Code Noir, particularly in the French Caribbean colonies. The most famous of these revolts was the Haitian Revolution, which ultimately led to the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.
What Is the Code Noir?
A copy of the 1743 edition of Code noir, now in New Orleans. Image: Historic New Orleans Collection 80-654-RL.
The Code Noir is the name given to the royal decree of March 1685 concerning slaves in the French West Indies. Its aim was to specify and regulate, for the first time, the “master-slave” relationships in the Caribbean. It granted slaves an intermediate status, between a free person and movable property, with rights and, most importantly, duties. It recognized slaves as “beings of God” without granting them separate legal personalities.
The text was initially applied in Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Saint-Christophe. It was later extended to Saint-Domingue in 1687 and Guyana in 1704. From the 18th century onwards, additional texts modified, supplemented, and tightened the original edict. The term “Code Noir” started to be used to refer to various regulations related to slavery and even French colonial law as a whole.
Who Wrote the Code Noir?
Code Noir was written by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who actively promoted the development of trade and industry as Minister of State for the Navy under Louis XIV and one of the king’s prime ministers for 20 years. Colbert was responsible for drafting the text, which aimed to establish the legal framework for the status of slaves in the colonies. In writing this text, Colbert was inspired by reports on French estates written a few years earlier.
As Colbert died in 1683, the final touches to the text were made by Colbert’s son Jean-Baptiste Antoine Colbert de Seignelay. In March 1685, the king issued the royal decree. Additional edicts concerning Mauritius, La Réunion and Louisiana, among others, were issued in the early 18th century, so in reality it is more accurate to speak of “Codes Noirs”.
Why Was the Code Noir Written?
In 1685, France was a major European power in a fierce competition for supremacy in maritime trade. To achieve this, it aimed to make sugar cane cultivation the center of its economic development. But it needed a workforce to exploit the resources of the Caribbean. Like Portugal, England, or Spain, France resorted to the triangular trade. It chartered ships from slave ports to Africa, exchanged goods for slaves and then transported them to the Americas to work on plantations.
Slavery was illegal in the metropolis at the time but widely practiced in the colonies without any legal regulation. The Code Noir therefore aimed to bring order to the relations between owners and slaves in overseas territories. It also reaffirmed the sovereignty of the state and strengthened its control over sugar cane cultivation.
What Does the Code Noir Contain?
In a preamble and sixty articles, the Code Noir regulated the condition of slaves in the French colonies. For the first time, slaves had some rights but were subject to numerous prohibitions. Article 44 of the Code Noir declared slaves as “movable property” that could be bought or sold, stating, “We declare slaves to be movable and as such to enter the community.” In the 17th century, an individual’s legal personality was not inherently linked to their humanity.
Therefore, it was not contradictory for a slave to be considered both a being with a soul and an object. The text governed various aspects of the lives of slaves, including work, religion, housing, property, offenses, and manumission. While it granted some rights, slaves were still unable to own anything (Article 28: “We declare that slaves cannot have anything of their own that is not their masters’) and could not testify in court; they remained subject to their owners.
The Code Noir also served as a means to reaffirm the Christian faith in the colonies. The practice of the Protestant faith was prohibited (Article 5), and Jews were expelled from the islands (Article 1).
We forbid our subjects of the so-called reformed religion to disturb or prevent our other subjects, even their slaves, from the free exercise of the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, on pain of exemplary punishment.
Article 5.
Code Noir contained provisions related to religion. It required enslaved individuals to be baptized as Catholics and to receive religious instruction. It also regulated religious practices within the enslaved population.
Did the Code Noir Improve the Living Conditions of Slaves?
Starting in 1685, slaves were required to be educated and baptized. They were thus considered Christians. They were entitled to rest on Sundays and during holidays. They could marry in the church with the consent of their masters and be buried in a cemetery (Article 10). Owners were obligated to provide them with food (Article 22: “Masters shall be required to provide their slaves aged ten years and above with two and a half Paris measures of cassava flour every week”), clothing (Article 25), and care for elderly or sick slaves (Article 27).
Additionally, slaves and their families could not be sold separately. However, the Code Noir legalized corporal punishment on slaves. They could be beaten, branded with a hot iron, or have their ears cut. Masters were not, however, allowed to arbitrarily kill a slave (Article 43).
Each week masters will have to furnish to their slaves ten years old and older for their nourishment two and a half jars in the measure of the land, of cassava flour or three cassavas weighing at least two-and-a-half pounds each or equivalent things, with two pounds of salted beef or three pounds of fish or other things in proportion, and to children after they are weaned to the age of 10 years half of the above supplies.
Article 22.
The death penalty applied to a slave who struck his master or was sentenced to escape for the third time. Despite the introduction of the Code, the living conditions of slaves remained very harsh. Improvements and increased control over the actions of owners would have to wait until the reign of Louis XVI.
When Was the Code Noir Abolished?
The Code Noir remained in effect throughout the slave trade until the abolition of slavery. It was initially abolished on February 4, 1794, during the French Revolution. However, it was reinstated in 1802, along with slavery, by Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then the First Consul. Both were definitively abolished on April 27, 1848, by the provisional government of the Second Republic. The decree, drafted by Victor Schœlcher, Undersecretary of State for the Navy, confirmed the abolition of slavery in France.
In the preamble of the text, political representatives established that “considering that slavery is an attack against human dignity […]; that it is a flagrant violation of the republican dogma: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.” Article 1 stated that “slavery is completely abolished in the French colonies and possessions.” From that moment on, slaves were freed and considered citizens, often referred to as “new citizens” or “newly liberated.”
In the framework of the Bible and the Book of Daniel, the Nebuchadnezzar statue takes on religious and historical significance. Nebuchadnezzar II, the second Neo-Babylonian ruler (605–562 BC), had a dream in which he saw the image of a golden statue. He dreamed of a tall statue composed of four distinct metals: a golden head, silver chest and arms, bronze belly and thighs, and iron legs and feet. The Jewish prophet Daniel saw in this monument a foreshadowing of global politics.
The statue likely represents the Babylonian, Persian, Alexandrian, and Roman empires.
Some believe that the statue represents the Babylonian, Persian, Alexandrian, and Roman empires. Each metal stood in for a separate dynasty, with gold representing Nebuchadnezzar’s own empire and the other metals representing those that followed. The dream encapsulated the Persian historiographic view of successive global dominations and also offered hope to the Jews of their oppressors’ downfall by divine intervention.
Architecture, mathematics, and astronomy all reached new heights during the rule of this empire. Jerusalem was taken and the Jews were exiled as part of Nebuchadnezzar’s military victories.
A Golden Statue
Nebuchadnezzar (c. 642–562 BC) had several disturbing dreams in his second year as king. One of these dreams included a massive, magnificent statue of a man fashioned from a variety of metals. In this dream, a gigantic statue appeared with a golden head, silver chest and arms, bronze belly and thighs, iron legs, and iron and clay feet.
Nebuchadnezzar sought the advice of his magi to decipher the detailed meaning of his dream. The price of failure in doing so was certain death. While the magi were unable to explain it, Daniel, a Jewish prisoner in Babylon, was able to interpret the dream through an alleged divine revelation.
Its Meaning
This dream was a Persian historiographic iconography for the political outlook of the region at the time.
According to the Jewish prophet, various powerful countries were shown in the dream. The dream illustrated both the inevitable decline of even the most powerful earthly kingdoms and the ultimate triumph of God and the building of his eternal kingdom.
The statue’s golden head signified Nebuchadnezzar’s dominion, while the other metals stood for the other kingdoms that followed. This statue was the image of the Persian historiographic iconography of the time, which showed a worldview where a chain of dynasties dominated the globe in series.
Nebuchadnezzar’s dream also offered the Judeans some encouragement. According to that, God would ultimately smash their Greek oppressors, as symbolized by the statue’s crushing by a stone mountain, alluding to the narrative of the golden calf.
The stone that fell from the sky and smashed the statue in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream referred to a kingdom set up by God that will never be overthrown or handed to other people. In this tale, the iron, the bronze, the clay, the silver, and the gold were all crushed by one stone, which was cut from the mountain without the use of human hands.
According to the Bible, the stone that destroyed the Nebuchadnezzar statue grew into a mountain and covered the whole earth, representing the kingdom of God.
Appearance of the Statue
Materials
Nebuchadnezzar saw an enormous and terrifying statue. The statue included four distinct metals, each of which stood for a different bodily part:
The statue’s head was crafted from pure gold.
The chest and arms were made of silver.
The belly and thighs were made of bronze.
The legs were made of iron, and the feet were a combination of iron and clay.
Dimensions
The statue’s height was believed to be around 60 cubits or 90 feet (27.5 m), and its width was about 6 cubits or 9 feet (2.7 m). The statue was noteworthy since it represented the inevitable decline of even the most powerful empires on Earth.
Interpretation of the Metal Parts
The Nebuchadnezzar statue is divided into four sections, each of which represents one of four kingdoms:
Head of gold: The economic might of the Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC) and the divine hegemony of the Babylonian pantheon by Nebuchadnezzar are symbolized by the golden head.
Chest and arms of silver: They represent the conquering and replacing of Babylon by the Medo-Persian Empire (539–331 BC). The Persian and Median empires are symbolized by the silver chest.
Belly and thighs of bronze: They represent the Greek Empire (331–146 BC), which defeated the Persian Empire. The bronze belly and thighs stand in for the Greek state.
Iron legs and iron feet mixed with clay: They represent the Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD), which defeated the Greek Empire. Iron legs stand in for the once-mighty Roman Empire.
Compared to Other Ancient Statues
Colossus of Rhodes.
Here are some other ancient statues with similar purposes or meanings:
Colossus of Rhodes: Chares of Lindos, in 280 BC, created the Colossus of Rhodes, a statue of the Greek sun God Helios, in the city of Rhodes on the Greek island of the same name. Its height was around 108 feet (33 meters).
Ancient Greek sculptures: Early on in their creative development, the Greeks settled on the human figure as their primary focus, similar to the humanoid Nebuchadnezzar statue.
Statues from the Early Dynastic Period: The Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900–c. 2350 BC) statues discovered in Mesopotamia on Level VII are from the late dynastic era. They depict a standing male worshiper and a standing female worshiper, which shows the traditional purpose of ancient statutes and the notion of worshipping.
Statue of Zeus at Tarentum: Lysippos erected a bronze statue of Zeus at Tarentum that stood at 72 feet in height.
Atlas statue at Sicily’s Temple of Zeus: The Temple of Zeus in Sicily includes almost 40 statues, including an eight-meter-tall Atlas monument that was constructed in the 5th century BC.
Parallels to the Nebuchadnezzar Statue in Other Cultures
There are parallels between the Nebuchadnezzar statue and other antique sculptures and buildings. The Bahman Yasht, a Persian holy scripture, has a schema similar to that shown in this golden statue, in which a tree with branches made of different metals represents the many dynasties that have held sway throughout history. This scripture received its present form in the 9th or 10th century AD, but it is believed to represent an ancient tradition of worldview.
The statue’s depiction of the rise and collapse of earthly kingdoms is reminiscent of the Hindu notion of the four yugas, or progressively immoral epochs of human history. Kali Yuga, which lasts for 432,000 years, is believed to have started in 3102 BC.
Ancient peoples thought similarly about how history repeats itself and about the development and collapse of great civilizations. To do that, the ancient peoples communicated their values and ideas to their communities through works of art and monumental structures, just like today.
Visions of Statues and Kingdoms in Ancient History
Although Nebuchadnezzar’s dream in the Book of Daniel is the only known instance of a monarch having a dream in which he sees a statue depicting the rise and fall of kingdoms, there are other examples of dreams, sculptures, and pictures playing important roles in ancient history.
Egyptian statues: Ancient Egyptians often portrayed their gods and pharaohs on sculptures. The ka, or vital energy, of the person depicted was believed to be stored inside these sculptures. They were not always seen in dreams, but when they were, they had great religious and political weight.
Godnapping in Mesopotamia: In ancient Mesopotamia, there was a phenomenon known as “godnapping,” in which the monarch of the victorious side would steal the gods (usually statues) of the losing side. The seizure of these idols represented a shift in authority since they were viewed as divine symbols.
Lions in ancient cultures: Lions of all kinds were a profound representation of Nebuchadnezzar. The lion has been a significant cultural icon for thousands of years in the region and it was a common motif for ancient sculptors to portray them in statues as a sign of authority and prestige.
These examples do not involve dreams of statues predicting the rise or fall of kingdoms, but they do show how dreams, monuments, and pictures have been utilized to transmit important political and religious messages throughout history.
Purpose of the Nebuchadnezzar Statue in Babylonian Tradition
Nebuchadnezzar’s dream statue had deep cultural significance in Babylonia. It was a metaphor for the global empire Nebuchadnezzar envisioned in which his own kingdom would be the only superpower. Because Nebuchadnezzar’s own kingdom was depicted by the golden head.
Statues in Babylonian civilization were used for both ceremonial and utilitarian reasons. They were often used to strike fear in the hearts of one’s opponents and flaunt the king’s riches and authority. One example is the 95-foot-tall golden statue commissioned by King Nebuchadnezzar II. To show his dominance, he ordered that whenever the music played, everyone must bow down and worship his golden statue.
The statue in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream was both a made-up prophetic sign and a representation of Babylonian culture at large.
Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon and His Empire
An important ancient civilization, the Babylonian Empire (1894–539 BC) is also known as the Neo-Babylonian Empire and it was located in Mesopotamia, which is now modern-day Iraq.
During his reign from 605 to 562 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II established himself as the empire’s greatest ruler. He took over for his father, the first Neo-Babylonian Empire’s creator, Nabopolassar. Nebuchadnezzar II, or Nebuchadnezzar the Great, is often considered to have been the greatest ruler of the Babylonian Empire.
In addition to his impact on Jewish history, Nebuchadnezzar II is known for his military power and his capital city of Babylon. In 605 BC, he defeated an Egyptian army headed by Pharaoh Necho II in the Battle of Carchemish and helped the Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire.
Different forms of the name “Habiru,” such as “Abiru,” “Apiru,” and “Hapiru,” all relate to the same group of people mentioned in ancient Near Eastern literature from the second millennium BC. The Habiru were precarious people who all found themselves on the outside of civilization. Numerous texts written between around 2000 and 1200 BC in Egyptian, Akkadian, Sumerian, and Ugaritic all make reference to them. Their existence is verified in Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Syria.
Some writings label the Habiru as nomads, while others use terms like “semi-sedentary,” “marginalized,” “outlaw,” “rebel,” “mercenary,” “slave,” and “migrant worker.” The significance of this name, as well as any possible ties between the Habiru and the Hebrews of the Bible, have been argued about in academic circles. In the Bronze Age, the Habiru lived in the peripheries of several states, somewhat unlike the Hebrews (ʿibrîm). However, these concepts are not synonymous with one another.
Etymology of Habiru
The wine press used by Habiru in the tomb of Puimre (TT39 Theban Tomb), 15th century BC.
The term “Habiru,” appearing around 250 times in ancient Near Eastern documents of the second millennium BC, is of Semitic origin but lacks a clear definition. In Akkadian texts, it is transcribed as ḫabiru/ḫapiru. Scholars debate its exact meaning, with two possible etymologies considered. One suggests it’s related to the root ḫbr (“to bind, unite”), indicating “the confederates,” or the toponym ḫbrn (Hebron), translating to “the Hebronites.” Another interpretation connects it to the Semitic root ʿbr (“to pass”), denoting refugees or fugitives. In some contexts, it’s linked to the term ˓pr (“dust, clay”), signifying socially inferior populations (“the dusty ones”). The Sumerian equivalent, SA.GAZ, refers to desert-dwelling bandits, indicating that “Habiru” might have been adopted to describe them due to their organization into mobile groups, city threats, and avoidance of central authority.
Who Were the Habiru?
Idrimi of Alalakh, King of the Habiru. In the British Museum. (Rama, cc by sa 2.0, cropped)
Multiple 2nd-century BC sources mention the Habiru. They tend to cluster on the outskirts of major cities and states. Being an outsider to the places they visit is one of their defining features. They aren’t always tied together by shared history or homeland. In several historical accounts, they are depicted as violent and menacing, endangering the safety of many communities. To ensure their safety, several towns hired the Habiru to fight on their behalf as mercenaries.
The local leaders and military commanders had to deal with them. They have both fought against the Habiru and recruited them as auxiliary warriors. They worked for local lords in Babylonia, Alalakh, and Hattusa. Their relations are more tense in Mari and Egyptian writings. They banded together to launch raids against civilized areas.
The Amarna era provides the bulk of available information about these nomadic people. Habiru have been discovered in Egypt, where they have been held as slaves. They seem to be displaced people who were forced to leave their homes for different causes. They formed bands but never counted as a distinct group. When a new order was created in the Near East at the end of the second millennium, after the collapse of the previous Bronze Age, they disappeared from written records.
Historical References to the Habiru
Alishar: 19th century BC
The word “habiru” was first documented in a letter from ancient Alishar Hüyük, Anatolia. Assyrian commercial sites existed in the area as early as the Paleolithic era (19th century BC). Prisoners from the Assyrian palace are mentioned in the letter as the Habiru men (“awili habiri”). Possible ransom terms and conditions are laid forth. A person named Enna-Aššur writes a letter to Nabi-Enlil.
The question on Enna-Aššur’s mind was whether or not “the princess” was willing to let the males go. If they were held for ransom, he wanted Nabi-Enlil to pay it. He promised him that he would transfer the money without delay and stressed that he had no qualms about paying the desired sum. The fact that these Habiru males were connected to an Assyrian palace and had the financial means to pay any ransom attests to their high social rank. It’s possible that they were palace guards.
Paleo-Babylonian: 19th–17th century BC
The Larsa settlement, in southern Mesopotamia, recorded the presence of the Habiru during the reign of Rim-Sîn I, a ruler contemporary with Babylon’s Hammurabi. Equipment for Habiru troops came from the temple of Shamash’s (a deity) administration. Officers were outfitted with garments purchased with temple funds. The SA. GAZ is also mentioned in seven administrative papers from the time of Rim-Sîn I’s brother and predecessor, Warad-Sîn. These men received a few pets and chickens. After that, we don’t see any more Habiru in southern Mesopotamia.
Habiru is also referenced in texts from Upper Mesopotamia and Syria during the same time period. Mari documents dating from 1810 BC to 1700 BC include them often. The Harran area was the target of coordinated invasions and pillages by Habiru during Zimri-Lim’s rule. According to a letter, two hundred Habiru troops supported a Zimri-Lim opponent. In this setting, the Habiru seem to be a part of the local people, as stated by Mary P. Gray. A contrasting approach was suggested by J.-M. Durand, who labels them “troublemakers, often associated with mischief.” He suggests that the phrase, when read as hapirum, is related to the Semitic root PR, which means “to leave one’s home.” In this sense, it is a political exile for someone who has left their home because of a power conflict, as was typical at this time in Upper Mesopotamia.
A document written in Elamite Susa addresses the logistics of supplying Amorite troops stationed all throughout the country. The term “Habiru” is used to describe one of them.
Around 1600 BC, an eight-column Akkadian clay artifact called the Tikunani Prism recorded the names of 438 Habiru, the vast majority of whom had Hittite origins. Located in modern-day Turkey, near the city of Diyarbakir, they worked for King Tunib-Teshub of the Tikunani kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia. This kingdom was apparently friendly with the Hittite monarch Ḫattušili I and even served as his vassal, as shown by a letter. A tablet from the same canon has oracle prophecies about Habiru invasions.
Alalakh: 19th–15th century BC
An 18th-century BC year name in Alalakh (“the year when King Irkabtum […] made peace with the Habiru”) alludes to the existence of Habiru inside or near the kingdom of Yamhad (an ancient Semitic kingdom). Several manuscripts from the 15th century BC, when the city was a vassal of the Mitanni, mention the Habiru. According to the Alalakh texts, the Habiru were more complex than simple bandits. The inscription of Idrimi (the King of Alalakh) tells the fictionalized tale of his life. After being cast out of his country, the exiled prince of Aleppo sought sanctuary among the Habiru in Canaan.
Habiru, a fellow refugee from Aleppo, formed an army that he used to capture control in Alalakh. After some time, he was officially crowned king of Alalakh, becoming a vassal to the Mitanni and ushering in a new dynasty. The Habiru were now part of his main army. The Habiru now emerged as armed men under the leadership of his son and successor, Niqmepa. There were 1,436 men in all, and 80 of them possessed chariots.
These gentlemen were representatives of society’s elite. A priest of the Hittite goddess Ishara was among them. Other sources made reference to SA.GAZ troops serving the kingdom, some of whom had Hittite-sounding names.
Period of Nuzi: 15th–14th century BC
A slave exchange treaty between Idrimi and Pilliya of Kizzuwatna. Treaty c.1480 BC. Clay cuneiform tablet. (Fae, cc by sa 3.0, cropped)
Nuzi, a small Mesopotamian city in the kingdom of Arrapha in what is now northern Iraq, has the names of many people who are classified as Habiru dating back to the 15th and 14th centuries BC. Nuzi attests for the first time that Habiru had been demoted from soldier to servant. Many of them hail from nearby Assyria. One Habiru’s origin is given as “Akkad,” while an Assyrian slave with the name of Warad-Kubi was referred to as a Habiru in an undertaking. It looks like he was a poor foreigner who decided to become a slave. As the mention of a scribe who was also a Habiru demonstrates, Habiru sometimes occupied positions of prominence in society. The name Habiru is usually spelled with a syllabic pattern in Nuzi.
Hittites: 14th–13th century BC
The Habiru were protected people in the Hittite kingdom. They were hired to do manual labor in the fields. Ḫattušili III issued a decree that said anybody from the Ugarit kingdom who entered Habiru’s area would be sent over to the Ugarit authorities.
Known as ilâni SA.GAZ or ilâni habiri, the “gods of the Habiru” are mentioned in thirteen separate Hittite treaties. The presence of references to Habiru deities in official Hittite texts suggests that Habiru were an integral part of ancient Hittite culture. A certain city was taken by the Hurrians and handed to the grandfather of a Habiru called Tette, according to a manuscript detailing an arbitration between the towns of Barga and Carchemish by Mursili II. Habiru led a small kingdom in this instance.
Ancient Egypt and the Amarna Texts: 15th–12th century BC
Habiru is mentioned as ‘pr.w in Egyptian hieroglyphic script from this description of the Battle of Kadesh (13th century BC) from Abu Simbel.
From as early as the 18th Egyptian Dynasty, the “Apiru” (‘pr.w in Egyptian hieroglyphic script) appeared in writings. According to the records, Apiru visited the Middle East during Egypt’s New Kingdom. Amenhotep II boasts that he single-handedly seized 3,600 Apiru. To avoid having his horse stolen by an Apiru, Pharaoh Thutmose III’s commander Thoth asks for it to be kept within the city during the Capture of Joppa in the Papyrus Harris 500. The tombs of Puimre and Tomb 155, both dating to the time of Thutmose III in the Theban Necropolis, have depictions of Apiru engaged in the wine-pressing industry.
Most of what is known about Apiru or Habiru in the Levant comes from the Amarna Letters. The diplomatic correspondence of Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV) of Egypt, written somewhere about 1340 BC, was sent to him by his vassals among the kings of Canaan and other modern monarchs. The Akkadian cuneiform script was used to write them.
Kings after kings were assaulted by nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes and they wrote to the pharaoh begging for protection.
When fighting regional conflicts, these tribes often established temporary alliances with rival kingdoms. In some scripts, the logogram SA.GAZ designates the Apiru, but in others, the Apiru are referred to syllabically as Habiru. The word might be employed metaphorically on rare occasions to refer to other vassal kings.
The Egyptian towns in northern Canaan were under constant assault from the Habiru throughout the Amarna era. According to the Amarna Letters, the name “Habiru” was used to describe a group of bandits who operated in the hilly highlands of Canaan. The Beqaa Valley seemed to be where they were doing the most damage. The Habiru were traditionally adversarial to Egypt. Damascus did join forces with them once, however, to fight Egypt’s foes. The Habiru were represented in the letters as the paradigmatic bandits.
Invoking them helped justify condemning the violent actions of opponents. If an enemy king’s city was mentioned as joining the Habiru, it could be portrayed as a rebel against the pharaoh. It is not easy to tell whether concerns about the Habiru were a literary ploy to ask Egypt for help or if the Habiru really represented a strong power in Canaan. The Habiru seemed to be loosely organized tribes of nomads who had trouble fitting into Canaanite society at large. They continued to have little impact on regional politics. These bands may have been employed for regional influence methods beyond the rhetoric expressed in the letters.
The Byblos governor (a city in Lebanon), Rib-Hadda, informed the Egyptian pharaoh that the Habiru were aiding the kingdom of Amurru in its growth. Their presence probably didn’t cause any problems for Egypt, and it may have strengthened the ties between Egypt and its vassal countries, who needed its help to fend off Habiru incursions.
The Habiru or Apiru looked to operate on the periphery of urban politics, given that they could not be traced to any one city. However, they were not totally cut off from the metropolitan system, even though they had no links to cities.
They seemed to be involved in the political affairs of the towns of Canaan as well. An Amarna letter (EA 273) provides evidence of diplomatic contact between the Habiru and the towns of Ayyaluna and Sarha, suggesting that the Habiru were involved in political activity.
The Habiru are still being mentioned in contexts beyond the Amarna era. Seti I’s Egyptians went on a mission to Syria and Palestine when the “Habiru from Mount Yarmuta” attacked a nearby city, according to a stele unearthed at Beit She’an, a city in Israel. Slave traders brought back to Egypt an untold number of Habiru.
The determinative sign before the word “Apiru” was often taken to denote nomadic peoples.
So, they were also seen as nomads in the eyes of the Egyptians. Two post-Amarna era Egyptian texts, found in the Kumidu (Kamid el-Loz in Bekaa, Lebanon) administrative center, direct the relocation of Habiru communities from Canaan to Nubia. The Egyptians, Hittites, and Mitanni were all vying for dominance over Syria at the time of these expulsions.
Several slaves, Egyptians, and foreigners, such as the Maryannu (ancient warriors) and Habiru (Papyrus Harris), are included among Pharaoh Ramesses III’s donations to two temples in Heliopolis. Eight hundred Habiru were among the workforce that Pharaoh Ramesses IV sent to the Wadi Hammamat (a river in Egypt) quarries. The Apiru or Habiru is not mentioned again in Egyptian writings after this inscription.
Ugarit: 1300–1200 BC
Ugarit is an ancient port city located in northwest Syria, and the majority of its surviving records are from the late 13th or early 12th centuries BC. These writings show that the Habiru were considered by the government of the kingdom. They were noted in reference to the distribution of oil rations. A “hill of the Habiru” signifies that these people were not nomadic but rather had a fixed location there.
The Many Meanings of Habiru
It is hard to generalize about the ethnicity of those who claim to be Habiru since they all have names with different roots. The names of the Habiru people are either West Semitic or another language, such as Akkadian, Hurrian, or Indo-European.
Meanings of “Habiru” in Society
It became obvious that the Habiru were dispersed all around the fertile crescent when literature describing them was uncovered. These disparate Habiru were not related ethnically or linguistically, and they existed on the outside of established cultures, sometimes operating illegally.
Outlaws, mercenaries, and escaped slaves were depicted in the texts as members of a lower social class. Therefore, according to some observers, Habiru was a socially charged word used to describe those on the fringes of society.
In all extant texts, the word “Habiru” by itself referred to a group of people who lived on the outskirts of settled societies, either raiding them, engaging in combat with them, receiving payment from them to attack others, or else seeking refuge among them and looking for a modest position at the bottom of the social ladder.
Using some Mari texts as evidence, the Israeli archaeologist and historian Nadav Na’aman came to the conclusion that the word Habiru referred to migrants. He pointed out that in Asian societies of the second millennium, the word “Habiru” referred to the act of migration rather than a specific status related to how well the person adapted to their new environment.
They were examples of the dissolution of social cohesion for the sake of undertakings associated with the acquisition of power, similar to an exodus.
The Habiru: Hebrews in Disguise?
The subject of whether or not “Habiru” is related to “Hebrew” has been discussed for over a century, but no clear answer has emerged. Since the 1887 discovery of the Amarna letters, the Habiru have been a major cause of unrest and insurrection across numerous Canaanite city-states, particularly in and around Urusalim (the name of Jerusalem on ancient Egyptian tablets in the 14th century BC; EA 290).
Similarities between the two names, as well as the nomadic lifestyle and geographical and temporal overlaps, led scholars to suggest a link between the Habiru and Hebrews. However, as further references to Habiru were uncovered in the second millennium throughout the fertile crescent, this hypothesis was revised. In 1953, the topic of the Habiru was discussed at the fourth International Association for Assyriology. After it became clear that “Habiru” referred to a group of individuals, several academics gave up on trying to draw connections between the two.
Others point out that the sociological part of the phrase, referring to uprooted people living on the margins of society, is consistent with instances of the Hebrew term in the Old Testament, which were frequently used derogatorily by outsiders. Therefore, although it’s unlikely that all Habiru were Hebrews, it’s plausible that some of their adversaries mistook Hebrews for Habiru.
