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Category: Science

The scope of scientific study is vast, and it encompasses fascinating and intricate disciplines. Learn more about the most interesting topics in science.

  • Nadir Crater is The Second Meteor That Caused The Dinosaur Extinction

    Nadir Crater is The Second Meteor That Caused The Dinosaur Extinction

  • Were Medieval Monks Less Hygienic Than Common People?

    Were Medieval Monks Less Hygienic Than Common People?

  • What Are the Carbon Sinks on Earth and How Do They Work?

    What Are the Carbon Sinks on Earth and How Do They Work?

    Only a fraction of the carbon dioxide emitted by burning coal, oil, and natural gas stays in the atmosphere. Rest goes into carbon sinks like seas and forests. The only issue is whether these “silent heroes” will support long-term climate change policies. Without nature’s aid, the carbon dioxide emitted by burning coal, oil, and natural gas would have raised Earth’s surface temperatures far more than ever recorded. Some of this greenhouse gas has been trapped by natural filters in the seas and forests. These carbon sinks vary a lot, but they work on a similar principle: they transform carbon dioxide in the air into other carbon molecules, which are no longer greenhouse gas and can’t fuel the climate.

    Oceans as Carbon Sinks

    Oceans are important carbon sinks. They still absorb a quarter of the carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel power plants, oil and gas heating, internal combustion engines, and organic sources. In water, carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid. However, extracting this carbon dioxide from the air acidifies the waters.

    But this whole process can’t be sped up since carbon dioxide enters the water via the ocean surface which can’t be enlarged. Surface water can hold only so much carbon dioxide. The greenhouse gas can only be absorbed as long as there is fresh water available. This needs constant sea currents. But the speed of the currents restricts air-water interaction. Nevertheless, the seas can absorb 73 to 93% of human-produced CO2 today if thousands of years are given.

    Weathering as a Carbon Sink

    Weathering is the second way of oceans extract CO2 from the air. The breakdown or dissolution of rocks and minerals on the surface of the Earth is known as weathering. Basalt combines with carbonic acid in waters with carbon dioxide to generate bicarbonate, which stays dissolved in saltwater. Weathering act as a carbon sink by storing the CO2 in sediments which reduces the atmospheric carbon dioxide.

    Long-term, oceanic processes keep the climate steady.

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    The carbon dioxide boosts the temperatures. This heat speeds weathering, which reduces atmospheric carbon dioxide and slows climate change. Basalt weathers more slowly at cooler temperatures, removing less CO2 from the air.

    Even after big swings, the climate can still stabilize. But since the sea’s climate sink only works over millennia, we need something faster than that. The excavators, wheel loaders, and other machinery can increase natural weathering.


    With artificial weathering, you could finely ground basalt and disperse it offshore. Artificial weathering can collect 20 to 30% of the CO2 emitted by humanity.

    Artificial Weathering

    This carbon sink would be a natural process in which rock flour weathers, permanently absorb carbon dioxide from water. Four tons of ground olivine basalt remove one ton of carbon from water, which is reabsorbed as carbon dioxide. Ten billion tons of carbon are emitted annually by burning oil, gas, and coal, thus 40 billion tons of rock may counterbalance this.

    Theoretically, you could crush a Matterhorn-sized basalt mountain into powder every year and scatter it in the ocean. That would offset 50% of our CO2 emissions today. This number seems idealistic, yet it’s comparable to current mining. This procedure also works in cold water. Any rocks near the shore would be good enough as this would also save the transport expenses.

    Algae as a Carbon Sink

    There are more carbon sinks hiding in the oceans. In theory, the iron fertilization in the Southern Ocean might boost algae development. After dying, many of these species fall to the ocean floor, removing carbon dioxide from the climate cycle. This method mirrors the natural process: During cold times, rains fall and strong winds push continent dust to the Southern Ocean.

    This dust’s iron is scarce and functions as fertilizer for the algae. This technique likely only works in the Southern Ocean, where phosphate and nitrate are plentiful. Iron fertilization would also swiftly deplete these chemicals in other waters. Iron fertilization might offset 10% of current CO2 emissions alone in the Southern Ocean.

    However, the adverse effects have barely been studied. No one knows whether humans have already destroyed this carbon sink of the Southern Ocean: Large whales spread fertile feces in the ocean. And due to whale hunting, most of this fertilizer is disappearing, and this carbon sink may be less efficient now.

    On the other hand, another carbon sink may be emerging in the waters. Climate warming seems to be extending the low-oxygen zones. Algal blooms are fertilized by the extra nutrients and in oxygen-free zones, dead creatures settle at the bottom, where oxygen-breathing organisms can’t break them down. Dead algae sink to the ocean floor and depending on environmental circumstances, these sludge layers of algae become shale or petroleum over millions of years.

    The price for such a carbon sink is significant, however, since the sludge replaces a whole ecosystem with an underwater desert where fish, crabs, squid, and many other animals cannot thrive.

    Permafrost

    Permafrost and ice in Herschel Island, Canada, 2012.
    Permafrost and ice in Herschel Island, Canada, 2012. Image: Boris Radosavljevic, CC-A-2.0)

    The biosphere on land recovers around 25% of human-caused carbon dioxide emissions from the air. However, this is not steady for all parts of the world. Permafrost in Siberia and North America stores massive quantities of carbon that plants formerly scooped out of the air as carbon dioxide and transformed into leaves, timber, roots, and other biomass.

    Microorganisms destroy carbon sink leftovers as it thaws in summer. Methane, a strong greenhouse gas, is produced first. If temperatures rise, permafrost thaws longer and generates more methane, turning the carbon sink into a carbon source.

    This occurs if methane from the earth quickly rises through reed stalks. On the way, other microbes feed on methane and produce carbon dioxide. In Siberia’s permafrost soils, there are giant patches of microbes, each releasing varied quantities of greenhouse gases.

    Higher temperatures allow permafrost plants more time to thrive in the summer, while also increasing the carbon dioxide which speeds up the growth and thus, the vegetation absorbs more carbon dioxide as a result. This means, tundra is another carbon sink source.

    Wetlands

    Same for different latitudes’ wetlands. Microorganisms degrade plant material in these marshes to create methane, which is progressively broken down and turned into carbon dioxide. The plants also extract and store carbon dioxide as biomass. Since plant remnants are only transformed partly into greenhouse gases, the soil biomass grows slowly and wetlands remain a carbon sink. Still, wetlands’ contribution to climate balance is small.

    Forests

    Trees fare much better. Forests are one of the greatest CO2 sinks. Land plants remove 120 billion tons of carbon from the air each year, half of which is permanently stored and half exhaled. Tropical forests store 40% of the 60 billion metric tons of carbon, while temperate forests store 25%.

    Forests are the land’s largest carbon sink. But most of the carbon stored in plants is released as a greenhouse gas when the leaves fall off or the plants die, thus vegetation stores only two to three billion metric tons of carbon yearly over the long term. This accounts for a quarter of human-caused CO2 emissions.

    Forests are called “green lungs” because they take in carbon dioxide and exhale oxygen, whereas our lungs do the reverse. Not all forests are good carbon sinks. In a commercial forest, foresters cut down trees and when their wood is burnt, the trees no longer store the carbon dioxide. If wood is used for furniture, structures, or construction, the carbon sink effect is extended, but not permanently. Because forest wood no longer migrates into the soil to function as a carbon sink again.

    Unused woods are the most efficient carbon sink, but they’re dwindling. Climate change further stresses certain woodlands. Prolonged drought at the beginning of the 21st century prompted insect infestations on Canada’s Pacific coast, destroying forests the size of Montana. These areas become carbon sources instead.

    Does Reforestation Hurt the Environment?

    The Paris Agreement wants more forests planted to halt climate change. However, for a real impact, huge barren regions like the Sahara must be forested. In theory, groundwater could reforest an area the size of the United States. But there are side effects: The subtropical heat would drain the water from these newly woods and most would fall on the Sahara again.

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    A minor part would wind up in the seas, and when this happens it would raise sea levels 13 cm by 2100.

    A desert that had little flora reflects most sunlight into space. However, dark woodlands absorb more radiation and heat. For instance, this might affect wind systems and monsoon rains in India. Computer studies reveal that Saharan woodlands might absorb so much more sunlight that global temperatures would actually soar. Reforesting the Sahara might generate a carbon sink but also warm the global temperatures.

    Reforestation as a carbon sink is overrated in other regions of the globe, too. In principle, 11.5 square miles (30 million square km) might be reforested globally, the size of Africa. If this forest expands and isn’t chopped down again, it might absorb two-thirds of our greenhouse gas emissions.

    Much of the possible reforestation area is currently utilized for fields and pastures and will be required for food in the future. The carbon sinks and sources of these fields, meadows, and pastures remain unknown. They’re probably too varied. New rice types developed in China need less flooding than traditional kinds. These plants conserve water. This is important because the flooded rice fields emit substantial amounts of methane. The rice fields have warmed the environment less since the discovery of this rice type.

    Biochar as a Carbon Sink

    Biochar as a Carbon Sink

    Farmers might mix charcoal into the soil to produce new carbon sinks. Charcoal is created from plant wastes. The other half of the biomass forms biochar. This helps the soil because small holes and scratches enhance its surface area. This vast region stores nutrients, water, and soil microorganisms that are needed for effective soil fertility.

    Biochar persists in the soil for a long period, potentially millennia, storing the carbon dioxide away from the atmosphere. Initial estimates imply that the biochar as a carbon sink might permanently bind 10% of human-produced CO2 in arable soil.

  • Why Are Dogs So Different in Size?

    Why Are Dogs So Different in Size?

    Why do dog breeds come in so many different sizes and weights? The biggest dog breeds may be as much as 40 times heavier than the smallest. It’s possible that an inherited gene mutation transmitted by their distant ancestors is to blame. So, what exactly is the evolution behind this?

    Dogs, which include breeds as diverse as the Chihuahua and the Great Dane, have more variation in body size than any other group of mammals, including cats which most are pretty much the same sized. For the first time, researchers have pinpointed the origin of a genetic mutation that contributes to these size discrepancies in an unlikely group: Extinct wolves.

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    In this case, the mutated DNA lies near a gene called insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1). In 2007, scientists found evidence that the growth hormone IGF1 influences canine stature. It was the pioneering discovery of a kind of gene that would eventually have a few dozen members named after it. But how exactly it influences animal size was unknown.

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    wolves

    Dogs have been domesticated from wolves for nearly 30,000 years, and over that time there has been considerable variation in their sizes.

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    The vast size disparities seen now are only a product of the last 200 years, when man first started breeding the present varieties.

    Elaine Ostrander of the U.S. National Human Genome Research Institute in Bethesda, Maryland, and her colleagues investigated the genomes of over 1,400 canids, including extinct dogs, wolves, coyotes, and over two hundred and thirty present dog varieties, to determine how this evolution was feasible. One polymorphism on a stretch of DNA, encoding a so-called long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), stood out when researchers compared it to body size in domestic dogs and wild canids. This plays a role in the regulation of IGF1, a protein that acts as a growth hormone.

    Large and Tiny Dog Breeds Are Separated by a Single Gene

    Overall, scientists uncovered evidence for two different alleles: Two copies of an allele resulted in a lower body mass in canines of all sizes. On the other hand, dogs above 55 pounds (25 kilos) in weight were more likely to have two copies of the other allele. Ostrander found that animals with a single copy of each allele were most often of moderate size. Pups with two copies of the big body size allele also showed a greater IGF1 blood content than small-bodied dogs with the same number of copies.

    A similar association was found when the team examined the genomes of other canids. According to Ostrander and coworkers, the allele for a tiny body is substantially older in evolutionary terms than the one for a big body. Most of the canids they looked at, including coyotes, jackals, foxes, and a few others, had two copies of the “small” gene, indicating that this variant had been present in a common ancestor.

    The origin of the allele for a big size remains a mystery. The research group found that a type of wolf that existed in Siberia about 53,000 years ago possessed a copy of the variation. The large-body allele may have been beneficial to wolves since it is present in several ancient and some extant wolf populations.

    How Did Wolves Give Rise to Dogs Looked Like?

    No one really knows what the wolves that eventually gave rise to dogs looked like. While previous research suggested that recent genetic alterations, maybe peculiar to domestic dogs, were responsible for the diminutive size of canines, the new data cast doubt on this theory.

    Insights from this research suggest that dogs descended from wolf variants that were smaller than modern gray wolves overall. We can only speculate as to the appearance of the wolves that were the origin of the domesticated dogs.

    Some findings are also incomplete in other respects. For instance, the effect of the two alleles on the growth hormone IGF1 levels is not well understood. The gene variation is also not the sole factor in determining dog sizes. Only approximately 15% of the variance in breeds is thought to be attributable to the IGF1 gene, according to the research. This is not about a mutation that would make wolves the size of Chihuahuas. Those are just one of the numerous mutations that resulted in various sizes in dogs.

  • Are People with Big Brains Smarter?

    Are People with Big Brains Smarter?

    Is it true that having a larger brain makes you smarter? The brain size comparison only makes sense when comparing members of the same species to one another. Nonetheless, brain size has relatively little effect on intelligence; other factors have a far higher influence.

    It has long been assumed that a person’s IQ is proportional to their brain size. It seems natural that the larger the volume of the thinking organ, the more capability it should have for processing information and storing content. But this might not be the case.

    Studies of the brains of different vertebrates demonstrate that it is not quite that simple. The sperm whale has the largest brain. This marine species, however, has an equally large thinking organ due to its vast body mass. So, maybe the brain-to-body mass ratio is more important?

    Thus, the shrew is the vertebrate with the largest brain-to-body mass ratio. But this and other related relationships between body measurements and brain features have already been discovered. Contrary to popular belief, none of these calculations ranked humans first on the neurocharts.

    In general, the species’ relative brain size tells us little about its intelligence or adaptability. This is mostly due to the different sizes and densities of neurons found in different animal species. Human neurons, for example, are more compact and take up less space than neurons in most animal brains. 

    Strange Findings

    Are People with Big Brains Smarter?

    But could varying brain sizes play a role within individual species? A historical occurrence involving Friedrich Schiller’s tomb exemplifies this assumption.

    Before the poet was put to rest in the Weimar royal vault, Goethe, a close friend of the poet, asked that his colleague Schiller be placed next to him. The latter, on the other hand, had died young, and the only information available about his last resting place was that it was somewhere in the so-called Kassengewölbe.

    After futile efforts to match the excavated bones to Schiller’s death mask, it was decided to be the largest skull buried beside Goethe. People of the time believed that the exalted spirit needed a lot of space to contemplate. However, DNA testing performed in the 2000s revealed that none of the bones in “Schiller’s coffin” genuinely belonged to him. As a consequence, his coffin is now empty.

    Not Entirely Inaccurate

    However, the intelligent big skull theory is not entirely inaccurate. The study of the association between skull size and cognitive aptitude started in the early twentieth century.

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    Even if the majority of the study suggested a positive correlation, the early measurements were still quite inaccurate.

    This changed in the 1970s, when imaging tools such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were discovered, allowing researchers to accurately estimate the volume of the human brain while the individual was still alive.

    When comparing individuals within a species, researchers use absolute volume rather than body measures. Using these tools, researchers discovered that disparities in IQ are mostly explained by differences in brain size.

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    According to some of the studies, if there is a four-point difference in IQ between two people, one IQ point may be allocated to the difference in brain size alone.

    That would have a significant effect. Several further studies on the subject have been published, essentially demonstrating a link between intelligence and brain size. However, this only explains one out of every twenty IQ points of variation between two people.

    To put it another way, the size of the thinking organ is merely one of several aspects that contribute to the biological basis of our cognitive abilities.

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    IQ is significantly more strongly connected to how well neurons are networked and how rapidly different brain areas interact with one another than it is to brain size. Thus, the better the gray cells’ wiring, the more effectively they collaborate.

  • Hairy Ball Theorem

    Hairy Ball Theorem

  • The First Artificial Embryo from Stem Cells

    The First Artificial Embryo from Stem Cells

    Without an egg cell or uterus, two research teams have grown mouse embryos in a “test tube” for the first time. Instead of fertilized eggs, they used single stem cells. The cultures of stem cells turned into a yolk sac, which was the beginning of the placenta and the embryo. The embryo grew and changed until it had heart cells that beat and the beginnings of all organs, including the brain and intestine. For the first time, the most important steps of embryonic development were completed outside of the womb and without fertilized eggs.

    One fertilized cell may produce new life, and this process is very intricate and a wonder of nature. Numerous genetic, pharmacological, and mechanical cues ensure that early embryonic cells travel to the appropriate location and differentiate into the tissue type needed there.

    Complex Procedures

    However, in order for the embryo to grow and nest, the fertilized egg cell must also create the placenta, which subsequently takes over the supply together with maternal tissue, as well as the yolk sac, which feeds the embryo for the first few days. One embryonic and two extraembryonic cell types are differentiated into at the blastocyst stage, a few days after conception.

    This stage is followed by the gastrulation of the embryo with the formation of the cotyledons and, as it progresses, the formation of the first organ precursors, including the neural tube, which gives rise to the brain and spinal cord. If anything goes wrong at this stage, the pregnancy will fail since it lays the scene for everything else that will occur later.

    Stem Cells Instead of Fertilized Egg Cells

    This highlights how crucial it is for medicine to be able to research this early stage of embryonic development, for instance by simulating this procedure in the lab. Not only observing how the fertilized egg cell develops, but also attempting to recreate the processes using a synthetic embryo is the greatest method to pinpoint the governing mechanisms. This embryo develops from individual stem cells rather than via fertilization.

    For the first time, two research teams have now been successful in creating an artificial embryo from stem cells. Three distinct kinds of mouse stem cells were used as the beginning material, and they were combined in specially designed rotating culture vessels. The researchers mimicked the natural forces in the womb and stimulated the cells to continue to grow into the two extraembryonic tissues and an embryo by turning on certain genes in a specially modified culture medium.

    Embryo With Placenta and Yolk Sac

    Comparison between artificial and natural mouse embryos.
    Comparison between artificial and natural mouse embryos. (Amadei and Handford)

    Success was achieved: the originally disorganized stem cells underwent the same phases as real mouse embryos, resulting in the formation of a blastula, a yolk sac, and the placental precursors. The body axis became evident, and gastrulation started after around five days. At this point, Zernicka-Goetz’s team observed that the embryos resembled a natural gastrula, and their sizes varied a bit more.

    A closer look found that extraembryonic cells act as a key at this early stage, influencing the growth and differentiation of embryonic cells by sending them vital chemical and mechanical signals. This phase of human existence is so mysterious, and scientists now examine how stem cells communicate and what may go wrong.

    Brain, Heart, and Precursor Organs

    More significantly, the synthetic embryo was grown by both study teams for the first time to the stage when organ production starts. According to Zernicka-Goetz, the mouse embryo model not only generated a brain but also a beating heart and all the other components that make up the body. The embryo had attachments for its organs, spine, digestive system, and all of its brain by the eighth day, which was still less than half of its complete maturation period. In the back of the embryo, germ cell precursors were even formed.

    The researchers have been working to duplicate these phases of embryonic development for more than ten years, and they have finally been successful. Gene activity and cell metabolism research revealed that the embryos developed from stem cells essentially matched their natural counterparts. Minor variations were seen only in a few kinds of extraembryonic cells.

    A second team headed by Jacob Hann of the Weizman Institute of Science in Israel, concluded that despite these variations, the embryos, which are little over eight days old, are very comparable to their natural counterparts, whether they developed within or outside the uterus.

    Huge Potential for Science

    The findings from these experiments provide crucial insights into early embryonic development and are now creating new opportunities, such as the ability to investigate the origins of malformations. The stem cell embryos are significant because they allow us access to developmental phases that ordinarily take place in the womb. Scientists can now modify individual genes, for instance, to better understand their function in embryonic development, thanks to artificial embryos.

    The Moral Issues

    But the technique, which has only been used for mouse embryos thus far, also has potentially explosive ethical implications. This is due to the fact that the two research teams are already modifying the processes for using human embryos. This may enable the development of human embryos only from stem cells, devoid of eggs, sperm, or the uterus. While Zernicka-Goetz and her colleagues view this as a chance for, for instance, targeted organ donor breeding, others worry about ethical ramifications:

    What is the capacity of a roller bottle for (human) organogenesis compared to a uterus? Many individuals have moral concerns about the prospect of human reproductive cloning, which might result from the use of artificial embryos developed solely from stem cells. This might simplify germ line interventions and the possibility of genetic modifications to the embryo. However, there are a few methodological hurdles that must be overcome before this may occur.

    In comparison to a uterus, how far may (human) organogenesis go in a roller bottle? For instance, artificial embryos created only from stem cells might lead to human reproductive cloning, which many people find to be an ethical disaster. This might also make genetic alterations to the embryo and therefore interventions in the germ line easier. Before this to happen, however, a number of methodological obstacles would need to be overcome.

  • Thalassotitan Once Ruled the Cretaceous Seas

    Thalassotitan Once Ruled the Cretaceous Seas

    Mosasaurs were marine reptiles that resembled dinosaurs in certain ways. A new fossil of this marine lizard that is huge in size has just been discovered in Morocco. The animal called Thalassotitan occupied the highest possible rung on the food chain.

    Thalassotitan atrox was a fearsome predator that lived in the Cretaceous sea off the coast of northwest Africa more than 65 million years ago. It had a mouth full of sharp, pointed teeth, powerful fins, and could grow to a length of up to 39 feet (12 meters).

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    He certainly stood at the top of the food chain in that region of the sea.
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    The fossil of a huge mosasaur was discovered by Nick Longrich and his colleagues in the rich fossil beds near Casablanca, Morocco. Their findings were published in the journal Cretaceous Research. They discovered the skeletal remains of the species as well as those of possible prey, such as those of sea turtles, plesiosaurs, and other mosasaurs, along with the animal itself.

    The size comparison of Thalassotitan atrox with Orcinus orca, the killer whale, and human. (©Nick Longrich, University Of Bath)
    The size comparison of Thalassotitan atrox with Orcinus orca, the killer whale, and human. (Nick Longrich, University Of Bath)

    According to what Longrich and coauthors have written, the new species should be envisioned as a combination of the Komodo dragon, the great white shark, the Tyrannosaurus rex, and the killer whale. The lizards and snakes that live on Earth today are distantly related to the dinosaurs known as Mosasaurs.

    However, they were even more suited to living in the water than the sea lizards that reside on the Galapagos Islands and routinely go ashore to spawn or even simply to warm up. This is because the sea lizards on the Galapagos Islands go onshore to breed. For example, Thalassotitan atrox and its cousins did no longer have legs; instead, they had fins and a tail that was similar to that of sharks.

    Thalassotitan means “sea monster,” and it comes from the Greek words “thalassa” and “titan,”. The species name atrox, means “cruel” or “merciless.”

    Wear on a tiny Thalassotitan's teeth. (Longrich et al., 2020, Cretac. Res.)
    Wear on a tiny Thalassotitan’s teeth. (Longrich et al., 2020, Cretac. Res.)

    Skulls, vertebrae, and the limbs of fingers and toes were among the bones that were unearthed. When taken together, they made it possible to provide a comprehensive description of the head, including the jaws and teeth, as well as the skeleton, which included the shoulders and the forelimbs. As a result of possessing a gigantic skull that measured 4.6 feet (1.4 meters) in length and a body that was over 29 feet (9 meters) in length, the Thalassotitan was larger than killer whales.

    And whereas the majority of mosasaurs have long jaws and thin teeth to hunt fish, the Thalassotitan had a short, wide snout and enormous, conical teeth similar to killer whales. Because of this, it was able to seize and devour enormous prey.

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    These modifications point to the individual’s status as an apex predator. They filled the same role in the ecosystem as killer whales and great white sharks do in the present day.

    Some of the fossil teeth showed significant signs of wear and breakage: This mosasaur hunted not just soft prey but also creatures with hard bones or shells, such as sea turtles or smaller marine dinosaurs. Both soft and hard prey were consumed by the mosasaurs. This is further supported by the fact that prospective victims’ bones have been discovered beside the fossil and exhibit symptoms of having been subjected to acidic environments, such as the acidic environment of the stomach.

    The group uncovered the similar remains of several mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, as well as bony fish and a sea turtle, in the nearby area of Thalassotitan. However, there is not yet any evidence that can be taken as conclusive that these creatures were in fact prey.

    Thalassotitan atrox's fossil skull includes remarkable teeth. (©Nick Longrich, University Of Bath)
    Thalassotitan atrox’s fossil skull includes remarkable teeth. (Nick Longrich, University Of Bath)

    The discovery also lends credence to what paleontologists already knew about the area, namely that the area around northwest Africa and the ocean that surrounded it was one of the most hazardous places on the planet during the Cretaceous period. Paleontologists discovered some of the biggest carnivorous dinosaurs ever found at the Kem Kem Group fossil deposit, which is located between the countries of Morocco and Algeria.

    Carnivores like thalassotitans lived in the sea while huge pterosaurs roamed the sky and formidable crocodiles hunted alongside freshwater sharks in the rivers and lakes of what was once the green Sahara. These are among the creatures that belong to the Kem Kem Group.

    The newly discovered mosasaur, thalassotitans, inhabited the Earth in the last million years before the extinction of dinosaurs. The species, in conjunction with earlier findings of mosasaurs from Morocco, provides evidence that mosasaurs were not in a state of decline prior to the catastrophic asteroid impact that occurred at the end of the Cretaceous era. On the contrary, they were successful and most likely continued to give rise to new species right up to the end.

  • Immortal Jellyfish Genes May Aid in Stopping Aging

    Immortal Jellyfish Genes May Aid in Stopping Aging

    A group of researchers from the University of Oviedo have successfully identified the genes of the Turritopsis dohrnii jellyfish, also known as the “immortal” jellyfish. After five years of hard work, they have discovered a number of factors that contribute to the jellyfish’s ability to live for a significantly longer time, even to the point where they do not die. This is a big step forward that may aid researchers in their quest to find treatments for diseases that are associated with aging in humans.

    Carlos López-Otrn, a professor of biochemistry and molecular biology who is also in charge of the research project, says that the goal of this work is not to find a way to make people live forever, but to figure out the keys and limits of the fascinating cellular plasticity that lets some organisms go back in time.

    Because of this, researchers believe that the goal is to discover better treatments for the many diseases that are linked to aging. This tiny jellyfish changes its life cycle to an earlier asexual stage called a polyp and rejuvenates. This is in contrast to the vast majority of living things, which, after the reproductive stage, advance in a typical process of cellular and tissue aging that ultimately results in death.

    Genes That Allow to Live Forever

    Comparison between the mortal and the immortal jellyfish
    A comparison between the mortal and the immortal jellyfish

    After sequencing the genome of Turritopsis dohrnii and comparing it to the genes of its mortal sister, Turritopsis rubra, researchers were able to identify specific genes that are either amplified in the immortal jellyfish or have differential variations that are only found in the immortal jellyfish. These genes are thought to be responsible for the jellyfish’s ability to live forever.

    These genes have an effect on activities that have been associated with a healthy and long life in humans, such as the replication and repair of DNA, the preservation of telomeres, the renewal of stem cell populations, intercellular communication, and a decrease in the oxidative cellular environment.

    During the investigation of changes in gene expression that took place during jellyfish rejuvenation, gene-silencing signals were found to be mediated through the so-called “Polycomb” route. Additionally, there was a rise in the expression of genes associated with the cellular pluripotency pathway.

    Because both processes are necessary for specialized cells to differentiate and become any kind of cell, which results in the production of a new creature, these findings suggest that these two metabolic pathways are key mediators in the rejuvenation cycle that this jellyfish goes through.

    Multiple Keys to Immortality

    According to Mara Pascual-Torner, a postdoctoral researcher, the various mechanisms discovered act synergistically as a whole, and orchestrating the process to ensure the successful rejuvenation of the jellyfish. This means that there is not a single key to immortality and rejuvenation. Instead, the mechanisms work together to ensure the successful rejuvenation of the jellyfish.

    The study was published today in the American journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) and it was funded by the EU and the Ministry of Science and Innovation. The study involved researchers from the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Oviedo.

  • Humans May Have Settled in the Americas 36,000 Years Ago

    Humans May Have Settled in the Americas 36,000 Years Ago

    Contrary to popular belief, there may have been inhabitants of North America more than 36,000 years ago, or roughly 20,000 years earlier than previously believed. A massive battle site on the Colorado Plateau in New Mexico serves as proof of this. Researchers have found bones with impact marks, scrapes, and holes that suggest human processing there as well as the remnants of campfires.

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    This lends credence to the idea that people inhabited America prior to the conclusion of the previous ice age.

    The current theory is that the first people did not cross the Bering Strait, which separates Asia and North America, until the end of the last ice age, or around 15,000 years ago. According to the long-held theory, they were then able to go south along the coast and via a channel in the interior ice that opened up about 13,000 years ago.

    However, archaeologists have discovered evidence of a considerably older human presence all throughout the both American continents. These include scribe traces on animal bones from Alaska and Uruguay, 23,000-year-old footprints in the southern United States, and 30,000-year-old stone tools in Mexico, and scribe marks on stone tools found in Alaska.

    Broken Bones

    Two mammoths are represented by the dispersed collection of ribs, skull pieces, and other bone fragments. A massive battle site from 36,000 years ago. (Credit: Tim Rowe, the University of Texas at Austin)
    Two mammoths are represented by the dispersed collection of ribs, skull pieces, and other bone fragments. A massive battle site from 36,000 years ago.

    Timothy Rowe of the University of Texas at Austin and his colleagues have just found further evidence of early American colonization in the U.S. state of New Mexico. Rowe had by coincidence found the fossil bones of two Ice Age mammoths. Numerous pieces of these creatures’ bones were discovered in addition to a damaged cranium. Skeletons are not properly laid up; instead, the area is somewhat disorganized.

    But it was this finding that caught his attention.

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    The abundance of fractured and shattered bones and their haphazard placement indicates that the cadavers were disturbed later on, probably by early people. The location immediately identified itself as a potential battleground of the Clovis Culture. They used five distinct radiocarbon dating techniques to ascertain the age of the mammoth bones. They examined the collagen and other organic elements in the fossilized artifacts for this reason.

    The results show that, depending on the dating technique, the age of the mammoth bones ranges from 31,000 to 38,000 years old. While the most trustworthy date points to 36,000 to 38,000 years ago. This indicates that the bones were created at least 15,000 years before the Clovis people arrived on the continent.

    Drilled Holes By Human Hands

    Humans may have settled in America 36,000 years ago

    But why did people create these bone pieces? The researchers used a variety of high-tech methods to assess the findings, including chemical analysis, scanning electron microscopy, micro-computed tomography, and spectrometry. They discovered prominent circular holes in several bone pieces along the way, which at first look seemed to be caused by the predator’s teeth.

    Predator bite marks are biggest on the outside and narrow to a point on the inside, therefore the form didn’t fit. However, these holes grew inward were smallest towards the bone’s surface. These ridges are characteristic of the traces left by a pointed instrument that has been drilled into a bone and then rocked back and forth, for example, to remove the internal fat and marrow.

    Specific Bone Chips

    A disproportionately high incidence of bone knockdowns—flat pieces from the tough shell of limb bones—was also unexpected. These knockdowns have a peculiar pattern that neither geological phenomena nor animal eating can account for. This is due to the fact that about 80% of these bone pieces were precisely parallel to or perpendicular to the line of the bones when they were chipped. This orientation was also used for secondary blows.

    The scientists said that non-cultural bone findings had never shown such obvious consistency with the bone structure. Scavengers, trampling, and other nonhuman activities were taken into consideration, but it turned out to be quite improbable that the comprehensive, organized, and highly structured degradation of the bones was brought on by such factors. They believed that these bone pieces were created by humans to be used as tools, for instance.

    Burned Fish Scales and A Bonfire

    Microparticles from the site’s chemical analysis also revealed traces of human effect. Because they were discovered to be made of ash, charcoal, powdered bone, charred fish scales, bones, and other minute animal remnants. The location is around 230 feet (70 meters) away from the closest river, hence the fish artifacts are outstanding. They claimed that numerous prehistoric hearths often used bones and bone meal as fuel.

    The researchers believe that this indicates that humans may have built campfires in addition to killing mammoths at this location around 36,000 years ago. These discoveries established a new standard for the settlement of the Americas. According to the results, there must have been a larger immigrant population before the Ice Age’s conclusion and the emergence of the Clovis people.

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    However, it’s still unclear how, when, and from where they came to the continent.

  • A Nile Branch Once Used to Build the Pyramids

    A Nile Branch Once Used to Build the Pyramids

    A research suggests that a branch of the Nile that is no longer flowing may have been essential for the building of the Giza pyramids. The Egyptian builders were able to transport the massive stone blocks to the plateau of the pyramids by ship because the Khufu branch of the Nile was navigable at the time period. Despite the Nile’s level already having plummeted during the reigns of Pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure, the branch was still navigable the whole time the pyramids were being built.

    One of the seven wonders of the ancient world, the three enormous pyramids of Giza—Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure—are among the most well-known buildings on the whole globe. They were constructed during the Fourth Dynasty between 2620 and 2500 BC on a large limestone plateau, which is now located about 6 miles (10 km) from the west bank of the Nile. It has long been a mystery as to how laborers of the period moved the massive stones to the plateau which weighed tons and were hauled from quarries up the Nile.

    A Potential Port at Nile’s Arm

    However, it is now known that geography and a good climate had a role in the transportation logistics of the pyramid building. Long-held theories among scientists suggest that the plateau of the pyramids was once directly reached by a now-dry branch of the Nile River. According to Hader Sheisha of the University of Aix-Marseille and his colleagues, the river port theory postulates that the pyramid builders excavated a passage through the west bank of this Nile arm of Khufu and widened it.

    Location of the pyramids and the Cheops Arm. Drill sample markers are red; artifacts from ancient Egyptian port buildings were discovered at Giza 3.
    Location of the pyramids and the Khufu Arm. Drill sample markers are red; artifacts from ancient Egyptian port buildings were discovered at Giza 3. (Credit: PNAS/Sheisha et al.)

    They assume that this made it possible to transport the building materials for the pyramids straight up to the plateau and discharge them there. The question of whether the level of the Nile and its Khufu branch at the time was high enough to permit this transport by ship to the plateau remained unanswered.

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    With the aid of five drill cores taken from the region of the old Khufu branch, researchers have now looked at this question further. They were able to recreate the water level over 8,000 years using climate models, pollen and rock analysis, and other methods.

    From Too Deep to Just Right

    The finding was that Egypt had generally rainy weather up until around 3500 BC, and the Khufu branch of the Nile river had unusually high water levels. Then, however, the levels began to gradually decline, enabling people to colonize the rich lowlands along the riverbanks throughout the predynastic era and the early Egyptian Kingdom. According to the researchers, this decline in river levels may be intimately related to the appeal of Giza throughout the fourth century BC.

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    The climate began to become considerably drier at approximately 2970 BC, and the yearly Nile floods also became less powerful. However, the Khufu branch’s water level stayed consistently high enough to be navigable.

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    The pharaohs of the early part of the Old Kingdom gained the most from this beginning in 2686 BC. Khufu branch was later adapted for setting out and developing the pyramid construction site by the Third to the Fifth Dynasties.

    The Khufu Arm Was Navigable During Construction

    The researchers claim that there is proof that the Khufu Nile and the Giza plateau were both used for the construction of the pyramids. Sheisha and his colleagues claimed that the Old Kingdom engineers made use of the river environment and the yearly Nile floods to create their colossal monuments on the plateau. To better unload goods, the builders had the arm of Khufu’s deepened in some places and constructed canals and port facilities.

    This helped the builders manage the transfer of stones and other supplies by ship and made it possible for even heavily laden freighters to proceed virtually straight to the pyramid building site, especially during the yearly Nile floods. The outcome was a sharp rise in the number of archaeological sites on the Giza plateau, particularly during the Fourth Dynasty. This was used by the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure to construct the Great Pyramids, a special structure that is still standing today.

    The Old Empire Came to an End Because of Declining Levels

    The steady water levels in the Khufu branch of the Nile persisted until about 2225 BC, or around the end of the Old Kingdom. Following that, the Nile and its branches experienced a drop in water levels, and a short time later, North Africa experienced a dry spell that prevented even the annual Nile flood from occurring. It is thought that this failure set off terrible famines that brought about the end of the Old Kingdom and the start of the First Intermediate Period of Egypt.

    The climate and water levels changed drastically over the next centuries until another dry spell loomed around the start of Pharaoh Tutankhamun’s reign in 1349 BC. The water levels of the Nile and the Khufu branch had dropped significantly by the start of the Third Intermediate Period, which led to the Khufu branch progressively silting up and drying out.

  • Entangled Photons Created for the First Time

    Entangled Photons Created for the First Time

  • Our Brain Has Special Food Neurons

    Our Brain Has Special Food Neurons

  • Surprising Pair Formation in the Atomic Nucleus

    Surprising Pair Formation in the Atomic Nucleus

    An unexpected phenomenon appears to be occurring in light atomic nuclei. An experiment shows that two protons unexpectedly join frequently in light nuclei to form short-lived pairs. In this experiment, these similar pairs had a share of almost 20 percent, while five percent at most would be considered normal based on earlier observations. As they report in Nature, the physicists have no idea what caused this unexpected outcome.

    The atomic nucleus is a dynamic environment where protons and neutrons are constantly interacting with one another through strong nuclear interaction.

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    This sometimes creates temporary combinations of excited nuclear particles. These can be short-lived helium nuclei with two protons and two neutrons, although nucleon pairs are more frequent in heavier nuclei. Two nuclear building blocks interact so intensely in this so-called short-range correlation (SRC) that their structures momentarily cross over.

    Pairs That Differ Are Favored

    The conventional wisdom holds that these pair formations mostly happen between neutrons and protons, the two unequal nuclear building units. Proton-neutron pairs were responsible for nearly 95% of these short-range correlations in studies of diverse elements, from carbon to lead. Only very rarely were similar pairings of neutrons or protons likewise able to be found by physicists (neutron-neutron or proton-proton).

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    It was once believed that this distribution held true for all types of atomic nuclei.


    But now, an investigation at Virginia’s Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility shows an unexpected finding: There are atomic nuclei that appear to differ from this so-called “normal” pair ratio. They form far more often than previously known pairings of two protons. In heavier atomic nuclei, there is a notable departure from the nearly total dominance of neutron-proton correlations.

    Mirror Cores

    Despite having three nuclear building blocks apiece, tritium and helium-3 contain different ratios of protons or neutrons.
    Despite having three nuclear building blocks apiece, tritium and helium-3 contain different ratios of protons or neutrons. Jenny Nuss/Berkeley Laboratory

    The short-lived pairings in the atomic nucleus could be found thanks to a new technique the scientists had created for their investigation. They performed this by irradiating the tritium (H3) and helium-3 nuclei with electrons. These atomic nuclei are what are referred to as mirror nuclei since they both have three nuclear particles. However, helium-3 has two protons and one neutron compared to tritium’s two neutrons and one proton.

    Scientists can identify whether short-lived pairs exist in these nuclei based on the direction and energy of the electrons reflected from these nuclei: This is comparable to the variation in how a ping-pong ball bounces off the windshield of a car that is going quickly or slowly.

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    The electron behavior during these measurements could likewise be used to infer the nature of the pairings. The ratios of these correlations in both atomic nuclei should be the same when compared with the earlier measurements.

    A Surprising Number of Similar Pairs

    The measurement results, however, showed something else: In the two light atomic nuclei, the proportion of comparable pairings was four times higher than predicted. Together, proton-proton and neutron-neutron pairs accounted for a sizable 20% of the correlations. Scientists didn’t anticipate such a striking departure; all they really wanted to do was measure the short-range correlations with higher accuracy. This begs the question of what makes these nuclei unique.

    Physicists can only make conjectures as of now. One theory, however, is that the distance between the nuclear building blocks influences how the nucleons interact. Protons and neutrons have a bit more freedom to move around in small, light atomic nuclei. By making comparable observations in other light atomic nuclei, the study team will now attempt to determine whether this is the case.

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    At the Jefferson Lab accelerator, Arrington and his colleagues are already hard at work on a further experiment that will evaluate short-range correlations for isotopes of lithium, beryllium, boron, and some heavier elements.

    Vital for Astrophysics and Particle Physics

    Scientists are curious to know why they continue to discover surprises in such simple atomic nuclei because this may provide insight into how nucleons interact with each other nearby. For a wide range of topics and scientific studies, it is crucial to comprehend the processes in the atomic nucleus. The reason for this is that they have an impact on how elementary particles behave in collisions in particle accelerators or detectors.

    Additionally, the behavior of nuclear building blocks is crucial to understanding astrophysics, as it affects processes inside neutron stars as well as nuclear fusion in the sun.

  • Where Do the Moles on the Skin Come From?

    Where Do the Moles on the Skin Come From?