Category: Science

The scope of scientific study is vast, and it encompasses fascinating and intricate disciplines. Learn more about the most interesting topics in science.

Birth Control History: How It Works, Alternatives, and Side Effects
September 6, 2022
Newton’s Laws of Motion: Newton’s First Law, Second Law, and Third Law
September 6, 2022
Story of Mexican Yam as a Birth Control Method
September 6, 2022
What is a Chromosome? Definition, Y and X, Chromosome Extra, Other Facts
A chromosome is known as a cell component that is made up of DNA. Chromosomes reside in the cell nucleus. DNA chromosomes are covered by histone proteins and chromatin loops. Because they are so long and this is the only way to fit them in a cell. Our DNA consists of thousands of genes that determine the traits of a person. This includes gender and hereditary features such as freckles or eye color. Below are the most interesting facts you can learn about chromosomes:
Circular chromosomes of bacteria
Eukaryotic cells have linear strands of chromosomes. However, the chromosomes of prokaryotic cells, like bacteria, are single circular chromosomes. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. Thus, the circular chromosome resides in the cell cytoplasm.
Organisms have a different amount of chromosome numbers
Chromosome and nuclei of orchid species
There are different numbers of chromosomes in every organism’s cells. This number changes according to the species and is usually between 10 to 50 chromosomes per cell. Diploid human cells typically have 46 chromosomes (44 autosomes, 2 sex chromosomes). This is 38 for a cat, 24 for a 24, 48 for a gorilla, 38 for a cheetah, 36 for a starfish, 208 for a king crab, shrimp 254, mosquito 6, turkey 82, and frog 26. Interestingly, orchid plants have chromosome numbers ranging from 10 to 250, according to the species. However, the most interesting is Ophioglossum reticulatum; because it has the most total chromosomes with 1260.
Which chromosome is bigger, X or Y?
Y chromosomes are about one-third of X chromosomes. The X chromosome factors in 5 percent of the size of a DNA molecule, while the Y chromosome in similar cells factors in roughly 2 percent of the cell DNA.
Chromosomes that determine the gender
Humans have male gametes or sperm cells, and these are used to determine the gender of a baby or any other mammal. These sex chromosomes are called X or Y. Female gametes or eggs only have X chromosomes. When a sperm cell with an X chromosome fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote will be XX or female, in other words. When the sperm cell has a Y chromosome, the resulting zygote will be XY or male.
Types of chromosome mutations
Chromosome extra
Chromosome mutations happen occasionally. Some mutations make changes in the chromosome structure, while other mutations directly alter the chromosome numbers. Structural changes include gene deletion, gene duplication (chromosome extra), and gene inversion. The other mutation happens during meiosis, and the resulting number of chromosomes is either too many or less than normal. When a person has more than two extra chromosomes (chromosome extra), he or she is diagnosed with Down syndrome or trisomy 21.
Chromosome telomeres: aging and cancer
Each telomere is located at the tip of a chromosome. Telomeres protect DNA during the replication of a cell. However, telomeres wear and lose their length over time. If this process makes them too short, the cell cannot divide. Scientists believe that the shortening eventually causes the programmed death of the cell, also known as apoptosis. As you can probably guess by now, this is directly related to aging as well as cancer development in some cases.
There is viral DNA in human chromosomes
Every human’s DNA forms from a virus. However, this percentage is relatively small—roughly 8 percent. Researchers determined this virus and called it the Borna virus. There are diseases named for this virus, and they infect the neurons of birds such as parrots and mammals such as us. The final infection happens in the brain. The reproduction of Borna viruses happens in the infected cell nucleus.
These viral genes can be transferred to a cell chromosome. Thus, viral DNA passes from parent to child. Some mental health illnesses, like psychiatric or neurological ones seen in humans, are believed to be based on the Borna virus.
Do all organisms have sex chromosomes?
No, not all of them have sex chromosomes. For instance, ants, bees, and wasps are some of the species that don’t have a sex chromosome. Thus, sexuality is determined by fertilization. When the egg is fertilized, it will be a male, when it is not fertilized, there will be a female. Parthenogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction.
When a cell does not repair the damaged chromosome?
Throughout mitosis or cell division, cells do not want to repair a damaged chromosome. Our cells cannot distinguish a DNA strand damage, and telomere during the division. Otherwise, it would result in a telomere fusion, if cells chose to repair DNA in the mitosis stage. This may end up with a dead cell or aberrations in chromosomes.
Higher X chromosome activity in males
Since males live with a single X chromosome, cells tend to increase gene activity in the X chromosome. MSL complex is a protein complex, and it provides the RNA polymerase II enzyme with information for transcribing DNA and expressing more of the X chromosome genes. Because RNA polymerase II progresses further in the DNA strand during transcription thanks to the MSL complex, this allows more genes to be expressed.
September 6, 2022
History of Medicine: Early Methods, Tools, and Medicinal Plants
September 6, 2022
Discovery of General Anesthesia and Use of Ether in Surgeries
September 6, 2022
History of Photography and the Camera
September 6, 2022
History of Plastics and Plastic Types
Plastic is used everywhere from spaceships and computers to bottles and body prostheses, which makes it one of the most remarkable of all man-made materials. What gives plastic its special quality is the shape of the molecules. It is made from long organic molecules known as plastic polymers.
When was plastic first invented?
In the middle of the 19th century, people knew that cellulose (the woody substance in plants) could be converted into a fragile material called cellulose nitrate. In 1862, British chemist Alexander Parkes added camphor to it, producing a hard but malleable plastic called Parkesine. In 1869, American inventor John Hyatt produced a similar material called celluloid, which was used in 1889 by Kodak to make photographic films. Today there are thousands of synthetic plastics, each with its characteristics and uses. Many are still of hydrocarbon origin (oil and natural gas), but in the past few decades, carbon fiber and other materials have been added to produce super-light and super-durable plastics such as Kevlar and CNRP.
I thought I should make something really soft instead, that could be molded into different shapes.
Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland on the invention of bakelite.
The evolution of plastics
Plastic is widely used because it is hard and durable and cannot be decomposed by bacteria. Thus, once released into nature, it does not decompose for a very long time. The vast amounts of waste plastics—100 million tons are in the oceans—cause plastic pollution, which is harming marine wildlife. It is very important to reduce the use of plastics and recycle as much as possible. Heat is needed to change its shape, so the rate of recycling plastic is very low.
The history of plastic begins in 1862. Let’s evaluate the timeline step by step:
Parkesine – 1862
Alexander Parkes develops the first plastic, Parkesine. It is first used to make cheap buttons.
PVC – 1872
This extremely hard plastic was developed in 1872 by the German chemist Eugen Baumann. It was thought to be useless until the 1920s.
Celluloid – 1887
American John Hyatt and English Daniel Spill both developed a material called celluloid, which is similar to Parkesine. It is used in flexible films to replace glass-backed plates in photography. This was a crucial step in filmmaking.
Rayon fiber – 1894
Two British chemists produce a synthetic substance called rayon fiber by rearranging wood fibers in sodium hydroxide and spinning them on the thread.
Bakelite – 1909
American chemist Leo Baekeland develops the first bakelite by processing phenolic resin made from tar with formaldehyde. The plastic that is completely synthetic. Not only it can be shaped like previous plastics, but it is also hard and heatproof.
Cellophane – 1912
Cellophane, a thin transparent layer of treated cellulose, is developed for the first time in 1912. It was used for airtight packaging and is useful for packaging food.
Vinyl – 1926
American chemist Waldo Semon exposes PVC to heat and uses chemicals to produce vinyl. It is used in many objects from shoes to shampoo bottles.
Polyethylene – 1933
Although it was first produced by British chemists Eric Fawcett and Reginald Gibson in 1898, Erhard Holzkamp produced a more useful polyethylene in 1933. Solid, soft, and bendable; it is currently widely used in many plastics.
Nylon – 1935
American chemist Wallace Carothers invented the first thermoplastic nylon; when heated, it liquefies and when cooled it solidifies. The most common use is long socks, there are many uses.
Styrene is an oily substance obtained from the resin of the sweet gum tree. In 1936, the German chemical company IG Farben used it to produce polystyrene.
Polystyrene – 1936
Teflon – 1937
PTFE or Teflon is invented by American chemist Roy Plunket. It is not made from hydrocarbon, it is produced by adding fluorine to carbon and is generally used in making frying pans.
Polypropylene – 1954
This durable plastic is resistant to many solvents and acids. It has a wide range of uses for medicinal chemistry, from packaging to bottles.
Kevlar – 1966
American chemist Stephanie Kwolek produces heat-resistant fibers from liquid hydrocarbons. These fibers can be knitted to produce materials such as Kevlar.
CNRP – 1991
Japanese physicist Sumio Iijima rounds carbon molecules as nanotubes. These harden the plastic to produce hard and light CNRP.
September 6, 2022
Birth of Microbiology, Biogenesis Experiments, and Origins of Life
September 6, 2022
History of Vitamin C and Scurvy: The Discovery of the Vitamins
It took more than 1,000 years for mankind to understand that the human body gets sick in the absence of any vital components, such as vitamins. Since ancient times, people have known about vitamin-deficiency diseases like scurvy, beriberi, pellagra, pernicious anemia, and rickets. In some cases, they also knew that certain foods were good for their health.
However, up until the 20th century, doctors never paid attention to the possibility that a lack of certain chemicals in the body could cause illnesses. Then, even the most common diseases became preventable and treatable with the isolation of vitamins and the determination and synthesis of their chemical structures. It is thought that between 1600 and 1800, scurvy killed about one million European sailors.
What Is a Vitamin?
A vitamin is a chemical found in our foods that is essential for good health and the continuation of life. A chemical that is a vitamin for some living species may not be a vitamin for others because they might already be able to synthesize this chemical in their bodies. In the early days, we named these types of chemicals with the words “vital” and amine.” “Vita” means “life” in Latin, and the suffix “-amine” means the same organic compounds. At that time, all vitamins were thought to be nitrogenous compounds derived from amine or ammonia (NH3). Even after it was realized that vitamins could not be derived solely from amines, the term was so widely used that only the letter “e” was dropped.
13 Essential Vitamins
Vitamins consist of a total of 13 varieties, divided into two groups: four fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and nine water-soluble (eight B and one vitamin C). Since fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in the body, there is no need to take them every day. These vitamins can be harmful to the body if they are stored in excess. Water-soluble vitamins other than B12 and folic acid are not stored in the body, so they should be taken daily to maintain a healthy body. An excess of these vitamins is easily excreted from the body.
Vitamin D and Niacin
Vitamins are vital substances that the body cannot synthesize by itself. In a broader sense, we have to get all the vitamins from outside sources. If a molecule is synthesized in the body, it is not called a vitamin. But vitamin D, which is synthesized under the skin when exposed to sunlight, and niacin (B3), which is highly synthesized by the liver to prevent any damage to the body when it is deficient, are two exceptional vitamins that do not comply with this rule.
Vitamin C Deficiency and Scurvy
Symptoms of the scurvy disease.
Scurvy disease (vitamin C deficiency) was first seen in Egypt in the 1500s BC, especially in the winter when fresh fruits and vegetables were not available. Hippocrates described this disease in the 5th century BC as easily associated with bleeding gums, late healing of wounds, and death. The scurvy disease was mentioned in many historical events, including the Crusades. It was known for being deadly, especially during the Age of Exploration, when people went on long sea trips.
Christopher Columbus and his crew left the dying Portuguese crew on an island but saw them recover once they returned. They named this island Curacao (meaning, healing), which had all kinds of fruits and vegetables. In the past, when there wasn’t much food available on long sea trips, these ships were like medical laboratories where the different effects of not eating enough could be studied.
The Arrogance, and Pride
The Native Americans created a method of treatment for scurvy. They used a kind of tea that they obtained from the bark and leaves of the pine tree as medicine. The French explorer Jacques Cartier brought this tea to France in 1536. He had lost 25 crew members before the locals notified him of this medicine. However, the remedy has not been accepted by physicians for a long time. Because they were not accustomed to learning anything from people, they saw it as wild and unbelievably strange. Because humans are so closed-off, arrogant, prejudiced, and proud, many medical advances have been made too late.
Lemon Juice as a Remedy Aganist Scurvy
The moment when the outbreak was treated with orange.
Traveling to the South Pacific in 1593, Richard Hawkins said, “The results of all my experiments were that oranges and lemons were the most effective remedies for this distemper at sea,” which suggested the fruits as a method of treatment for scurvy. James Lancaster was the captain of a ship in a naval fleet in 1601. He started his journey in late April and reached his destination in September. The Lancaster crew stayed healthy and vigorous throughout the voyage. However, when Lancaster’s ship reached the port along with other ships, they quickly started to help sick seafarers. Lancaster stated in his report to the navy that he brought bottles of lemon juice to the ship before going on the voyage and that his seafarers drank three tablespoons of this lemon juice every morning.
The use of the juice of lemons is a precious medicine; the use of it is: It is to be taken each morning, two or three spoonfuls, and fast after it for two hours. Some chirurgeon also give this juice daily to men in good health as a preservative.
A solution for the scurvy disease in John Woodall’s book The Surgeon’s Mate, published in 1636.
The Discovery of Vitamin C
James Lind is feeding the scurvy patients with lemon full of vitamin C.
In 1747, Scottish physician James Lind, who was traveling on the ship Salisbury, had important experiences regarding scurvy patients. He ensured a balanced diet for these patients and, as a result, observed that patients who consumed oranges and lemons simultaneously recovered.
Despite all these developments, the British Navy never recommended bringing lemon juice on ships until 1770. When the colonies rebelled, lemon was fed to the naval forces to keep the soldiers vigorous and healthy to fight them, and when the fruit wasn’t present during the season, they made Indian tea from the bark and leaves of the pine trees.
By 1911, the effect of anti-scurvy vitamins (otherwise known as vitamin C) was widely accepted. The supplement was named “ascorbic acid” because it was used as an ascorbic. Thus, it was the third vitamin ever discovered. In 1928, Albert Szent-Gyorgyi isolated this substance (C6 H8 O6).
Misdiagnoses
But in the early 20th century, the germ theory of diseases was such a constant idea that bacteria or toxins were thought to be the causes of diseases such as beriberi (thiamine/vitamin B1 deficiency) and pellagra (niacin deficiency). Therefore, all the research conducted on beriberi and pellagra was full of medical failures, and the government was not interested in this issue at all. These diseases were treated similarly to the current Gulf War Syndrome. The misdiagnosis of these two diseases as microbial diseases emphasizes the importance of controlled experiments, scientific methods, and the responsibility of Apollo and its predecessors in the medical world. The responsibility for compassion and honesty is the most important of all.
As a result of all these developments, the vitamin and supplementary food industries grew rapidly in the second half of the 20th century. The mystery and trustworthiness of vitamins have also created opportunities for fraudsters and charlatans who want to make money on them. In addition to their prescription use, vitamins are used as immune boosters in the treatment of all kinds of diseases.
September 6, 2022
History of Polio and the Invention of the Vaccine
It had been 60 years since the discovery of X-rays, which shook the world more than any medical development had. Then a development took place in 1955 that would have the same type of impact, and it was the vaccine for polio. The news on TV, scared parents who were worried about their kids, and the fact that a well-liked leader (Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the United States) had the same disease all made everyday life worse.
Polio disease spreads
This development brought the most precious gift to humanity by taking it away from its fears: the fear of catching paralytic poliomyelitis (which is more commonly known as polio) that arises every summer. In the United States, there were 25,000 cases of poliomyelitis per year, and the disease had a deep-rooted history that dates back to the Ancient Egyptians.
However, the outbreaks in the 1920s, 30s, and 40s were gradually causing more and more deaths. Many children and young people died due to illness, and those who remained crippled or paralyzed lived the rest of their lives connected to a mechanical respirator called “Iron Lung,” which looked like a gigantic tank. Experts predicted that outbreaks would worsen in the 1950s.
The 1952 epidemic was the most terrifying epidemic recorded. Approximately 58,000 people were infected, and 3,000 were dead. In addition to this tragedy, expressed in thousands, the anxiety and fear felt in the summer were very wearying. Every person who had witnessed that period could not forget the happenings.
The invention of the polio vaccine
Dr. Jonas Salk invented the first solution to the polio vaccine.
In early 1955, the public’s primary concern was the minor successes achieved with the vaccine being developed against the poliovirus. Later, Dr. Thomas Francis of the University of Michigan (who bears his father’s name) said in a press conference on April 12 that approximately one million people, 440,000 of whom are children, were vaccinated with Dr. Jonas Salk’s vaccine, which “kills the poliovirus.”
This news echoed all over the world, showing the joy and relaxation seen in people’s faces. President Dwight Eisenhower praised Dr. Salk as a “benefactor of mankind”. American Medical Association President Dwight H.
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Murray heralded this development as “one of the greatest events in the history of medicine.”
The development of the virus preparation methods in laboratories with animal tissue culture techniques and the use of all three types of poliovirus to make an effective vaccine are the two most important factors behind the invention of the polio vaccine. Dr. John Enders of Harvard University was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for the tissue culture method.
Viruses in the Salk vaccine were first replicated in monkey kidney cells and then inactivated with formaldehyde solution.
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Salk became a national hero after his vaccine was declared safe, potent, and effective. In public opinion polls, he became one of the people who went down in history and got votes close to Churchill and Gandhi.
Colleagues ignore Salk
Salk was engaged with philosophy in the following years, and he believed that it is the power of development that directs his work, “Development is not only an effective process that I live in any moment but also a phenomenon that I can direct and shape with the choices I make. I always feel the next developmental stage in myself. This is not something everyone can do, only some of us can do that.” But unlike the public, who embraced him, he was deeply hurt by his colleagues’ ignoring his work and not showing the necessary respect.
Al Rosenfeld, senior editor of Life magazine and also a close friend of Salk, stated that “it is very tragicomic for a man who is so exalted in the eyes of the public to win the praise of only a few colleagues for his work.” Despite his achievements, he was not deemed worthy of the Nobel Prize or accepted as a member of the American Academy of Sciences.
The disappointment of his assistant
Dr. Julius Youngner
Dr. Julius S. Youngner’s thoughts on Salk, who was Salk’s number one assistant in the team working on the polio vaccine:
“At first, I saw Salk as a father, but as time went on, this idea changed; he turned into a horrible man in my eyes. (…) He took all the money paid for the vaccine we developed, and he was responsible for all administrative affairs. He was doing everything. There were too many politicians involved in our business. One day I saw him answering press members’ questions. He sounded as if he had done everything alone. Everyone wants to be praised for what they do.
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Unfortunately, he escaped from us and deprived us of these compliments. It took me a long time to understand this. I do not think that someone I admire and trust so much has done such a thing to me and my colleagues.”
Salk responded to such criticism about putting himself forward and said:
“Perhaps a more conscious attempt might have been made and perhaps should have been made to list the names of each individual more prominently rather than, as was implied, that the satisfaction came from the work itself.”
Although some of his teammates criticized him for collecting all the applause, he was also subjected to tougher and more serious criticism because of his behavior and work. Many of these criticisms were made by Dr. Salk’s competitor, Albert Sabin, about his (weakened) polio vaccine.
The perfect vaccine for polio
The iron lung or tank ventilators were the only way to keep polio patients alive in the 1940s and 50s.
Albert Sabin (1907-1993) was a genius virologist who made important contributions to the scientific world about how the poliovirus was transmitted to humans before World War II. It was he who found that the poliovirus enters the body through the mouth, passes through the digestive system, then settles in the nerves and devastates them.
During the war, he developed effective methods for combating viral diseases that weakened army troops. Because of these things, in 1951 he was invited to join the American Academy of Sciences.
After the war, he returned to his poliovirus studies and began working on live vaccines (live polio vaccine), which included three pathogenic, highly weakened, harmless polioviruses. According to Sabin, this vaccine that uses the weakened form of the live virus has many advantages over the vaccines with dead viruses.
Firstly, it could be given orally in a sugar cube without any injections; unlike repeated injections of other vaccines, a single oral dose of live vaccine would provide lifelong immunity; and like the real poliovirus, the virus that entered the body from a live vaccine could be excreted through feces.
The vaccine is distributed around the world
Salk had launched a campaign against Sabin’s vaccine. However, Sabin was right in all respects in presenting this vaccine to the public. Still, in 1958-59, he was sent to the Soviet Union to test his vaccine. The Salk vaccine significantly reduced polio cases between 1955 and 1962.
But when the Sabin vaccine was tested on 180,000 children in Cincinnati in 1960, it yielded spectacular results and was later licensed by the American Public Health Association in 1962. Since then, the vaccine has been used to protect against polio in the United States and many other countries.
September 6, 2022
Chemotherapy: The Extraordinary Treatment of Cancer Disease
September 6, 2022
Discovery of the Laser Light and the Laser Machines
September 6, 2022
History of Genetics and the Development of Genetic Science
Check out all the discoveries that have taken place in the 2500-year history of genetics and the details about the story and historical development of the field. For thousands of years, people have wondered how inherited traits are passed on, but it wasn’t until the 19th century that scientists began to understand the basic mechanisms. Today, the discovery that DNA contains hereditary information allows us to understand the basis of life.
How Did the Science of Genetics Emerge?
Hippocrates, an ancient Greek philosopher, came up with one of the earliest ideas about inheritance.
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He said that all the basic parts of the body are concentrated in the sperm, which then combines the traits of the mother and father in the womb to make a person. Charles Darwin later called this mechanism of inheritance “pangenesis”.
It was only in the 19th century that the Austrian rival Gregor Mendel discovered the basic rules of heredity. Around this time, a Swiss scientist named Friedrich Miescher gave the name “nuclein” to a substance found in the basic cell. This substance is now called DNA. American biologist Thomas Hunt Morgan’s experiments with fruit flies in the early 20th century confirmed that genes were found in chromosomes. But he still believed that it was proteins, not DNA, that passed on inherited traits.
Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty found that DNA is the hereditary molecule in many organisms and is the chemical basis of genetic information. In early 1950, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin discovered that DNA has a helical form, and in 1953, this information was put together by Francis Crick and James Watson into double-helix models of DNA. The DNA genome project went further and resulted in the mapping of all human genes.
The Timeline of the History of Genetics
The British scientist Robert Hooke gave the first description of the cells to the Royal Society in September 1665.
Decoding humanity step by step:
- 460-375 BC – Pangenesis idea by Hippocrates. Hippocrates develops a theory suggesting that hereditary material is collected from the whole body and that human life is shaped in the female vagina.
- 1663-65 – The first description of the cells. English scientist Robert Hooke uses the term “cell” to describe the microscopic units he observes while examining a piece of a fungus with one of the first microscopes.
- 1859 – Theory of natural selection. Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species in which he argues that suitable organisms survive and pass on their characteristics to future generations.
- 1863 – Gregor Mendel. Experimenting with peas, Austrian monk Gregor Mendel discovers that traits such as the roundness or wrinkling of peas are transmitted by independent units that will be called genes.
- 1868-69 – Discovery of nuclein – the nucleus. Swiss scientist Friedrich Miescher finds a substance he calls “nuclein” in the nucleus of white blood cells. Nuclein is later called nucleic acid and today DNA.
- The 1880s – Meiosis is discovered. The process of cell division that produces gametes (sex cells) is described in the early 1880s. Its importance for heredity is explained in more detail by the German biologist August Wiesman in the 1890s.
- 1888 – Discovery of chromosomes. German anatomist Heinrich Waldeyer realizes that the cell nucleus sometimes contains chain-shaped structures and coins the term “chromosome”.
- 1905 – Detection of XY chromosomes. Unbeknownst to each other, American geneticists Nettie Stevens and E. B. Wilson describe the XY chromosome sex-determination system: Males have XY chromosomes, females XX.
- Early 20th century – The role of chromosomes in heredity.
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  Working with fruit flies, American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan identifies that the genes controlling inheritance are arranged along chromosomes and link a particular trait to a specific chromosome.
- 1940-44 – DNA is identified as a genetic carrier. Using the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, American scientists Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty discover that DNA is the hereditary material of most living organisms.
- 1953 – Discovery of the structure of DNA. American biologist James Watson and British biologist Francis Crick find that the DNA molecule consists of two strands of nucleotide chains loosely wrapped around each other.
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- 1972 – Recombinant DNA. American biochemists Paul Berg and Herb Boyer produce the first recombinant DNA molecules (recombinant DNA is artificially produced DNA). This achievement is considered the beginning of modern biotechnology.
- 1989-present – Human Genome Project. The Human Genome Organization maps the human DNA sequence and finds that it contains only 20,000-25,000 genes.
September 5, 2022
History of Neonatology and Gerontology: Newborn and Elderly Science
Old age and birth are two contrasting phenomena in human life. In both cases, human physiology requires different research and care. Neonatology and gerontology are the sciences that study these two contrasting physiological states. Two fields that have done a great deal to reduce mortality and alleviate suffering.
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Let’s learn about the history of neonatology and gerontology.
Neonatology
In the Western tradition, the first health care services related to late-term pregnancy were provided during the reign of the Roman Emperor Numa Pompilius between 715 and 672 BC, when the earliest evidence of cesarean section surgery was found. Soranus of Ephesus, a Greek physician who practiced in Rome from about 138–98 BC, wrote the earliest work on neonatal care. For the first time in history, forceps were invented in England in 1650 to pull the baby out of the womb if the birth did not progress normally.
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By the early 18th century, studies on the ideal weight and height of the newborn baby were published, as were descriptions of specific diseases of newborns, such as duodenal atresia and Hirschsprung’s disease. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, many diseases in newborns continued to be described. In 1914, Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago opened an incubator unit to care for premature babies. Just one year later, at the International Panama Pacific Exposition in San Francisco, there was a special section with incubators.
In 1922, Dr. Julius H. Hess published Premature and Congenitally Diseased Infants, the first book on premature babies in the United States.
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In 1930, the American Academy of Pediatrics was founded, and in 1946, Clement A. Smith published The Physiology of the Newborn Infant, the first textbook on neonatology in the United States.
In 1963, “invasive treatment of hemolytic diseases of the fetus by intrauterine blood transfusion” began.
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The first specialty exams in the field of neonatology, which developed as a subspecialty of pediatrics, began to be held in 1975. Today, thanks to these advances, even babies born weighing 500 grams can be kept alive, even if many of them are born with mental and physical problems that they will not recover from for the rest of their lives.
Gerontology
On the other side, where the end of life is approaching, there is gerontology, which has witnessed great medical advances. The prolongation of the human life span has brought many problems with old age. Gerontology is the branch of science that deals with the diseases seen in the elderly and the economic and emotional problems caused by these diseases. Although many physicians try to apply Ockham’s razor in their diagnostic approach, geriatric diseases are generally characterized by “diversity, variability, and persistence”.
Therefore, it is often easier to make a complete diagnosis. With the aging of the American population, more research is needed to help the elderly in the treatment of mentally and physically devastating diseases such as dementia or Alzheimer’s disease. It is only recently that gerontology has been rapidly divided into fields of its own.
The fields of neonatology and gerontology exist to treat the weakest and most vulnerable among us. These fields are changing rapidly every day as we begin to understand the changes in human physiology at various stages of life. In these beginning and end stages of life, we also begin to change and become different. Even the signs of birth and death, which we think are immutable, change over time. The most important philosophical and moral issues of our time are also closely linked to medical advances.
September 5, 2022