Category: History

Witness the transformation across time and interpret the past of human societies while shedding light on the most prominent events.

What Was Daily Life Like in Ancient Rome?
What was daily life like in ancient Rome? How did people spend their days in the Roman Empire? The Roman civilization was an unusual culture with some resemblance to our own. There are parts of life for the residents of the ancient Roman Republic in the 1st century BC that are somewhat comparable to modern living and others that are entirely foreign to our ears. The Romans were known for their daily routine of going to work, indulging in takeaway meals, and later enjoying summer festivals while savoring a bottle of wine. The Romans saw having sex with prostitutes in the temple as a holy act and burning animals as a means to curse their enemies.
The Earliest Fire Brigade in Ancient Rome
We now take it as a given that if there is a fire, the fire brigade will arrive to put it out. Fire was a major concern in ancient Rome because of the high concentration of wooden structures. For a long time, there was no fire brigade in Rome. If a fire broke out, people had to wait for citizens or soldiers to arrive and put it out.
However, starting about the year 70 BC, fire crews were dispatched to the scene whenever a fire was reported. But this fire brigade wasn’t created for the greater good of society: Marcus Licinius Crassus, the wealthiest man in Rome and a supporter of Julius Caesar, had his own private fire brigade.
Crassus would go down in history as an immoral businessman:
Upon arrival at the fire scene, the fire extinguisher crew made an unexpected declaration: “We have the capability to extinguish the fire, but Crassus will only do so if he acquires this building.”
Naturally, they were eager to make a trade. If they refused to sell, the fire brigade would wait until an adjacent structure caught fire before beginning negotiations.
This filthy fire brigade marked the inception of the world’s very first organized firefighting unit.
The Right to Vote in Ancient Rome
As a republic, Rome granted the right to vote to all free males who met the age requirement. Today, this creates the false impression of a somewhat democratic administration; however, it was not true.
The Roman government’s bureaucrats were elected, but not with a majority vote. Citizens first elected a Centuriate Assembly, made up of 373 representatives (called centuries), who could vote for top government leaders.
In these gatherings, everyone had the right to vote, but the representation was quite uneven.
There were 35 distinct Roman tribes, and each tribe was further subdivided into five “classes.” The term “tribe” implied a hereditary tie, but in reality, people were grouped together based on where they resided. Therefore, “class” was the most significant.
In the daily life of Rome, there was a significant demographic disparity between the wealthiest and lowest strata, with the “propertyless” plebians (commoners) comprising more than 70% of the total.
The voting started with the electors from the highest class and proceeded until a majority of votes were cast, thereby preventing the common electors from voting. For this reason, the richest men, the top 0.1 percent or so, had a disproportionate influence in the so-called “republican government” of ancient Rome.
There was also a law-making body called the Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Council), and an existing entity called the Senate that determined how the legislation should be applied. But the common Roman people lacked a say even in these official institutions.
This meant that the vast majority of Romans could not influence the government at all. Even if they technically possessed the “right to vote,” it was mostly symbolic.
Given the widespread unhappiness with the political system as a result of this structure, it was inevitable that certain politicians would resort to violence in an effort to subdue the opposition (such as the Brutus and Cassius brothers who conspired against Caesar).
Patronage: A System of Favoritism
In the Augustan Age, patronage of the arts was prevalent. One of Augustus’ political advisors is seen in a painting by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo being given a gift of liberal arts.
The Roman political system and society relied heavily on patronage. It was highly valued in Roman society to show allegiance to someone who had helped you out.
As a result, there was an established norm wherein people who had significant resources and voting power would negotiate deals with politicians in return for financial gain and special interests. Bribery was an accepted part of politics in the daily life of the ancient Roman Republic.
This master was called a “patron,” and the person who served was called a “client.”
The level of special treatment a client received correlated directly with their prominence and power. But even commoners were considered clients if they could offer any form of assistance.
Having a vast number of ordinary people as clients and a means to organize them allowed politicians like Julius Caesar to quickly create a violent mob when required.
In this system, patrons were greeted early in the morning by a line of people waiting at their doors. These individuals would exchange greetings, make requests, and later respond to the patrons’ calls for assistance.
It was intriguing to observe that some individuals chose to make a living solely by participating in this greeting ritual and welcoming members of important families every morning, rather than engaging in traditional business or labor. Meanwhile, others managed to sustain their livelihoods by establishing strong relationships with influential patrons.
This intricate web of patronage created a unique dynamic where social connections and favors held significant value in the daily life of ancient Roman society.
This system of patronage has been passed down as a tradition in Sicily among the Mafia: In the opening scene of the 1972 film “The Godfather,” we see members of the Mafia pay a visit to the Mafia don (boss) to say hello and beg for a favor.
Family, Ancestry, and Women’s Rights
Pater familias (the father of a household) was the Roman family system that enforced stringent gender inequality and regulated the daily lives of Roman residents. In Roman law, the eldest male member of the family had almost full control, including the ability to murder family members who defied him. Different customs and laws, however, limited his influence, and it was uncommon to be “murdered legally” in ancient Rome.
Although there were exceptional women who wielded political power (such as Cornelia, mother of the Gracchus brothers in the Late Republic, c. 146 BC–31 BC), Roman women were denied the ability to vote and could not occupy official government offices. However, some Roman women still gained financial freedom when they were granted the right to possess property in their own names, sign contracts, and file criminal charges.
- See also: Women in Ancient Rome and Their Place in Roman Society
Males carried the torch in the daily life of the Roman family. However, it was normal practice for Roman women to keep their registration with their parents’ household even after marriage.
The divorce process in the ancient Roman Empire was simple for all parties involved. A divorce was granted after the wife merely left the marital home and declared her intent to no longer live with her husband.
The father often took custody of the kids, while the mother maintained her own property after the divorce since her assets were held in a different name throughout the marriage. This system did not require alimony.
In the Late Roman Republic (c. 146 BC–31 BC), divorce was not bound by specific reasons or seen as a social taboo; rather, it was regarded as a natural occurrence.
Education in Ancient Rome
Ancient Roman children being educated.
There were no public schools in ancient Rome, so pupils who were fortunate enough to find a teacher often had more than a dozen classmates in their small class.
However, the vast majority of Roman children were not educated. It is believed that fewer than 20% of ancient Roman adult males and 5% of ancient Roman females could read and write.
As a result, only a select few children from affluent households were able to attend school in the daily life of ancient Rome.
After mastering the fundamentals of reading, writing, and arithmetic, students moved on to study the Greek language, as well as Greek poetry, literature, history, philosophy, and oratory.
Slaves were mostly responsible for the upbringing of Roman children.
Slavery in Ancient Rome
During the Roman Republic, slaves were crucial to the economy and the daily life of society. There were several types of Roman teachers, farmers, bakers, housekeepers, nannies, craft workers, and slaves. Slaves made up the vast bulk of Rome’s prostitute population.
There were Roman, Greek, German, and African slaves, among many others. Slavery in Rome was not founded on “racism” in the same way that it is in the history of the United States.
Those who defaulted on their debts were sold into slavery, and the cycle continued. Educated Greek slaves were in great demand and sometimes sold for exorbitant sums to serve as private tutors to the affluent.
- See also: The Price of a Slave in Ancient Rome in Today’s Dollars
However, captured people who were defeated in a war were by far the most prevalent kind. In his Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), Julius Caesar is said to have attacked a city in what is now France and sold all 52,000 of its residents on the spot to slave dealers.
Rome amassed a significant slave population during her swift conquest of the Mediterranean from the 2nd to the 1st centuries BC. By the end of the 1st century BC, it was believed that around 20% of the whole population of Rome and 40% of the Italian population were made up of slaves.
In ancient Rome, several percent of miners died annually from sickness, overwork, or accidents, making this occupation essentially a death sentence.
On the other hand, secretaries of high-ranking government officials often enjoyed a lavish lifestyle and considerable independence if they could read, write, and think critically.
Julius Caesar’s secretary, Publius Licinius Apollonius (also known as Apollonios), served as a secretary to Caesar and Crassus and participated in Caesar’s invasion of Gaul. He wrote a biography of Caesar and Crassus after receiving his freedom, which Cicero (b. 106 BC), the preeminent thinker of the day, praised. Many people believed it to be the best primary source on the two titans of the Roman Republic; however, this work has since vanished.
One was not fully “free” in the daily life of Rome, even after being granted freedom. This was due to the fact that they were unable to break out of the aforementioned patronage structure. The recipients of “freedom” were expected to feel a deep sense of gratitude to their former masters to continue living as free citizens. But they were still entitled to a wage and civic rights.
When a Roman slave achieved freedom, he or she was expected to adopt the surname of his or her former owner. It is believed that Publius Licinius Apollonius was granted his freedom by Publius Licinius Crassus (he was one of the sons of Marcus Licinius Crassus).
The Daily Life of Ancient Roman People
Houses
City life in ancient Roman insula apartments (Latin for “island”, plural insulae).
The typical Roman citizen did not live in one of Rome’s many marble or elegant timber homes located in the city’s historic center, as did the city’s richest families.
The typical Roman residence was an insula, a low-ceilinged, three- or four-story house constructed of brick or wood. Multiple households or people shared a single level with little separation between rooms.
Typically, a family or landlord would pay a year’s worth of rent in advance to live on the insula’s first level since it was the costliest. The lower floors had an advantage in terms of heating. It was easier to keep them slightly cooler in the summer but also warmer in the winter. In addition, the ground floors of many insulas housed a variety of shops.
In contrast, upper floors often offered lower rentals, paid either daily or weekly. People slept on the floor, couches, and even on each other’s laps, while many shuffled between temporary homes.
Extreme summer heat and bitter winter chills characterized the daily lives of the ancient Romans. The upper floors of many structures lacked even basic amenities like windows. Therefore, the lack of privacy was to be expected.
Making a Living
A mask seller in ancient Rome.
The vast majority of Romans originated in rural areas. Around the 1st century BC, the Italian provinces underwent a period of profound transformation. Slaves increased in quantity, allowing prosperous big farmers access to cheap or free labor, allowing them to prosper even more. It was becoming more difficult for small farmers to survive without the aid of slaves, and many of them were migrating to the cities.
Nevertheless, even in the city, it was difficult to find a job. As previously stated, a significant portion of slaves were allocated not only to miners and farmers but also to craftsmen, educators, and various professions.
This arrangement proved beneficial for those fortunate enough to possess slaves, but conversely, it resulted in a surplus of individuals struggling to secure stable employment. Consequently, the cities became crowded with individuals unable to find regular jobs.
During times of famine or temporary scarcity, the Roman government maintained a policy of distributing cheap bread and wheat to the needy. For many Romans, this was an absolute requirement in their daily lives, especially given the reliable supply throughout the Late Republic.
By today’s standards, many Romans subsisted on a diet of nothing more than bread, olive oil, a little cheese, and wine. Fruits and vegetables were sometimes offered in baked or boiled forms. It seems that wheat soup, similar to porridge, was the only fare of the lower classes of ancient Rome.
The meat was often reserved for the gods and only made accessible to the common populace during important festivals.
These vast supplies of wheat were imported from Sicily, a southern Italian island, as well as present-day Tunisia, known as the “African Province,” and Egypt, the world’s greatest wheat producer at the time.
The Ancient Roman citizens who were able to find employment often worked full-time, and the majority of them performed physical labor such as constructing and operating businesses, sailing ships, and transporting commodities.
The lowest class of people did not only consist of physical laborers but also included performers in the theater, prostitutes, and musicians.
Stores were owned and run by more prosperous middle-class households. Thermopolium, a public fast-food restaurant with a fixed menu, was one of several businesses in ancient Roman cities, as were wholesalers of spices and retailers of tools and timber.
Roman families with the highest riches were often families who had large farms or other sources of passive income, allowing them to devote their time and energy to politics and the arts rather than manual labor. Those seeking political office similarly prioritized their clients’ needs and aspirations while working to expand their own support base.
Working in the Army
Joining the Roman army was one option for the destitute to improve their social standing in the daily life of ancient Rome. Many young Roman men living in poverty actively sought out military duty because of the prestige that came with it.
For the most part, soldiers in the Roman army throughout the Early and Middle Republics were well-to-do free citizens since they had to pay for their own armor (see lorica hamata) and weapons.
However, the number of free people able to purchase “middle-class aristocratic” armor and other things was steadily declining as a result of recurrent conflicts and the fast spreading of inequality, and the ancient Roman population was becoming permanently split between the extremely affluent and wealthy, on the one hand, and the impoverished, on the other.
Therefore, a significant reform was instituted by the Roman general and statesman Gaius Marius (157–86 BC), who enlisted the help of impoverished Roman people as volunteer warriors and had the Roman government equip them with weapons and armor.
The system Marius created allowed for progression in the Roman army based on merit rather than social status. A common soldier from a poor family could rise to the rank of centurion, and all Roman soldiers, regardless of rank, received a retirement pension and land after serving for 20 years. Even a regular soldier was given some land.
In order to ensure that their troops were able to retire with the promised pensions, the great Roman generals carved up new regions and distributed the property of enemy rulers among the Roman troops.
Both Caesar and Augustus played significant roles in shaping the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire by winning over the royalty of their troops and thus earning the devotion of the Roman people over the government.
Festivities and Worshipping in Ancient Rome
The Romans had a polytheistic religion in which the Greek gods played an important role, although with Latinized names such as Jupiter for Zeus or Mars for Ares.
However, the Romans had a somewhat different understanding of religion than we do now. While today’s people still pray for success and believe in religions defining the concept of “right and wrong” or bringing “spiritual enrichment,” the Romans, with the exception of the Jews and the early Christians, did not practice any organized religion.
They still believed in deities whose power and influence were beyond human comprehension, but their gods were neither good nor wicked; they just existed.
Therefore, the Romans saw religion as a “covenant” rather than a “necessity”. In hopes that the gods would stop disasters from befalling Rome and safeguard its citizens, the ancient Romans wished to pay tribute to their deities by burning animal artifacts and performing sacrifices.
When the ancient Romans felt a god had violated their covenant, they often moved on to another god who was believed to be more “helpful.”
Considering there was no such thing as a “weekend” in Ancient Rome, the actual number of Roman holidays was not that different, considering people now get 104 days off in a year, including Saturdays, Sundays, and around two weekends for Christmas. There were numerous holidays in ancient Rome, and the total number of off days was more than a hundred.
Leisure Activities in Ancient Rome
In the countryside, ancient Roman people worked in agriculture and mining all day long, whereas in the city of Rome, people worked from daybreak until noon, and then they slept in the afternoons. Afternoons were reserved for leisure activities like baths, swimming, playing sports, and going to the theater. During that time, most stores and businesses remained closed, with the exception of a few pubs and restaurants.
Sports enjoyed great popularity among men in ancient Rome. The city boasted impressive outdoor arenas where a wide range of athletic events took place, including wrestling, sprinting, long-distance running, javelin throwing, shot put, and many other traditional European sports that continue to be featured in the modern Olympic Games.
It was customary for participants to compete in the nude, emphasizing the raw physical prowess on display. However, it’s important to note that during this era, women were not permitted to enter the stadium and partake in these sporting spectacles.
After a demanding day of games, the Romans would often unwind by indulging in the baths. However, it is presumed that those who didn’t appreciate athletics might have been deterred by the obligatory bathing that followed each session.
Public Baths
Public Roman baths were accessible to almost every free citizen for the minimal payment of a single copper coin. The wealthy had their own private baths. Almost everyone in the country could afford the price of a bath on a regular basis. The baths’ operating costs were modest, and wealthy donors and tax revenue filled the gap.
The culture of “bathing” was so integral to Roman identity that anyone who did not participate was called a “barbarian.”
There were not any shared showers or tubs, but rather individual ones for men and women.
In Rome, the public baths offered a range of amenities beyond just hot bathtubs. These bathing complexes featured cold baths, saunas, dedicated spaces for massages, rooms for applying soothing olive oil to the body, and an array of other facilities for a comprehensive bathing experience.
Ancient Roman people often took long, relaxing showers, sometimes lasting several hours, since doing so was considered culturally appropriate.
There were chairs and other seating options available in the open area next to the bathhouse. Having a public gathering spot where people from all walks of life could mix without regard to their social standing must have been a social boon.
Moreover, the baths served as a bustling hub where individuals could purchase food, witness captivating theatrical performances, listen to passionate poets recite their verses, witness politicians endeavoring to elucidate their policies and garner support, access libraries, utilize diverse amenities, and witness the congregation of people from many classes.
Sports and Gladiators
Last but not least, the Romans loved lavish spectacles on their most important festivals.
The quickest charioteers, like today’s sports stars, attracted a large following of devoted supporters and were divided into teams of red, blue, green, and yellow.
The arena also hosted large-scale gladiatorial contests, savage animal hunts, and simulated battles. Thousands of onlookers watched as rigorously trained slaves fought and killed each other.
Hollywood is responsible for popularizing the misconception that all vanquished gladiators were summarily executed. In reality, gladiators were not always murdered after a fight. In movies, a down thumb implies “kill,” but in reality, it meant the opposite.
A thumbs-up pointing to the chest signified the action of stabbing the sword into the chest of the defeated gladiator. Similarly, a thumbs-down represented the act of placing the sword on the ground or lowering it, sparing the gladiator’s life.
Gladiators were subjected to both one-on-one duels and mass spectacles of simulated battle. Julius Caesar once staged a simulated naval battle by floating vessels in the arena (which was filled with water) and having hundreds of gladiators fight to the death.
The prospect of stardom appealed to some gladiators, but many slave gladiators reportedly resented their circumstances, which is quite understandable.
For example, in the Third Servile War (73–71 BC) instigated by Spartacus, as many as 120,000 slaves joined the uprising, including numerous gladiators, causing significant trouble for the Roman army, as is well known.
Despite the harsh living conditions, it appears that this kind of “exciting” entertainment was one of the reasons why people continued to gather in the city of Rome. Because such large-scale entertainment was not available in the rural provinces. There were still some small-scale arenas in provincial ancient Roman cities.
This is what daily life was like for the average Roman citizen.
References
Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome – Donald G. Kyle – Google Books
Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders, III et XXX.
A History of the Later Roman Empire by J. B. Bury – Cambridge.org
May 24, 2023
Jelme: Genghis Khan’s Outstanding General
Jelme, a member of the Uriankhai clan of the Mongol army, was a brilliant general under Genghis Khan. Jelme was the older brother of another outstanding general, Subutai, and he was also a close friend of Genghis. Rashid al-Din referred to Jelme in “A Compendium of Chronicles” by his nickname, “Uhe.” One Persian historian claims that this moniker means “daring [man], robber and hero,” which is interesting.
Early Life of Jelme
Jelme was the oldest child of the Uriankhai blacksmith Jarchiudai. Although Jarchiudai had wished to put him into the service even before the birth of Temujin (Genghis Khan), he got rejected due to Jelme’s young age. Jarchiudai later reintroduced Jelme to adult Temujin, before he became Genghis Khan.
Jelme’s statue at the entrance of the Genghis Khan’s Equestrian Statue.
Jelme quickly established himself as a trustworthy companion. He and his fellow nökör (“free companion”) Boorchu set out in pursuit of Temujin’s wife Borte when the Merkit tribe, who were at odds with the Mongols, abducted her. Therefore, he played a central role in the life of Temujin.
Both Jelme and Boorchu were promoted to higher positions in the khan’s headquarters following Temujin’s ascension to power. Today, there is a statue of Jelme at the entrance of the Equestrian Statue of Genghis Khan in Mongolia.
Jelme’s deeds have been recorded throughout history numerous times. In one instance, Jelme stayed up all night the next day tending to Temujin, who had been wounded in the neck by an arrow during the Battle of Thirteen Sides (also known as the Battle of Chakirmaut) in 1204.
See also: How Many Wives Did Genghis Khan Have?
Even after taking a poisonous arrow to the neck during the fight, Genghis Khan persisted in fighting until he passed out. Jelme stayed with Genghis and sucked the blood out of his neck for the whole night. (According to other sources, this happened in the Battle of Koiten in 1201.)
Jelme risked his life to go to the enemy camp and return with a horn of sour milk for the khan when Temujin requested a drink after coming to his senses.
“The Four Dogs of War”
After three years, in the fight with the Naimans on Mount Nahu-Gun, Jelme stood out with Jebe, Subutai, and Kublai (not Kublai Khan) as the “Four Dogs of War.” Even Temujin’s foes acknowledged the bravery of his nökör forces.
They are the Four Dogs of Temujin. They feed on human flesh and are tethered with an iron chain. They have foreheads of brass, their jaws are like scissors, their tongues like piercing awls, their heads are iron, their whipping tails swords. They feed on dew. Running, they ride on the back of the wind. In the day of battle, they devour enemy flesh. Behold, they are now unleashed, and they slobber at the mouth with glee. These four dogs are Jebe, and Kublai, Jelme, and Subotai.”
— The Secret History of the Mongols
Tolui, Temujin’s youngest son, had his life saved by Jelme once. After hearing a scream for aid, Jelme tracked down and murdered the fleeing Tatar of Qargil Shira who had sneaked his way into the Mongol camp and was about to butcher the infant:
When Tolui was around five years old, a Tatar called Qargil Shira almost murdered him. Qargil Shira feigned to be a guest at Tolui’s tent when he really broke in. He seized Tolui as soon as he entered the tent and fled with him.
Qargil Shira tried to stab the youngster, but Genghis Khan’s mother Hoelun‘s adoptive son Borokhul’s wife Altani pursued him and stopped the fugitive. To prevent the Tatar from escaping with Tolui, she clung to him until Jetei and Jelme arrived and murdered him. Aside from the deeds of both warriors, Genghis Khan hailed Altani as a baatar, or a Mongol heroine.
See also: How Many Children Did Genghis Khan Have?
The Legacy of Jelme
Jelme was awarded one of the thousands of noyans distributed at the 1206 All-Mongol kurultai (“assembly”) for his devoted devotion to Temujin.
It is unclear when precisely Dzhelme passed away; however, the “Collection of Chronicles” indicates it was somewhere during Temujin-Genghis Khan’s reign (between 1206 and 1227).
Jelme was one of the noyans awarded to the thousanders (an honorable military rank) at the All-Mongolian Kurultai in 1206, in recognition of his many services to Temujin even before he turned into Genghis Khan.
Genghis Khan made Yesuntei (or Yesuntege), son of Jelme, leader of the Kheshig. Kheshig were the elite military bodyguards of Mongol royalty, including Genghis Khan, which means “favored” or “blessed”.
The “Collection of Chronicles” also mentions a Yesu-Buka-taishi, who is said to be a son of Jelme. It could be another name for Yesuntei, just like Yisun-te’e.
Jelme’s Progeny
There are people who trace their ancestry back to Jelme who are now residing in Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Buryatia (Russian Republic). The connection of those people with Jelme has been confirmed as recently as the early 2000s.
Today, on Mongolian soil, there are registered members with the following last names, which are the ancestral families of Jelme: Jelme, Hun Jelme, Uriankhai Jelme, Jelmen Uriankhai, or Kostya Jelmen.
The carriers of these generic last names are known among the Khalkha Mongols (genus Zelme), and Khotogoids (genus Zelmen).
The descendants of Jelme were represented by four khoshuns (the banners of Inner Mongolia) of the Josutu League, in particular, the right, left, and middle khoshuns of the Kharchin Mongols and one khoshun of the left wing of the Tumeds.
The Uriankhais of the Jelme line, Aanchin, and Vaanchin clans migrated to the land of current Buryatia and established themselves in the Ichetui (Ichyotuy) River valley around the turn of the 18th century, after a catastrophic battle in Mongolia. Dede-Ichyotuy, in the Dzhidinsky area of the Republic of Buryatia, is where most of their descendants now reside.
Four brothers from the Jelmen Uriankhai family fled to Buryatia on the banks of the Ichyotuy River during the conflict between Galdan Boshugtu Khan and Tüsheet Khan, according to a legend that V.V. Popov recorded in 1926.
Jelme in Popular Culture
Jelme is mentioned in many parts of popular culture today. Here are some examples from literature and movies:
Books
- “The Wolf of the Plains” (2007), a historical novel by English author Conn Iggulden.
- “Cruel Age” novel by Isaak Kalashnikov (1978)
- “At the behest of Genghis Khan” is a novel by Soviet writer Nikolay Alekseevich Luginov (2001).
Movies
- “Genghis Khan” (China, 2004); Bao Hailong as Jelme.
- “By the Will of Chingis Khan” (Russia, Mongolia, USA; 2009); Pyotr Makarov as Jelme.
References
Genghis Khan’s Greatest General: Subotai the Valiant – Richard A. Gabriel – Google Books
A Compendium of Chronicles – Rashid al-Din’s illustrated history of the world – Si.edu
The Secret History of the Mongols – Francis Woodman Cleaves, Internet Archive
April 27, 2023
Ortogh: A Unique Trading System of the Mongol Empire
Ortogh, which translates to “companion,” “friend,” or “partner” in Turkish (“Ortak”), was the name of a joint venture trading organization under the Mongol Empire. Ortogh or ortoq was made up of Muslim aristocratic merchants and played a part in China’s political structure during the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). Ortogh was one of the unique commercial forms that existed from the late 13th century to the mid-14th century, during the time when the Mongol Empire generated significant wealth. The Chinese word for Ortogh, “Wotuo” reflects the pronunciation of this Turkish term.
Merchants and moneylenders who worked with the Mongol Empire were referred to as ortogh.
Origin of Ortogh
Through Ortogh, traders from all across Asia and Europe, including Marco Polo’s family, partnered with the aristocracy of the Mongol Empire.
Due to their wealth but lack of business acumen, the Mongols opted to work with Semu (people from Central and West Asia) businesspeople in order to share risks and reduce the cost of trade.
In the Mongol Empire, a trader was called an ortogh if he worked with the Mongol state or nobility. The Ortogh system made it possible to pool resources, which reduced the risk of unsuccessful caravans and made long-distance trade possible at a much lower cost.
The risk of participating in caravan commerce during the Mongol era was quite high. Over the course of a protracted expedition, it was necessary to feed, pay, and outfit as many as a hundred people with supplies, including food, clothing, camels, horses, and so on.
Many caravans were in danger from things like natural calamities or robbery groups. Due to the high costs associated with such a catastrophe, a single failed caravan may completely wipe out a merchant’s wealth.
The Mongols devised the Ortogh system, wherein merchants pooled their resources to sponsor a single caravan to reduce the cost of failure.
It is believed that the original security relationship between nomads and merchants served as the basis for Ortogh. Nomads provided protection for merchants while they established contacts, transacted business, and gathered intelligence in their capacity as intermediaries.
In the Ortogh system, merchants pooled their resources to sponsor a single caravan. Even if a whole caravan perished, not a single trader would go out of business. When the caravans were successful, everyone involved would split the spoils.
Just like the word, the origin of the Ortogh system dates back to the Turkic tribes. Ibn Fadlan describes the relationship between the nomadic Oghuz Turks and Muslim traders under the Ortogh in his travelogue, which takes place in the 10th century.
History of Ortogh in the Mongol Empire
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan created the practice of Ortogh by delegating authority over the distribution of gold and silver ingots for trade to members of his family and military leaders and suggesting they hire financial advisors from Muslims of Uyghur, and Central Asian Turkic.
Muslim businessmen led the way in establishing Ortogh, a joint investment organization that oversaw trade, transportation, banking, and tax collection.
Therefore, the ruling elite of the Mongol Empire relied on Muslim merchants who served as financial administrators due to their lack of expertise in areas like tax collection, which are essential to the administration of an agrarian society.
Muslim businessmen led the way in establishing Ortogh, a joint investment organization that oversaw trade, transportation, banking, and tax collection.
As long as the traders did not disrupt military operations, they were allowed generous commissions and access to official resting stations. Those stations were found every 20 to 30 miles with lodging, hot food, and rested horses.
If a business owner belonged to an Ortogh, the Mongols would lend them money at a cheap interest rate. The Mongols, who prized skill above ethnic background, typically held Muslim merchants in high regard who got in touch with the Mongol court through commerce, and they ultimately acquired the confidence of Mongol nobles and emperors.
Through Ortogh, traders from all across Asia and Europe, including Marco Polo‘s family, partnered with the aristocracy of the Mongol Empire.
Ortogh (“Ortak/Partner”) is mentioned in writings before Möngke Khan’s time (grandson of Genghis Khan, r. 1251–1259).
See also: How Many Children Did Genghis Khan Have?
Comprehension of the Economy by the Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire often possessed a thorough understanding of the dynamics of the economy. Mahmud Yalavach (d. 1254), the Muslim finance minister in the Mongol Empire, argued that currency had worth if supply and demand were in balance since it was a property.
To obtain silver, the international currency of the period, and to utilize it as an investment in commerce, the tax administration of the regions conquered by the Mongols specialized in collecting silver.
Members of Ortogh comprised mainly Muslim merchants but also Uyghur merchants, and even some Han Chinese and Christians.
The founder of the Yuan dynasty, Kublai Khan, had a diverse and multicultural staff that included Uyghurs, Khitans, Han Chinese, Jurchens, and others even before he became emperor in 1271.
After the Yuan Dynasty was established in China, the populace was split between the Mongols, Semu (mostly the speakers of Turkic languages), Han (northern Chinese, or Hanren), and Southerners (southern Chinese, or Nanren).
Among them, intelligent financiers were placed in control of the financial department, namely Muslim merchants. Members of Ortogh comprised mainly Muslim merchants but also Uyghur merchants, and even some Han Chinese and Christians.
Negative Effects of Ortogh
Kublai Khan (1215–1294) granted concessions to the administrators of the Ortogh, and they became an official part of the Yuan Dynasty’s government. In 1268, Kublai set up an administration for the monitoring of Ortogh to help the members there have access to low-interest loans.
In doing so, the members of the Ortogh frequently abused the local people economically through the imposition of commercial taxes and monopoly taxes, both of which went counter to the traditional Chinese understanding of banking and money in the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty.
Additionally, “royal edicts”—which means to proclaim the words of the emperor—were provided to particular people from ortogh, as well as Buddhist and Taoist temples.
Those edicts were known as “protection imperatives” or “precise imperatives” and they were provided without going through the government. So, it became something that often messed with the system and broke laws.
Therefore, Chinese people thought poorly of Ortogh businesspeople because of the preferential treatment they received from authorities and the exorbitant interest rates they charged on loans.
Politician Wang Yun of the Han dynasty was not a fan of the ortogh’s unique rights, especially the ability to keep and carry weapons. By the time of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the name ortogh signified little more than “merchant.”
Hanseatic League vs. Ortogh
One may ask, how did the Hanseatic League compare to the Ortogh? The Hanseatic League and the Ortogh existed at relatively similar times but in different places.
North German cities and German commercial communities overseas formed an association called the Hanseatic League to look out for each other’s economic interests. Between the 13th and 15th centuries, the League controlled much of the trade in northern Europe.
In contrast, the Ortogh system consisted of traders who worked hand in hand with the Mongol empire and its many aristocratic citizens. Because merchants could combine their resources and lower the probability of unsuccessful caravans, long-distance commerce could expand and become much more cost-effective.
So, although both groups and systems engaged in commerce, their aims and natures diverged significantly. Ortogh was concerned with lowering the danger of failed caravans and boosting long-distance commerce inside the Mongol Empire, whereas the Hanseatic League was concerned with preserving the mutual commercial interests of north German cities and merchant communities overseas.
Ortogh at a Glance
What is Ortogh?
Ortogh was a joint venture trading organization under the Mongol Empire made up of Muslim aristocratic merchants. It played a part in China’s political structure during the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368).
What was the origin of the Ortogh system?
The original security relationship between nomads and merchants served as the basis for the Ortogh system. Nomads provided protection for merchants while they established contacts, transacted business, and gathered intelligence in their capacity as intermediaries.
How did the Ortogh system help reduce the risk of caravans during the Mongol era?
The Ortogh system made it possible to pool resources, which reduced the risk of unsuccessful caravans and made long-distance trade possible at a much lower cost. Merchants pooled their resources to sponsor a single caravan, and even if a whole caravan perished, not a single trader would go out of business. When the caravans were successful, everyone involved would split the spoils.
References
Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North – Ibn Fadlan – Google Books
The Travels of Ibn Batūta – Ibn Batūta – Google Books
April 26, 2023
Fordite: Treasures Found in Abandoned American Car Plants
Fordite, often known as “Ford stone,” is an artificial mineral made by layering and hardening automotive enamel paint. Detroit agate, also known as Motor City agate, is a kind of agate mined from the site of a defunct car plant in Detroit, Michigan, United States. “Fordite” was so named because it was first found in the 1940s at the Ford Motor Company’s car painting facility in Michigan. However, that automaker wasn’t the only one that produced it. Today, they are still considered an “ore,” and the raw Fordites continue to rise in value.
History and Formation of Fordite
When the Fordite is sliced open, it may reveal a variety of designs. (Credit: Robert Weldon/GIA)
Automobiles were once painted by hand or sprayed with a spray gun which was invented in 1888 in the United States. Therefore, the work site’s hallways, spray booths, and loading platforms were contaminated with oversprayed paint in those automotive factories.
Since automobiles were often painted in highly vivid colors in the 1960s and 1970s, the Fordites from those decades tend to have more vibrant, psychedelic hues. A cabochon of a very uncommon kind of Fordite, with big metal flakes, dating from 1972, sold for $400.
Among the sources of factories for Fordite are the Corvette Assembly Plant in Kentucky, the Ford Motor Company in Michigan, the Harley-Davidson motorcycle plants, and the Lincoln-Mercury painting plant in Canada. The Fordites from the latter plant even hold a specific name: “corvetteite”.
This practice continued from the 1930s all the way to the 1990s. And as the years accumulated, the factories were covered in a rainbow of paint hues.
Since the paint was subjected to high heat treatment hundreds, if not thousands of times, the accumulated layers of paint became harder over time.
This paint buildup got too thick over time and needed to be scraped away since it was getting in the way. Some creative souls in Henry Ford‘s Ford automotive factory then realized that this layer of paint could be sliced and polished to create a beautiful agate-like gemstone, cabochons, and beads, which could then be recycled and sold as eco-friendly jewelry.
The finished product was visually spectacular and distinctive, with swirls and patterns in vivid colors that emphasized the industry’s long and storied past in automobile production.
Fordite is a Time Capsule
The color of Fordite, and, by extension, the development of the automotive industry in the United States can be deduced from its distinctive color.
According to Fordite, for instance, most automobiles in the nation in the 1940s were painted in black or brown enamel—industrial paint that dries to a very hard, glossy finish—but by the 1960s, brighter lacquers were in favor.
Current automobiles are painted with electrostatic coatings that adsorb paint granules to the steel plate by Coulomb force, or “electrostatic force”, almost eliminating the need for unnecessary spraying.
Consequently, the formation of Fordite has halted since powder painting has been replaced by hand spraying.
(Credit: Chris Topher – Flickr)
That’s why we no longer see new Fordites around, and the raw ones that are still around continue to rise in value. There is actually a small market for Fordites today.
What Makes Fordite Valuable?
Fordite is prized for its one-of-a-kind, multicolored patterns that have developed through many years of paint overspray accumulation. This artificial ore is actually quite uncommon because the majority of car companies no longer produce it.
Fordite finds its most widespread use in the jewelry and automobile industries. Collectors and those with an interest in automobiles often buy them.
Experienced cutters can bring out striking layers of color and design in polished Fordite. Paint is a fairly light substance because of its composition. During the cutting and polishing procedures, safety equipment like a dust mask is required.
Similarly, several generations of Jackson Whites in Sloatsburg, New York fell victim to this same paint when contractors hired by the defunct Ford factory in Mahwah, New Jersey dumped poisonous vehicle paint waste dangerously close to the communities’ houses.
Where Can I Find Fordite?
Today, Fordite is a very uncommon man-made mineral. But you may be able to find some residual Fordite in a few classic automobile assembly plants in the Detroit region. However, internet vendors and gem and mineral exhibitions are the most typical places to find Fordites.
Fordite is a colorful tribute to the American workers whose creativity and resourcefulness transformed a byproduct of the auto industry into a piece of art. The workers at the American auto factories saw value where most others would see waste, much like how older vehicles have long been admired for their beautiful looks.
Types of Fordite
Types of Fordite, according to Fordite.com.
There are four types of Fordite today:
- Type 1: Characterized by consistent gray banding of primer layers in between distinct color layers (Color on Color).
- Type 2: Opaques and metallics make up Type 2. Lacking variety. Miniature quantities and limited-edition colors (Distinct Colors).
- Type 3: Drippy and/or striped, with several overlapping layers of solid colors and metallic accents define this type. Patterns of lace and orbits appear on the surface, and there is some channeling on occasion (Distinct Colors).
- Type 4: Opaques and metallics of Type 4 have color layers that flow into one another and may have pitting from air bubbles that developed while the layers solidified (Distinct Colors).
Photography by Elaine Sweeney. See the original Image on Flickr.
Photography by Elaine Sweeney. See the original Image on Flickr.
Fordite at a Glance
What is Fordite?
Fordite, also known as Detroit Agate or Motor Agate, is an artificial substance made out of enamel paint layers that collected over decades on the tracks, racks, and floors of paint booths in automobile plants.
How is Fordite formed?
Layers of paint overspray would accumulate on the walls and floors of paint booths at auto assembly plants, eventually transforming into Fordite. As more paint was sprayed on top, the previous coats would dry and solidify. This method would result in thick layers of multicolored, patterned material that could be gathered and fashioned into a wide range of objects.
What makes Fordite special?
The distinctive and vibrant patterns of Fordite are the product of years of paint overspray accumulation. Since the majority of automakers no longer produce it, it is an uncommon item.
References
Featured Image: Photography by Elaine Sweeney. Original Image – Flickr
Relics: A History of the World Told in 133 Objects – By Jamie Grove, Max Grove, Mini Museum · 2021- Google Books
The Ford Industries; Facts about the Ford Motor Company and Its Subsidiaries – By Ford Motor Company · 1927- Google Books
April 21, 2023
Rohatyn: One of the Oldest Cities in Ukraine
April 19, 2023
Gustav Line: When Hitler Split the Italy in Half
April 19, 2023
Sigil of Archangel Michael: Meaning and Origin
April 11, 2023
What Does Archangel Michael Look Like?
April 9, 2023
Does Archangel Michael Have a Wife?
Does Archangel Michael have a wife? Archangel Michael is not depicted as married in Christian, Jewish, or Islamic writings. Therefore, it is not believed that Archangel Michael had a wife. He’s generally portrayed as a compelling person who faithfully serves God and follows His orders. In three of the monotheist traditions of the Middle East, angels have no gender and are forbidden from love relationships or marriage. Therefore, the idea that Archangel Michael is married and has a wife is not part of common credence.
Who Is Archangel Michael?
A fierce fighter and protector of the religion, Archangel Michael is often regarded as one of the most prominent angels. Both Daniel (10:13) and Revelation (12:7–12) depict Michael as an archangel with great power who vanquishes their enemies and defends the people of God.
See also: What Does Archangel Michael Look Like?
(Image: Workman, CC BY-SA 4.0)
He is also held responsible for the downfall of Lucifer (later Satan) and his angelic companions. One of the four (or seven) archangels, Michael (or Mika’il in Islam and Mikha’el in Judaism), is credited with ensuring the survival of all forms of life on Earth.
However, the Bible clearly states that angels do not get married. And this includes Archangel Michael. There is no indication of Michael having a wife in the Bible or any other canonical document in Christianity.
Why Do People Ask If Archangel Michael Has a Wife?
One main reason that brings up the question of whether Archangel Michael has a wife is the fact that Michael is referred to as “he” in the Bible. Angels are not living beings; hence, they do not have sexual reproduction like humans.
“They neither marry nor are given in marriage.”
Mark 12:18-27
The pronoun “he” is specifically used for Archangel Michael and the other angels, but that is probably only because it is more common than the other options (such as “she” or “it”). Archangels like Michael are more manly than typical men, but not really male. No matter what form their bodies take, archangels are unable to conceive offspring.
Traditional Christian beliefs do not accept the idea of angels having wives or participating in love relationships. What is most frequently highlighted is the function of angels as God’s messengers.
The question of whether Archangel Michael had a wife or not is motivated by cultural beliefs, personal curiosity, or a desire to comprehend the nature of angels and their relationships.
Depictions of Archangel Michael Regarding His Wife
Many individuals throughout history have looked to Archangel Michael for help. In many works of art and iconography, he appears as a mighty angelic warrior, armed to the teeth with a sword and shield.
However, Archangel Michael is never depicted with a female partner; therefore, it is safe to say that he never had a wife.
Since archangels are not as prominent as prophets in the tradition, the Bible is not particularly forthright on whether or not Archangel Michael had a wife. When it comes to the angelic hierarchy, archangels have the second-lowest ranking. They are also two kingdoms higher than humans.
Some non-canonical or apocryphal writings or religious traditions may have different ideas or legends about whether or not Archangel Michael is married. Michael having a wife, on the other hand, is not supported or shown to be true by the main Christian tradition.
Did Archangel Michael Have a Son?
Michael is an angelic being. Heaven’s angels abstain from having offspring. When asked about second marriages, Jesus provided a glimpse into heavenly matters such as these:
“For in the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage but are like angels in heaven.”
As recorded in Matthew 22:30.
Although often portrayed as strong and masculine, angels do not reproduce. The celestial kingdom is strictly asexual. Therefore, no, Archangel Michael does not have a son.
Relationship Between Archangel Michael and Joan of Arc
Joan of Arc has been revered as a martyr. Wikimedia Commons.
Archangel Michael was ever associated with one woman figure, and it is a one-sided story. At her trial, Joan of Arc said that she first saw the three saints—Michael, Catherine, and Margaret—when she was 13 years old, around 1425.
Over the course of three years, Joan of Arc had visits from saints who gradually made it clearer to her—through their “voices,” as she called them—that she must redeem France. She said that one of the voices was really the Archangel Michael.
Joan of Arc saw the Archangel Michael, and according to her, Michael was a dashing man. She thought so highly of Archangel Michael that she remembered almost little of his physical appearance.
Joan had a firm conviction that the apparitions were genuine; at one point, she even claimed that she had clasped one of them and that their scent had been heavenly. As a woman, Joan of Arc felt a religious love for the Archangel Michael.
Some very religious people believe that Joan of Arc was the reincarnation of Athena and the soulmate of Archangel Michael. However, Archangel Michael does not have a wife or soulmate, and it is pointless to speculate on that.
This Article at a Glance
Who Is Archangel Michael?
Archangel Michael is a prominent angel in the Christian, Jewish, and Islamic traditions. He is one of the four or seven archangels and is known for his great power, which he uses to defend the people of God and vanquish their enemies. He is also credited with ensuring the survival of all forms of life on Earth.
Does Archangel Michael Have a Wife?
No, Archangel Michael is not depicted as married in Christian, Jewish, or Islamic writings. In fact, angels have no gender and are forbidden from love relationships or marriage in three of the monotheistic traditions of the Middle East. Therefore, the idea that Archangel Michael is married and has a wife is not part of common credence.
Why Do People Ask If Archangel Michael Has a Wife?
The pronoun “he” is specifically used for Archangel Michael and other angels in the Bible, but that is probably only because it is more common than the other options (such as “she” or “it”). This has led some people to wonder if Archangel Michael has a wife or any romantic relationships. The question is also motivated by cultural beliefs, personal curiosity, or a desire to comprehend the nature of angels and their relationships.
Did Archangel Michael Have a Son?
No, Archangel Michael is an angelic being, and heaven’s angels abstain from having offspring. Therefore, Archangel Michael does not have a son.
What Is the Relationship Between Archangel Michael and Joan of Arc?
According to Joan of Arc, Archangel Michael was one of the saints who visited her and gradually made it clear to her that she must redeem France. She saw him as a dashing man and felt a religious love for him. Some very religious people believe that Joan of Arc was the soulmate of Archangel Michael, but this is not supported by the main Christian tradition.
References
Then war broke out in heaven. Michael – Bible Gateway
Daniel 10:13 – Bible.com
Matthew 22:30 – Bible.com
April 8, 2023
Why Is Paul Alexander Still in an Iron Lung?
April 4, 2023
Paul Richard Alexander: Living in an Iron Lung for 70 Years
Paul Richard Alexander was disabled at age 6 by a case of poliovirus. He was born on January 10, 1946, in Dallas, and he contracted the disease before the American form of the vaccine was developed. Paul was paralyzed almost entirely and placed in an “iron lung.” For 70 years, he has spent only a few moments of his daily life outside of his iron lung machine. Despite that, he became a lawyer and an author.
Paul Richard Alexander is a role model for people with disabilities who want to succeed in life despite their difficulties because he completed high school, went to college, and became a practicing lawyer who has appeared in court hearings. He even published a book in 2020, typing on a keyboard with a stick he held in his mouth. Paul Alexander is 77 years old today.
Paul Richard Alexander’s Disease and the Iron Lung
At 74 years old, Paul Alexander began to stay in the iron lung for most of the time. He is 77 today. (Mitch Summers/YouTube)
The highly contagious virus Paul Richard Alexander contracted is called poliomyelitis. Paul was six years old in 1952 when a polio epidemic swept through the Dallas neighborhood where he and his family lived.
It was the biggest outbreak in the history of the United States, killing hundreds daily, mostly children.
A week after his symptoms first appeared, they deteriorated dramatically. At this point, Paul was not able to talk. He was brought to Parkland Hospital, where he joined hundreds of other critically ill children.
Paul Richard Alexander as a kid (colored from the original).
After some time, Paul Richard Alexander’s sickness rendered him unable to breathe on his own, so he was put in an iron lung, which is a negative-pressure mechanical respirator with a covered aperture for the patient’s neck.
Paul was in the hospital for a total of 18 months, and he was in the iron lung the entire time. In the eyes of doctors, Paul initially had no chance of recovery. However, he had a strong will to live and was making miracle progress in his recovery.
- See also: Why is Paul Alexander Still in an Iron Lung?
— What is an iron lung?

The first “iron lung” was developed in 1927, and subsequent refinements were made in the 1950s in response to widespread polio epidemics. The device is an enclosed pressure chamber large enough to fit a human, within which a pressure different from atmospheric pressure is created. The “iron lung” helps a person who cannot move his muscles to breathe by pumping air into and out of his lungs at varying pressures.
Paul Richard Alexander and his iron lung machine during one of the treatment sessions.
In 1954, his parents brought the machine and their son home, where they set him up with a physical trainer who specialized in helping those with paralysis of the breathing muscles learn to breathe through their mouths.
Paul Richard Alexander was taught by the doctor to breathe like a free diver, using the glossopharyngeal method.
The technique is based on drawing oxygen into the lips and using the motions of the tongue to force it into the trachea and lungs. After contracting polio, Paul was not able to breathe like other people since the diaphragm is also made of muscles.
Paul Alexander is drawing with a brush he is holding in his mouth.
His parents rewarded him with a dog after he spent a year training to stay outside his iron cage for three whole minutes. After practicing glossopharyngeal breathing for three years, Paul Richard Alexander was able to go for several hours without his iron lung.
In his younger years, Paul refused the practice of sitting at home and tried to attend parties and clubs, just like other people, and also prayed at church and traveled on planes and ocean liners.
During his adulthood, he led and joined a sit-in protesting for the rights of people with impairments.
Paul Richard Alexander’s Academic Life
After mastering the unusual breathing technique, Paul started school and learned quickly by memorization since he was not able to take notes. Just like Franklin Roosevelt, who contracted polio as a child and was paralyzed below the waist, Paul was an ambitious child who dreamed of becoming president.
Paul Richard Alexander continued his education despite obstacles. He was one of the first students registered in the Dallas Independent School District’s distance education program in 1959 at the age of 13.
He graduated from high school (W.W. Samuell High School) at the age of 21. He became the first high school student ever to graduate from high school through a distance education program.
Simultaneously, Paul Richard Alexander had only “fives” and one “four” on his graduation certificate. He got a “4” in biology because he was paralyzed and therefore unable to dismember an animal.
After completing high school, Paul took and passed the university entrance exams. But despite his good grades, the rector’s office still denied him admission based on his disability.
Paul Richard Alexander on his birthday. (Mitch Summers/YouTube)
Paul surmounted the rector’s opposition with the help of his instructors in high school. After two years of struggle, he registered at Southern Methodist University in Dallas, finished, and then attended the University of Texas School of Law in Austin.
In Paul’s classroom, he was the only student with a disability.
Paul used a wheelchair for transportation around the campus. However, he spent the vast majority of his time in the “iron lung,” where he also studied. This happened as a result of persistent feelings of embarrassment.
Paul Richard Alexander’s presence at the university in a wheelchair garnered media attention because, in the 1960s, the United States had no federal disability inclusion initiatives and people with impairments were not prominent in society.
Paul Richard Alexander graduated from college with a bachelor’s degree in 1978. He attended law school after finishing university, earned his Juris Doctor (J.D.) in 1984, and was admitted to private law practice in 1986 after passing the bar exam.
A Career as a Lawyer and His Retirement
With the help of his friends, Paul Richard Alexander went to college, and became a practicing lawyer. (Dream Big/YouTube)
In order to help him out after he graduated from law school, Paul Richard Alexander employed Kathy Gaines. To this day, she has provided both work and care support to Paul from her home next door.
Since he was already able to handle his own difficulties, many people believed that Paul would be able to handle judicial disputes with ease.
In his time as a lawyer, Paul Alexander has dealt with wills, estates, social security conflicts, criminal trials, civil trials, cases involving minors, and business and governmental issues in court.
As he got older, Paul’s stamina gradually declined. When he was over the age of 70, he could no longer muster the stamina to spend more than a few minutes outside of his iron lung. At 74 years old, he began to stay in the iron lung almost all the time because he needed the respirator to breathe. Today, Paul Richard Alexander is 77 years old.
In 2020, Paul became the only living person using an iron lung. 2022 marked the year Paul Alexander used his iron lung for 70 years, which earned him a place in the Guinness Book of Records as the longest-living individual in an iron lung.
Paul Alexander is still using his iron lung in the bedroom of his modest Dallas apartment.
Paul Richard Alexander Published a Book
Paul and his friend Norman D. Brown published an autobiography book in 2020 titled Three Minutes for a Dog: My Life in an Iron Lung. It was Kathy Gaines who came up with the name of the book.
During the making of the book, Paul conveyed the words to his friend verbally, and he also wrote many of the pages himself, using a pencil he held in his mouth and typing on a keyboard using it.
The first writing implement Paul could use was a flat stick with a fountain pen attached to the end, which his father fashioned for him. In time, his father crafted an assortment of sticks for various uses. Paul put them to use in his writing, drawing, and typing.
The Discontinuation of Paul’s Iron Lung Machine
In the late 1960s, iron lung machines stopped being produced. Paul’s machine sometimes broke, and he didn’t want to switch to a breathing tube, which would have required a tracheostomy (hole in the throat) and forced him to change his way of life completely. Due to the risks of having a tracheostomy, Paul did not want to have a hole in his neck.
In 2018, the United States was home to all three of the world’s operational iron lung machines. After the air pressure in his iron lung failed in 2015, Paul’s friends helped him find an expert by posting a YouTube video, who was able to restore his respiratory equipment.
Because no living technicians or engineers are left to maintain these devices. After the vaccine was developed, there was no longer a requirement to educate people on how to care for the iron lungs.
Brady Richards was an expert mechanic and engineer who worked at the Environmental Testing Laboratory and whose hobby was fixing racing cars. He deduced the iron lung’s design, created replacement parts, and got Paul’s “lungs” back in working order.
Paul Richard Alexander’s Private Life
(Gizmodo/YouTube)
During his college years, Paul was engaged to a fellow student named Claire, but the engagement was called off after Claire’s parents prohibited her from keeping in touch with Paul. So, Paul put off tying the knot forever.
Paul developed an intimate, strictly professional connection with his caregiver and aide, Kathy Gaines.
In 2018, Paul saw Sue Perry, who had been by his side in the polio unit 65 years ago for the same illness. She was 4 years old at the time, and she was not as severely affected by the poliovirus as Paul was, so she made a full recovery. When she learned that Paul Richard Alexander was alive, Sue immediately tracked him down.
As of today, all of Paul Richard Alexander’s family members have predeceased him, including his elder brother Nick.
(Gizmodo/YouTube)
History of Polio Disease
During the epidemic that affected Paul Richard Alexander, there were a total of 58,000 cases of polio, over 21,000 cases of disability, and around 3,150 cases of death in the United States.
There were global polio infections before the vaccine was developed in 1955. In the 1940s and 1950s, poliovirus was widespread, causing the deaths or paralysis of an estimated 600,000 individuals worldwide annually.
The highly contagious viral illness Paul Richard Alexander contracted is called poliomyelitis. Children younger than 5 years old are particularly vulnerable to contracting poliomyelitis. The poliovirus can impair the nervous system and cause spinal cord damage, just like it happened with Paul Richard Alexander.
Today, the World Health Organization estimates that polio causes general disability in 1 out of every 200 cases.
Paul Richard Alexander at a Glance
Who is Paul Richard Alexander?
Paul Richard Alexander was born on January 10, 1946, in Dallas, and contracted poliomyelitis when he was 6 years old, before the American vaccine was developed. As a result, he became almost entirely paralyzed and was placed in an “iron lung” where he has spent almost every moment of his life for the last 70 years. Despite his disability, he became a lawyer and author and published a book in 2020 by typing on a keyboard with a stick he held in his mouth.
How did Paul Richard Alexander become a lawyer?
After completing high school through a distance education program, Paul Richard Alexander was denied admission to university because of his disability. With the help of his instructors in high school, he overcame this opposition and attended Southern Methodist University in Dallas, where he finished and then attended the University of Texas School of Law in Austin. He became a practicing lawyer who has appeared in court hearings and even published a book in 2020, typing on a keyboard with a stick he held in his mouth.
What is an iron lung, and how does it work?
An “iron lung” is a negative-pressure mechanical respirator with a covered aperture for the patient’s neck. The device is an enclosed pressure chamber that creates a pressure different from atmospheric pressure large enough to fit a human. The “iron lung” helps a person who cannot move his muscles to breathe by pumping air into and out of his lungs at varying pressures. The machine was first developed in 1927 and later improved in the 1950s in response to widespread polio epidemics.
How did Paul Richard Alexander breathe without his iron lung machine?
After contracting polio, Paul Richard Alexander was unable to breathe like other people, and his parents brought the iron lung machine home. They set him up with a physical trainer who specialized in helping those with paralysis of the breathing muscles learn to breathe through their mouths. He was taught by the doctor to breathe using the glossopharyngeal method. The technique is based on drawing oxygen into the lips and using the motions of the tongue to force it into the trachea and lungs. After practicing glossopharyngeal breathing for three years, Paul Richard Alexander was able to go for several hours without his iron lung.
References
Three Minutes for a Dog: My Life in an Iron Lung – Paul R. Alexander – Google Books
Polio survivors from Parkland reunite six decades later – Wfaa.com
Poliomyelitis – Who.int
The Last Few Polio Survivors – Last of the Iron Lungs – Gizmodo – YouTube
April 3, 2023
Ancient Jerusalem: From the 1700s BC to 135 AD
Jerusalem has been around since ancient times, and it has been a holy city for Jews, Christians, and Muslims ever since. Ancient Jerusalem flourished around 2000 BC, rising rapidly to prominence as one of the principal Canaanite-era city-states before falling under Egyptian control. In the 10th century BC, after being conquered by King David, ancient Jerusalem rose to prominence as the seat of the Israelite government and the site of the magnificent Solomon’s Temple. Ancient Jerusalem fell under Roman control in April 70 AD after being destroyed multiple times.
The Origins of Ancient Jerusalem
The map of ancient Israel and the Hebrew clans.
It is believed that the first settlers arrived in the area around ancient Jerusalem at the close of the 4th millennium BC. However, the first fortification at the location was built in the 1700s BC, long before the rise of the Israelite kingdom. And Jerusalem was a regional political center long before that.
The name of the “Jerusalem” city is attested in ancient Egyptian records, specifically in the inscriptions unearthed at the site of Tell el-Amarna. This shows the political importance of the city. The major urban growth of Jerusalem, however, did not occur until the 8th century BC.
The ancient Jerusalem served as the center of a state for close to two centuries, established by people who named themselves “Hebrews” or “Israelites.” This group claimed Mesopotamian ancestry, but the reality is more likely that its members were from Canaan while the city attracted people from neighboring regions like Mesopotamia and Egypt.
The governmental presence of ancient Jerusalem is at least as old as the Merneptah Stele, a.k.a. “Israel Stele”, discovered in Egypt which dates back to 1208 BC. This stele is the first written mention of Israel in history.
In the 10th century BC, Israel was divided into two kingdoms: the northern portion of Israel was called the Kingdom of Israel (1047–720 BC), while the southern area was called the Kingdom of Judah (930–587 BC).
Ancient Jerusalem and the First Temple (10th century–587 BC)
A detailed front view of Solomon’s Temple (The First Temple).
There is evidence of ancient Jerusalem’s prosperity in the form of temples, the growth of the city and the wealth of its ancestors, and the construction of important and complex hydraulic infrastructures like the 1,640-foot (500 m) long Siloam Tunnel (built between 727 and 698 BC). This water tunnel was dug in the rock and connected the spring of Gihon to a reservoir in the City of David.
The devotional impact of building a temple to Yahweh (“God”) on Mount Sinai was the likely cause of ancient Jerusalem’s prosperity. Solomon’s Temple, or the First Temple, is thought to have existed between the 10th and 6th centuries BC. The temple is described in the Book of Kings as a small one, with an entryway dubbed the “Holy of Holies,” where the Ark of the Covenant and the texts from Mount Sinai were kept.
- -> See also: King Solomon’s Net Worth: How Rich Was the King of Israel?
However, no physical evidence of the First Temple (Solomon’s Temple) has ever been found. On the Yom Kippur holiday, only the high priest was allowed inside the temple. At the time, the temple was not used for a monotheistic religion but for a monolatry one (the belief in more than one god).
This evidence is based on the belief in ritual sacrifice, just like in every other Middle Eastern faith. In an essentially polytheistic world, this monolatry inevitably led to monotheism.
Inside Solomon’s Temple (The First Temple).
Byblos, a place where papyrus was produced, is where the Bible got its name. The same city gave rise to the Greek word biblio, or “book”. This ancient capital of the Levant is believed to have been first occupied between 8800 and 7000 BC.
The Torah, the first five volumes of the Bible, contained God-given laws for general rules of daily life. It also represented one of the most significant traditions that Islam would later adopt. Despite some anomalies, such as the Temple of Elephantine in Egypt (Aswan), the purpose of the Jerusalem temple was to concentrate the worship of Yahweh in the ancient Jerusalem city.
In 586 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II’s forces stormed Jerusalem and demolished the First Temple. A portion of the city’s populace was taken as captives to Babylon (modern Iraq) after only a part of the city was destroyed. The most influential Israelite society outside of Judea had now been established in Babylon.
- -> See also: Nebuchadnezzar Statue: A Golden Image in King’s Dream
Ancient Jerusalem and the Second Temple (516 BC–70 AD)
The Temple Mount compound and the Second Temple. (Courtesy of The Temple Institute of Jerusalem)
In the northern section of the Temple Mount complex stood the Antonia Fortress, named after a prominent Roman commander. The regal cauldron, a gathering place, courtroom, and center of government, was built in the building’s southern section. In the middle of the mountain rose an inner complex where the sanctuary was situated, and an enclosed tunnel 49 feet (15 m) wide was exposed to the interior of the compound and encircled it from all directions.
With the foundation of a new empire by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC called the Persian Empire, the Near East saw a shift in power. The dominance of this kingdom over the Levant grew. The citizens of ancient Jerusalem received permission from Cyrus the Great to spend years rebuilding the city’s sacred significance by constructing a new temple in 538 BC.
The Second Temple in Jerusalem was built under the watchful eye of foreign forces during the Achaemenid dynasty (a Persian culture) and the Seleucid dynasty (a Hellenic culture) that followed Alexander the Great‘s invasion. The Greek king Antiochus IV introduced the worship of Olympian Zeus into the Temple of Yahweh (House of Yahweh) in 167 BC, a particularly cruel measure of Hellenization.
Maccabean Revolt
This imposition set off what would become known as the “Maccabean Revolt” and lasted until 141 BC. In 164 BC, the worship of Yahweh was reinstated in the Second Temple, and to celebrate this event, the Hanukkah holiday was established.
As a result of this uprising, an autonomous state with Jerusalem as its center and Yahweh as its sole god was restored in the year 141 BC. There was a ruling family, the Hasmoneans, who came to control ancient Jerusalem following the uprising. Even though the Hasmoneans were a sacred monarchy in which the High Priest held absolute authority, they nonetheless Hellenized Jerusalem over time and built tombs in the Hellenistic style.
Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans. 1850 painting by David Roberts.
From roughly 40 BC to 4 BC, the Roman Jewish King Herod of Judea initiated massive construction projects in ancient Jerusalem, most famously on the Temple Mount. To distinguish the Second Temple from the rest of the city, he planned to flatten the temple hill and turn it into an esplanade. The Second Temple grounds were off-limits to non-Jews (Gentiles), and only Yahweh’s cultural adherents were allowed. The Gentiles were restricted to the Gentile Prayer.
Herod’s 19 BC Second Temple (later “Herod’s Temple”) project was not completed until 63 AD. Jerusalem’s connection with the Roman government did not improve after Pompey desecrated Herod’s Temple in 64 BC. The Romans, who viewed religion more as a public good, were taken aback by Judaism’s emphasis on discrimination.
As the Roman influence on ancient Jerusalem grew, so did the Roman offerings performed at the Second Temple. The temple was now a stronghold of the imperial religion.
66 AD Revolt
The Hasmonean dynasty collapsed in 44 BC when Rome chose to establish direct governance in ancient Jerusalem. Because the desecrations were not resolved by this direct governance, the Judeans rose up in 66 AD and were brutally put down by the Roman troops.
After the insurgents sought shelter in the Second Temple during the Roman blockade of Jerusalem in the year 70, the city was plundered, and the temple was burned to the ground at the end of that year’s summer. This was four years after the revolt and possibly the day on which Tisha B’Av was observed, the Jewish day of fasting. The Roman legions under Titus retook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and the Second Temple.
Ancient Jerusalem in Roman Times
The Roman map of Jerusalem.
The destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem took time to become accepted. It was a gradual farewell with no hope of reconstruction, unlike the First Temple.
With the loss of the Temple and the High Priest, the religion became non-sacrificial and was led by the experts in the law: the rabbis. This led to a religion of the Book, and the Judeans gathered in what was called in Greek the “synagogue,” meaning “assembly.” However, the Jews remained haunted by the loss of Jerusalem and the Temple.
The Romans took exclusionary measures against the Jews after a final rebellion broke out in 132 AD, led by Simon bar Kokhba and his men, which lasted until 135 AD. This rebellion was crushed by the Roman legions, but to permanently remove the risk of rebellion, the Romans took drastic measures: circumcision, Sabbath observance, and Torah study were banned in Judea, and the Judeans were banned from entering Jerusalem except once a year. It was the only city in the Roman Empire that became forbidden to Jews.
During that time of year, the Jews would begin visiting the Wailing Wall to express their grief over the destruction of the temple and the city of Jerusalem. This permission became a ritual known today as the Western Wall, where Jews still go to mourn the loss of the temple and the city.
This wall was located southeast of Herod’s Temple. Since 135, under Emperor Hadrian, Israel no longer existed as an independent kingdom, and the word by which the Judeans called themselves (Yehudim, which originally meant “Judeans”) became an ethnonym for a people in exile. From then on, Yehudim was no longer translated as “Judeans” but as “Jews.”
Only the esplanade, the underground cisterns, and the wall with its entrances remain today. In the Middle Ages, Cairo, like many other towns with a rich historical heritage, relied heavily on materials salvaged from the Temple Mount (the site of the two temples), because it was a veritable “reservoir” of stones.
A bird’s-eye picture of the Temple Mount and Solomon’s Temple.
The Real Ancient Jerusalem: The City of David
Jerusalem is one of the most passionately revered towns in the world due to its legendary and historical significance. The Latin root for passion is “passio” or “suffering.” As for the Jerusalem legends, they often feature prophets from the Bible, Jewish tradition, Christianity, and Islam. Thus, the word “passion” has its linguistic roots in these myths and tales.
Jerusalem has many places where the collective memory of its people has been preserved better than in most other cities. Even the tiniest stone in Jerusalem has a story to tell. Everything is a remnant of some past incident, whether real or imagined. However, memory constantly reshapes the past.
The Location of Ancient Jerusalem
A researcher at the turn of the 20th century pinpointed the location of the ancient Jerusalem city, just south of the medieval city fortifications. Louis-Hugues Vincent, a historian at the École Biblique in Jerusalem, was a devout monk, an archaeologist, and a Dominican priest.
This educational French institution was established in the middle of the 19th century to be dedicated to the study of Holy Land antiquities and interpretation. And the location of ancient Jerusalem was the target of this researcher’s quest. The location of the settlement was dubbed “the City of David” by him.
The Israelite tribes were said to have been united under David’s leadership in the land of the Canaanites. According to the scriptural timeline, David captured Jerusalem in the year 1010 BC, well before the birth of Christ. But can we really verify David’s existence?
What the Bible states about him is all we have. External evidence, such as stelae carved in the Aramaic language and referring to rulers from the “house of David,” is, at best, equivocal. This evidence shows that David was the progenitor of a family that controlled Jerusalem, but we have no other information about him or his life.
The Consistency of Ancient Jerusalem
Over the course of history, ancient Jerusalem has been an integral part of the Levant, an area that is sometimes referred to as Islamic Syria (but not in the sense of the present nation) or Bilad Al-Sham. Palestine was the name given to the coastal area of the Levant.
The city of Jericho, which was founded in the Fertile Crescent and has been constantly inhabited since 4500 BC for five millennia, is an example of one of the earliest towns in the world.
Cities have moved around in Egypt and Mesopotamia over time. For example, Babylon, which was close to the ancient Ctesiphon, served as the capital of the Persian emperors until the 1st century BC. Baghdad was also close to Ctesiphon, but there is no historical continuity between these three cities.
Even though urban sites in the Levant are rarely abandoned, even during times of devastation, it is the reverse in Egypt, where we witness movement between ancient cities such as Memphis and Fustat (the former capital of Egypt), both of which are near the later-founded Cairo.
In 715 AD, the Umayyads established the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. The mosque was constructed on the site of the former church of St. John the Baptist. The consistency of these chains of events is what makes Jerusalem so special.
March 30, 2023
Khutulun: The Legendary Female Mongol Wrestler
The daughter of Kaidu Khan, Khutulun (Хутулун, 1260–1306), was a wrestler and the great-great-granddaughter of Genghis Khan, the head of the Mongol Empire. Her name originates from the ancient Turkic term “qutuq,” meaning “happiness.” Qutulun Chagan was another name for her. She joined her father’s troops and was an accomplished fighter and wrestler. Khutulun was also known as the Khotol Tsagaan Günj (“All White Princess”) and Ay Yaruq (“Moonlight”). She was also the great-granddaughter of Ögedei Khan, and her father Kaidu fought for the House of Ögedei during his life.
Kaidu Khan and his wrestling daughter Khutulun. Painting by Master of Mazarine, between 1410 and 1412.
Her story was told in the Middle East and Italy after being recorded by Marco Polo, Rashid al-Din, and Ibn Battuta. Marco Polo said she was stunningly attractive and an accomplished martial artist. Kaidu Khan (1235–1301) saw her potential and took her into battle with him. During the battle against the Yuan dynasty, Khutulun famously proclaimed that she would marry any man who could defeat her in a wrestling contest, prompting many men to accept the dare.
Khutulun, on the other hand, wanted a hundred horses as a reward if she beat the man. Many works of art, like the opera Turandot (1926) by Italian composer Giacomo Puccini, were inspired by her reputation as a famous female wrestler and athlete, especially in Europe in the 18th century.
Poster from April 25, 1926 advertising Giacomo Puccini’s musical Turandot which is based on Khutulun. Image: Wikimedia.
Note: “Turandot” means the “Turkic Daughter” or “Daughter of Turan.” It was a common moniker for Central Asian queens in Persian literature. Today, the term turan is a reference to the prehistoric Turkic settlement in Central Asia.
Reflection of Khutulun in Wrestling
Mongolian wrestlers fight each other regardless of body weight and size, and there is no limit to the arena. It is customary for two competitors to land first on each other’s elbows and chests.
Mongolian wrestlers usually wear a shirt with an open chest (called a “zodog”). This may have originated from officials having to check the sexes of both competitors.
When a wrestler extends his arms and slowly rotates to show the crowd his chest as a ceremonial dance of the victor, this may as well have the same purpose. According to Jack Weatherford, this is a memorial for the best female warrior in Mongolian history, Khutulun.
A Mongol wrestler with a zodog. (Image: AFP, Johannes Eisele)
Khutulun in Popular Culture
Many princes, nobles, and wrestlers were smitten by Khutulun’s beauty and wrestling skills and they lost a lot of horses in the process. This story became a hot topic in the coming centuries. In the 19th century, in Giacomo Puccini‘s play Turandot, men who wanted to marry Turandot risked their lives by trying to solve three riddles she posed.
In 1710, a French scholar named Francois Pétis de la Croix wrote a series of stories about the rulers of the Mongol Empire. In these stories, he told many Asian legends and myths. In his novel, he depicted a Turkic girl named Turandot who lived in the Golden Kingdom.
The Italian writer Carlo Gozzi used this as the basis for a play, which Friedrich Schiller translated into German. In 1802, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe put on the play Turandot Princess in Weimar, Germany. Jacopo Foroni’s Turandot was also presented as an opera and became a sensation.
In the Netflix show Marco Polo, Claudia Kim plays the role of Khutulun.
Khutulun in the TV series Marco Polo.
Between 2011 and 2019, an Australian racehorse named Khutulun earned roughly 334,000 USD in reward money, more than 30 times the amount of its initial purchase.
In 2021, a movie named Princess Khutulun was released, which starred the Mongolian actress Tsedoo Munkhbat.
Origin of Khutulun
Khutulun or Kutulun was born sometime around 1260, but her precise date of birth is unclear. Her grandfather was Khashin who died early, and her father was the powerful Mongol warlord Kaidu Khan. Her mother, Buman Dai Khatun, was also an influential character; she was Kaidu’s primary wife rather than a concubine.
The ancient Turkic term qutuq, meaning “happiness,” is the origin of Khutulun’s name. In “The Travels of Marco Polo”, she is called Aigiarne which translates to “Radiant Moon” in Tatar. Khotol Tsagaan (which means “All White” in Mongolian) is also attributed to her. In other sources, she is called Aiyurug or Ay Yaruq in Turkic which means “Moonlight”.
Aside from Marco Polo’s travels and the account of Ilkhanate vizier Rashid al-Din, the name “Khutulun” does not appear in the chronicles of the Mongol Empire or in the Secret History of the Mongols. In the genealogical charts of the Genghis family compiled by the Timurid Empire, she is known more as “Qutulun Chagan.”
Kaidu’s tamga (symbol).
Khutulun’s father, Kaidu, was a khan when she was born, and he controlled the Amu Darya River and the western Siberian steppe. By 1280, Kaidu Khan had become Central Asia’s preeminent ruler. Mongolia in the west, India in the south, and the Central Siberian Plateau in the north were all part of the House of Ögedei’s expansive territory at the time.
Rashid al-Din estimates that Kaidu had anywhere between 24 and 40 boys. And among his daughters, the names Khutulun and Kököchin especially stand out. However, details on Kököchin’s whereabouts are scant.
Khutulun’s Early Life
Khutulun grew up in the Mongol culture and, like other kids her age, learned to ride horses and shoot arrows. Rashid al-Din, a Persian scholar and the Khan’s advisor, claimed that Khutulun was the manliest of her sisters and she fought in her father’s troops.
Unlike her cousin Kublai Khan, Khutulun did not favor sedentary pursuits. She was an accomplished wrestler and a formidable fighter. In addition to her other talents, she was an excellent archer and demonstrated enthusiasm for horse riding. She often enjoyed spending time atop a horse.
Khutulun grew up in a competitive environment, often pitted against her 14 male siblings. She grew up fighting with her strong brothers and competing with them from childhood to overcome them by force.
Her Appearance and Military Career
According to Marco Polo, Khutulun was said to be tall, agile, and fast. Polo described her as being able to easily approach her enemies like a hawk catching a chicken and either capturing or killing them. Polo also recorded that Khutulun was powerful and courageous, and that there was no man in her father’s kingdom or the surrounding countries who could surpass her strength.
According to Rashid al-Din, Khutulun dressed like a man and showed bravery by participating in several wars. She was entrusted with important tasks by her father and handled administrative duties. Unlike her other sisters, she stayed by her parents’ side until the very end.
Some men who were jealous of her, including Mongols, Tatars, and Turkic tribal leaders, spread nasty rumors that Khutulun was engaged in incest with her father Kaidu to downplay her reputation.
Khutulun accompanied her father Kaidu Khan to the battlefields. After Mongke Khan’s rise to power, Kaidu opposed the Toluid clan and fought against Kublai Khan for the next half-century. Khutulun took part in the Kaidu–Kublai war (1268–1301).
Instead of consulting his 24 or 40 sons, Kaidu allegedly turned to his daughter Khutulun for guidance. According to Marco Polo, Khutulun was a skilled warrior who could easily mount her enemies and take them prisoner, like a hawk catching its prey.
Wrestling as a Marriage Challenge to Men
Khutulun during a wrestling in the TV show Marco Polo.
According to “The Travels of Marco Polo,” Kaidu Khan had every intention of marrying Khutulun off to a Mongol prince because of how much he loved her. Khutulun flatly rejected his proposal, saying she would wait to tie the knot until she met a man who could match her in power and ability.
Since Kaidu was powerless to change his daughter’s mind, he issued a consent document giving her the right to select her own husband, regardless of whether or not that meant challenging men from all over the world to wrestling matches.
According to Marco Polo, Khutulun did not actually want to get married. Instead, she offered to wrestle any potential suitors as a condition for marriage. No one was able to defeat her.
Khutulun challenged the sons of Mongol and Turkic nobles that they had to wrestle with her if they wanted to marry her. If they lost, they had to pay a fine of 100 horses. She reportedly acquired 10,000 horses through this condition.
In 1280, a wealthy nobleman who had won the favor of Kaidu Khan brought 1,000 horses to win Khutulun’s hand in marriage. Kaidu advised Khutulun to lose on purpose. But Khutulun was not to be trifled with, and after some wrestling, she lifted the nobleman up and threw him down. The nobleman was greatly discouraged and almost lost his mind over what happened.
She Finally Got Married
Khutulun ultimately refused to marry, as she always had. And her prolonged celibacy led to malicious rumors of an incestuous relationship with her father. Eventually, in 1296, Kaidu handed her over to a warrior named Abtakul of the Choros clan. According to Rashid al-Din, Abtakul was chosen as a husband by Khutulun herself.
But the man she loved, Rashid al-Din says, was Ghazan Khan who was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire’s Ilkhanate. According to the Ilkhanate vizier and historian al-Din, Khutulun later lived in Tarsakent and Karabalic and had two sons.
Four years after the marriage of Khutulun, in the year 1300, Kaidu led a large army to invade the Mongol plateau to challenge the supremacy of the Yeke Yuwan Ulus or “Great Yuan State”. He was met by the army of the Yuan dynasty led by Külüg Khan (later known as Emperor Wuzong of Yuan) in the Battle of Tekelik.
This battle became the largest and fiercest in the history of the Mongol Empire. However, Kaidu was unable to claim victory and was instead injured by the Külüg Khan army. As a result of his injuries, Kaidu passed away a month later at Lake Taikan in 1301.
His body was buried on a mountain called “Sonkurlik” between the Ile (Ili) and Chu rivers, where the Ögedei Khan was also buried.
Khutulun as the First Female Khan
Khutulun’s father Kaidu came to depend on her advice and political support more and more as he got older. She was undoubtedly her father’s favorite child, and according to some accounts Kaidu was actually planning to designate her as the next khan before he died of an injury in 1301.
However, Kaidu Khan’s choice is said to have been rejected by his male relatives beforehand. She continued to be challenged by her kinsman Duwa and other brothers from the Chagatai Khanate who opposed her right to inherit.
Khutulun, with the help of her brother Orus, and husband Abtakul, lived in the area around the mountain of Sonkurlik and guarded the graves of his father and family. Orus was also named as the successor by Kaidu and Khutulun supported him.
Before his death, Kaidu had nominated Orus, who was born of a regular khatun, as his successor, but Duwa, the head of the Chagatai family and second in power after Kaidu, nominated Kaidu’s firstborn son, Chapar, instead of Orus.
At this time, Orus, Tökme of the Güyük family, and Khutulun were against Chapar taking the throne, and Khutulun sided with Orus so he could be involved in politics and the military.
In response, Duwa taunted her by saying, “You must do scissors and needlework instead.” Khutulun was furious and fought with Orus against Chapar’s faction, but their battle ended up contributing to Duwa’s seizure of Central Asia.
In 1306, when Kaidu’s son Chapar raised an army against the Duwa of the Chagatai Khanate, Khutulun led a force of 1,000 men to support the Chapar, but was defeated. Khutulun was killed in 1306 by an assassin sent either by Duwa or Chapar. Because Khutulun had resisted the succession of both in favor of Orus.
She was only 45 or 46 years old at the time of her death. The leaders and followers of the House of Ögedei that had rallied around Khutulun were also captured.
Khutulun After Her Death
Marco Polo, Rashid al-Din, and Ibn Battuta were among the travelers who told people in Europe about Kuthulun. However, her name does not appear in the records of the Yuan and Ming dynasties, and she is not mentioned in the Mongolian and Chinese records and literature.
Even so, in Central Asia, Iran, and Arab countries, her name has been passed down through folklore. Her name was written down in Rashid al-Din’s Persian history book, and Kuthulun’s name came up several times when putting together the family tree of Genghis Khan’s clan in the Turco-Mongol Timurid Empire.
Khutulun at a Glance
Who was Khutulun, and what was her significance in Mongol history?
Khutulun was the daughter of Kaidu Khan, a Mongol warlord and grandson of Genghis Khan. She was an accomplished wrestler and fighter, and her story was told by many famous writers and historians, including Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta, and Rashid al-Din. Her legacy as a famous athlete and wrestler has inspired many works of art, including the opera Turandot by Italian composer Giacomo Puccini.
What is the origin of Khutulun’s name?
The ancient Turkic term “qutuq,” which means “happiness,” is the origin of Khutulun’s name. She was also called Khotol Tsagaan (“All White Princess”) and Ay Yaruq (“Moonlight”) in other sources.
How did Khutulun become famous?
Khutulun famously proclaimed that she would marry any man who could defeat her in a wrestling contest, but the man had to give her 100 horses as a reward if she won. This challenge became widely known, and many princes, nobles, and wrestlers tried to defeat her, but none succeeded. Her story became a popular topic in many stories, plays, and operas throughout history.
What is the significance of Khutulun in Mongolian wrestling tradition?
According to Jack Weatherford, the act of a Mongolian wrestler extending his arms and slowly rotating to show the crowd his chest as a ceremonial dance of the victor is a memorial for the best female warrior in Mongolian history, Khutulun. Mongolian wrestlers also wear a shirt with an open chest (called a “zodog”), which may have originated from officials having to check the sexes of both competitors.
References
“The Travels of Marco Polo” – Harper & brothers, 1845.
“The Secret History of the Mongol Queens” – Jack Weatherford, 2010.
“The Secret History of the Mongols” – Urgunge Onon, 2005.
March 28, 2023
Hoelun: The Mother Who Raised Genghis Khan Alone
March 27, 2023
Yesugei: Genghis Khan’s Adversity-Defying Father
The Kiyat group, a Mongol people, was located in the northeastern portion of the Mongolian steppe in the mid-12th century, and its clan chief, Yesugei, or Yesükhei in Mongolian (Есүхэй, ᠶᠢᠰᠦᠭᠡᠢ), was a powerful figure in the clan. Genghis Khan’s father and the progenitor of the Kiyat-Borjigin family, Yesugei (b. 1134 – d. 1171), is credited with establishing Mongol rule. He held the position of Baghatur, which means “hero” or “noble one”, so he was commonly referred to as Yesugei Baghatur. It was an honorable title given to the nomadic warriors who distinguished themselves in battle, but it later became a certain title bestowed by the Khan.
Meaning of the Name Yesugei
The name “Yesugei” means “like nine,” which alludes to the fact that the Mongols consider nine (yesün) to be a fortunate number. While “yesügei” is masculine, the feminine form of the same name is “yesülün.” Similar to his ancestors, Yesugei believed in Tengrism, one of the first monotheistic religions on Earth.
Yesugei’s Family, Wife, and Children
Yesugei was one of the four sons of Bartan Baghatur (1120–1161). The eldest is Möngke Kiyan, followed by Negün Taishi, and the youngest is Daridai Otchigin. Möngke was Yesugei’s elder brother, and Negün and Daridai were his younger brothers.
- Children From Hoelun
  - Temüjin (Genghis Khan)
  - Jochi Qasar
  - Hachiun Alchi
  - Temuge Otchigin (Otchigin means the “youngest”)
  - Temülin (daughter)
- Children From Sochigel
  - Behter
  - Belgutei
Origin of Yesugei
Yesugei’s paternal grandfather Khabul Khan’s statue in Gachuurt, Mongolia.
Yesugei’s father Bartan Baghatur was the second son of Khabul Khan (1100–1148). Khabul Khan, Yesugei’s grandfather, was the first pan-Mongol khan. He had seven sons who gave rise to the Kiyat tribe, one of the two ancestral tribes of Genghis Khan’s family.
Despite having so many direct heirs, Khabul Khan left the rule to his second cousin, Ambaghai. The relationship between Khabul Khan and Ambaghai goes back to their common great-grandfather Kaidu (1025–1100).
Kaidu had three sons: Bashinkhor Dogshin, Charaqai Lingqum, and Chaojin-Ortegai. Khabul Khan was the grandson of Bashinkhor Khan, and Ambaghai was the grandson of Charaqai. Ambaghai Khan and other descendants of Charaqai Lingqum founded the Taichiud clan in 1148.
In the later decades, it would be the same Taichiud clan that ambushed Yesugei’s helpless family, captured Temüjin, and chained him up with a neck cangue used for slaves.
The next khan, the fourth son of Khabul Khan was Hotula Khan (1111–1161), who was the uncle of Yesugei. Ambaghai Khan (Khabul Khan’s cousin), the leader of the Khamag Mongols (“the Whole Mongols”), was killed by the Jin dynasty after being conspired against by the Tatar tribe’s border garrison. This was long before Yesugei was born in 1134. And Yesugei died in 1171 after being poisoned by Tatars on his way back home.
Early Life of Yesugei
While out falconeering near the Onon River, Yesugei met Yeke Chiledu, a Merkit man who had recently married an Olkhonud woman. Yesugei thought the lady was a rare beauty, so he invited his elder and younger brothers, Negün Taishi and Daridai Otchigin, to come to check her out.
Afraid, Yeke Chiledu fled away, but his three siblings gave pursuit. Hoelun, the girl, warned Yeke Chiledu to abandon her and run away because three siblings were out to murder him: “Those three are trying to kill you, and as long as you are alive, you can meet another woman. Don’t lay down your life, leave me behind.” And just like that, Hoelun let Yeke Chiledu run. Later, the three siblings kidnapped Hoelun and married her brother Yesugei.
As a sign of great respect, Yesüdei made Hoelun his only primary wife. Thus, only Hoelun could bore child to the clan chieftain.
According to one account, Ambaghai Khan once traveled to the Tatars in person to marry his son Qadaan Taishi to the daughter of the Airu’ut Tatar leader. But the Tatars betrayed him and delivered him to the Jurchen leader Altan Khan Ulu, who promptly had him killed. In alternate narratives, he traveled to the Tatars either to pick out a bride from among the local women or to see off his daughter, who was getting married.
Either way, Altan Khan Ulu had Ambaghai Khan executed along with Yesugei’s uncle Hotula Khan’s brother Ökin Barkak. When his uncle Hotula Khan and his cousin Qadaan Taishi started seeking vengeance for Ambaghai Khan, Yesugei joined them to attack the Tatar clan.
Qadaan Taishi, the son of Ambaghai Khan, conducted thirteen futile battles against the Tatars, while Yesugei was more successful in this conflict. He seized the Tatar fighters Temüjin-Uge and Hori-Buha in 1162. Also around this time, Hoelun gave birth to his first son.
Birth of Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan surrounded by his children.
Lady Hoelun, Yesugei’s wife, was expecting their first child when they moved to Burkhan Khaldun Mountain on the Onon River. Their son Temüjin, or Genghis Khan, was born there.
The noble Tatar fighter caught by Yesugei inspired Lady Hoelun to give her son the name Temüjin. Because the slave Temüjin was executed at their son’s birth.
In addition to Temüjin, Hoelun bore Yesugei three more sons and one daughter: Qasar in 1164, Hachiun in 1166, Temuge in 1169, and Temülin (or Temülün) in 1169.
When Temüjin was nine years old, his father Yesugei took him to his mother’s clan the Olkhonud to look for a bride. Between the mountains of Chekchel and Chikurgu, they ran into Dei Sechen (or Dai Setsen), the Olkhonud clan leader.
They were welcomed into Dei Sechen’s house, where they met his daughter Börte, who was just a year older than Temüjin. Yesugei found her beautiful and set up a marriage between his son and her.
In the morning, Börte engaged Temüjin and Dei Sechen insisted that Temüjin should live with them for a while as a son-in-law first. Yesugei agreed and departed for home.
Death of Yesugei
On the way back home, Yesugei ran into some Tatar tribespeople who were feasting at a spot named Shira Kale (assumably the present-day town of Hulunbuir), near the base of Chekchel Mountain.
Yesugei, parched from the journey, sipped from their water. But the Tatars, seeking vengeance for an earlier defeat and the murder of their family member Temüjin-Uge eight years ago, had poisoned his water or food. Before stepping in, Yesugei already knew he could not disclose himself. However, someone recognized Yesügei and, under the pretense of kindness, poisoned him.
Yesugei, a warrior to the core, still managed to escape. On the way back, he became ill and spent three nights and four days reaching his house (or a man named Mönglik’s house near his home base).
Assuming Yesugei traveled 56 miles (90 km) a day on his horse after being poisoned, he returned to a place 168 miles (270 km) east of the Tatar base, on the south bank of the Kherlen River. Even after arriving home, Yesugei got increasingly worse.
Before his death, Yesugei requested the son of a senior called Caraqa Ebugen of the Khongirad clan, Mönglik Ečige, bring back Temüjin and care for his family. Mönglik answered, “I will return Temüjin and honor those who remained.” Yesugei died three days after arriving home and making his last wish.
According to the will of Yesugei, Mönglik brought back Temüjin from the custody of Dei Sechen. On that day, Temüjin or Genghis Khan swore vengeance against the Tatars for the death of his father.
When Yesugei was killed, many of his followers abandoned his family and forcibly removed them from their houses: The following spring, Targutai Khiriltug (a rival of Yesugei and grandson of Ambaghai Khan), the leader of the Taichiud tribe, announced his tribe’s departure from Yesugei’s Kiyat tribe, leaving the Yesugei family to their fate.
Yesugei’s wife Hoelun and their children, including Temüjin, were left helpless, and they were impoverished greatly for a number of years.
Blood Brothers
Khan Hotula’s death left the Khamag Mongol union without a chosen khan, but Yesügei nonetheless exercised effective control. Toghrul (1130–1203), a member of the Kerait clan, murdered his brother and fought his uncle, Gurkhan, over who would succeed the confederation (khanlig). Once Toghrul succeeded to the khanate, he had several of his kin put to death because they had attempted to disinherit him from his father’s realm.
Toghrul’s uncle Gurkhan (or Gur Khan, a title that means ‘universal ruler’) was one of the few who made it out alive. Gurkhan later became successful in deposing Toghrul. However, the khanate would again be restored to its rightful owner Toghrul by Yesugei in 1171, when he marched his troops to the Tuul River from beyond the Gobi Desert, among the Tanguts.
After suffering a loss, being dethroned by his uncle, and having to escape, Toghrul approached Yesugei for help. Yesugei easily consented, and with his renewed fortitude, Toghrul was able to vanquish his uncle and assume leadership of the Kerait people (Keraites).
Toghrul thanked Yesugei and vowed to be blood brothers (anda) with him. When Yesugei died and his son Temüjin ran into trouble, Toghrul took on the role of Temüjin’s foster father. He gave an anda pledge to Temüjin as his adopted son and called himself Temujin’s father-in-law. Toghrul had a significant impact on Temüjin’s life.
Yesugei as Revered Ancestor
The Yuan dynasty was established by one of Yesugei’s great-grandsons, Kublai Khan who ruled China under the name “Yuan dynasty”.
After the Mongol Empire had grown to rule a vast territory, Kublai Khan, the fifth khagan (“khan of khans”) and grandson of the first khagan Genghis Khan, posthumously bestowed the title of “Revered Ancestor, Divine Yuan Emperor” upon his great-grandfather Yesugei in accordance with Chinese tradition in 1266.
Again, according to The Secret History of the Mongols, Yesugei was granted the title Shenyuan Huangdi, which means “Supernaturally Prime Emperor,” and he was also given the temple name “Ardent Founder.”
Yesugei at a Glance
Who was Yesugei, and what was his role in establishing Mongol rule?
Yesugei was a Mongolian clan chief of the Kiyat group, located in the northeastern portion of the Mongolian steppe in the mid-12th century. He was the progenitor of the Kiyat-Borjigin family and the father of Genghis Khan. Yesugei held the position of Baghatur, which means “hero” or “noble one,” and established Mongol rule.
What is the meaning of Yesugei’s name?
The name “Yesugei” means “like nine,” which alludes to the fact that the Mongols consider nine (yesün) to be a fortunate number.
Who were Yesugei’s family members, wife, and children?
Yesugei was one of the four sons of Bartan Baghatur. His wife was Hoelun, and she bore him several children, including Temüjin (Genghis Khan), Jochi Qasar, Hachiun Alchi, Temuge Otchigin, and Temülin. Yesugei also had children from Sochigel, including Behter and Belgutei.
What is the origin of the Kiyat tribe, and how did Yesugei’s family come to power?
Yesugei’s grandfather was Khabul Khan, the first pan-Mongol khan, who had seven sons who gave rise to the Kiyat tribe, one of the two ancestral tribes of Genghis Khan’s family. Khabul Khan left the rule to his second cousin, Ambaghai, who was later killed by the Jin dynasty after being conspired against by the Tatar tribe’s border garrison. Yesugei’s father was Bartan Baghatur, the second son of Khabul Khan. Despite having so many direct heirs, Khabul Khan left the rule to Ambaghai.
March 24, 2023