This stunning opera house was built in the city of Harbin, known for its winter festivals. The building is located in a formerly marshy area near the Songhua River and blends organically with the surrounding landscape thanks to its flowing and curved lines.
The opera house covers an area of approximately 79,000 square meters (850,349 square-foot,) and consists of two halls: one for 1,600 spectators and another for 400.
Shanghai Tower
View from the Shanghai Tower observatory deck. Image: Wikimedia
Shanghai Tower is a majestic skyscraper in the city of Shanghai. The building stands 632-meter-tall (2,073 ft), with a total area of 380,000 square meters (4,090,300 sq ft). Upon completion, the tower ranked third in the world in height among freestanding structures.
The skyscraper houses corporate offices, entertainment and shopping centers, hotels, fitness studios, barbershops, laundries, shops, and all necessary living infrastructure.
1911 Revolution Museum
1911 Revolution Museum is a themed museum built to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Revolution of 1911 Shouyi, Wuchang. Image: Arch Daily
Wuhan is the largest city in central China by population. It is renowned for its history, which is reflected in the magnificent large museum complex built here in 2011. It attracts numerous visitors not only with its interesting exhibits but also with its unique architecture.
This complex, with a total area of 330,000 square meters, consists of five interconnected buildings. Several lower above-ground levels and one underground level house a shopping and entertainment center, while the 12 upper floors are reserved for office space.
The city of Ordos began construction from scratch in 2003. According to plans, it was designed to accommodate almost a million residents, but currently, it has a population of only about 20,000, leading to its nickname as a “ghost city.” The museum building is its main attraction, drawing tourists from around the world.
This multifunctional sports and entertainment complex is often called the “Bird’s Nest” due to its distinctive appearance. It was created ahead of the 2008 Olympic Games to host numerous sporting events, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. The construction of the stadium cost an estimated 325 million euros.
This hotel is curiously named “Horseshoe,” although it is actually a complete doughnut shape, with its lower segment located underwater, containing two underwater floors.
The building was designed by renowned Chinese architect Ma Yansong and completed in 2013. It cost the Sheraton chain $1.5 billion. The hotel ranks among the ten most expensive hotels in the world.
The National Centre for the Performing Arts is colloquially referred to as “The Giant Egg.” This unusual titanium and glass building is located in the heart of historic Beijing, near the famous Tiananmen Square.
The project by French architect Paul Andreu was chosen through a competition that attracted submissions from 69 of the world’s most famous experts. The large dome of the National Centre houses three performance halls: an opera hall (2,416 seats), a music hall (2,017 seats), and a theater hall (1,040 seats), all interconnected by aerial corridors.
This building is recognized as the largest standalone building in the world. Its total area is 1.76 million square meters, with a height of 100 meters (328 ft), a width of 400 meters (1,312 feet), and a length of 500 meters (1,640 feet).
The building has 18 floors and is almost entirely made of metal and glass.
Inside, there are shopping areas, offices, conference halls, a university complex, two shopping malls, two five-star hotels, an IMAX cinema, and a water park with an artificial beach.
This grand structure in Fushun resembles a ring, with an outer diameter of 170 meters and an inner diameter of 150 meters. At the top, there are observation decks accessible via high-speed elevators.
The simplest architectural structure, known since the Neolithic era. From ancient times to the present day, it has been used in all buildings covered with flat or gabled roofs. In the past, wooden or stone beams were laid on posts made of the same materia—today, natural stone is replaced with metal and reinforced concrete.
Around 2500 BC: The Beginning of Column Design
Poulnabrone Dolmen, County Clare, Ireland. Image: Jon Sullivan, Public Domain
Ancient Egyptian architects remained faithful to the post-and-lintel system but gave meaning to architectural forms. The columns in their temples began to depict a palm tree, a lotus, or a bundle of papyrus. These stone “thickets” symbolize the afterlife forest, through which the souls of the deceased must pass to a new life. Thus, architecture became a visual art. Later, in Mesopotamia, architecture was also used to create large sculptures, but they preferred to sculpt bulls, griffins, and other creatures of the animal world.
The Greeks made architecture itself the theme of architecture as an art form, specifically focusing on the work of its structures. From this point forward, the supports of the post-and-lintel system not only decorated buildings but also visually demonstrated that they were supporting weight. These elements sought to evoke sympathy from viewers and, for greater credibility, mimicked the structure and proportions of human figures—male, female, or maiden.
This strictly logical system of supporting elements is called an order. Typically, three main orders are distinguished: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian.
Additionally, two supplementary orders are recognized: Tuscan, Composite.
The development of these architectural orders marks the birth of European architecture.
Around 70 AD: The Beginning of the Widespread Use of Arched Structures
The Grange, nearby Northington, England, by William Wilkins, 1804, Europe’s first house designed with all external detail of a Greek temple. Image: Wikimedia
The Romans began to widely use arches and arched structures (vaults and domes). While a horizontal beam can crack if it is too long, the wedge-shaped parts in an arch under load do not break but compress, and stone is difficult to destroy by pressure. Consequently, arched structures can cover much larger spaces and bear significantly heavier loads.
However, despite mastering the arch, Roman architects did not invent a new architectural language to replace the ancient Greek one. The post-and-lintel system (i.e., columns and the elements they support) remained on the facades, but often it no longer served a structural purpose, instead functioning solely as decoration. In this way, the Romans transformed the classical order into mere decor.
318: The Return of Early Christian Architects to Wooden Roof Trusses
The Colosseum, from “Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae”. Image: Met Museum
The fall of the Western Roman Empire brought down the economy of those territories we today call Western Europe. There was not enough money for constructing stone roofs, although there was a need for large buildings, primarily churches. Therefore, Byzantine builders had to return to wood and, with it, to the post-and-lintel system. The rafters—the structures under the roof, where some elements (braces), according to geometric laws, work not on bending but on tension or compression—were made of wood.
532: The Beginning of the Use of Domes on Pendentives by Byzantine Architects
St. Peter’s Basilica in Romei The engraving by Stefan du Pérac was published in 1569, five years after the death of Michelangelo.
A technological breakthrough in Byzantine architecture was placing a dome, invented back in Ancient Rome, not on round walls enclosing the inner space but on four arches, with only four points of support. Between the arches and the dome ring, double-curved triangles—pendentives—were formed. (In churches, they often depict the evangelists Matthew, Luke, Mark, and John—the four pillars of the church.) In particular, thanks to this construction, Orthodox churches have the appearance we are familiar with.
Around 1030: The Return to Arched Vault Construction in Romanesque Architecture
The dome of St. Sophia Cathedral in Istanbul. Image: A.Savin, Wikipedia
By the beginning of the second millennium AD, powerful empires were emerging in Europe, each considering itself the heir of Rome. The traditions of Roman architecture were revived. Magnificent Romanesque cathedrals were again covered with arched structures, similar to ancient ones—stone and brick vaults.
1135: Gothic Architects Give Arched Structures a Pointed Shape
East front of Speyer Cathedral, Germany. Image: Immanuel Giel , CC BY-SA 3.0
Arches and arched structures have a serious drawback: they tend to “spread out.” Before Gothic architecture, architects combated this effect by building thick walls. Then, a new technique emerged: arches and vaults began to be made pointed. A structure of this shape exerts more downward force onto supports than sideways pressure. Furthermore, this system was supported on the sides by special “bridges”—flying buttresses—which extended from freestanding columns called buttresses. Consequently, the walls were freed from all loads, made lighter, or even eliminated entirely, giving way to glass paintings known as stained glass windows.
1419: During the Renaissance, Baroque, and Classicism, Styles Are Formed Regardless of New Structural Innovations
Orléans Cathedral: choir and nave seen from the choir. Image: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0
The Renaissance gave the world the greatest domes, but from this moment on, large styles no longer arose primarily due to construction innovations but rather as a result of changes in the worldview. Renaissance, Mannerism, Baroque, Rococo, Classicism, and Empire were born more due to philosophers, theologians, mathematicians, and historians (and to some extent those who introduced fashionable manners) than to inventors of new roof structures. Until the Industrial Revolution, innovations in construction technologies ceased to be the determining factor in changing styles.
1830: The Beginning of the “Railroad Fever” Led to the Widespread Use of Metal Structures in Construction
View of the Piazza Sancti Annunciatore. Painting by Giuseppe Zocchi
Rails, initially intended only for railroads, turned out to be an ideal building material from which strong metal structures are easily created. The rapid development of land steam transport contributed to the growth of rolled metal production capacities, ready to provide engineers with any number of channels and I-beams. The frames of high-rise buildings are still made from such parts today.
1850: Glass Becomes a Full-fledged Building Material
The Duke of Wellington’s train and other locomotives being readied for departure from Liverpool, 15 September 1830
The factory production of large-sized window glass made it possible to develop construction technologies first for large greenhouses and then for grandiose buildings for other purposes, in which either all the walls or roofs were made of glass. Fairy-tale “crystal palaces” began to come to life.
1861: The Beginning of Industrial Use of Reinforced Concrete
The Crystal Palace at Sydenham Hill, London. It was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton for the Great Exhibition of 1851 and rebuilt in 1852–54 at Sydenham Hill but was destroyed in 1936. Image: BBC Hulton Picture Library
Attempts to reinforce concrete date back to Ancient Rome. Metal rods for reinforcing roofs began to be actively used from the beginning of the 19th century. In the 1860s, a gardener named Joseph Monier, while searching for a way to make garden tubs more durable, accidentally discovered that embedding metal reinforcement in concrete significantly increased the strength of the resulting element. In 1867, the invention was patented and subsequently sold to professional engineers who developed methods for using this innovative technology.
However, the enterprising gardener was only one of several pioneers of this new construction technology. For instance, in 1853, French engineer François Coignet built a house entirely of reinforced concrete, and in 1861 he published a book on its application.
1919: The Integration of All Technological Capabilities in a New “Modern” Style
Le Corbusier’s Esprit Nouveau pavilion in Paris, 1925. Image: Public Domain
In his manifesto published in the magazine “L’Esprit Nouveau,” Le Corbusier, one of the leading modernist architects, formulated five principles of modern architecture. These principles returned architecture to ancient ideals—not externally but fundamentally. The image of the building once again truthfully reflected the work of structures and the functional purpose of volumes.
By the beginning of the 20th century, facade decoration was perceived as deceit. There was a need to return to the origins, drawing inspiration from ancient Greek temples that honestly depicted the work of structures. However, modern roofs were now made of reinforced concrete, whose significance lies in its ability to resist tearing where a part is subjected to bending, thanks to embedded reinforcement. Consequently, modern structures could span almost any width.
As a result, buildings could be entirely devoid of columns and decorations, featuring continuous glazing and thus acquiring the “modern look” familiar to us today.
“Protome” comes from Greek, meaning “front part” or “animal head.”
They are decorative sculptures depicting the front or top parts of objects.
Protomes are dating back to Neolithic times and have been found in various cultures.
A protome is a sculpture in art history that depicts the head and shoulders of an animal or person and is often paired with another item. It is a decorative feature that can be painted, sculpted, or engraved and was often utilized in ancient art. In architecture, it may be found on brackets, cornices, and pediments; in decorative arts, on utensils, containers, armor pieces, sculptures, ceramics, jewelry, coinage, furniture, etc.; and in literature, in the form of heads and busts of real or imagined characters.
Protome (προτομή) means “the bust or head of an animal” and comes from the Greek words (pro- “front, before”; tomos- “part”), which literally translate to “the front part.” The protémno lies at the origin of this word, which means “to carve, amputate, cut.” It originally referred to an animal bellows still attached to its head.
In the field of ethnology, a protome is an animal mask used during rituals (like African initiation rites) or as a badge of honor. It may be a small piece of an animal, such as a piece of fur, claws, or teeth.
What is a Protome?
The protome of an angel’s head, A Ballum church, pulpit (1600). (Photo, Wolfgang Sauber, CC BY-SA 3.0, enhanced from original).
Whether it’s an animal, a legendary creature, or a person, protomes are sculptures that show the front or top body of the object. Masks, heads (with or without necks), busts, and portraits all qualify as frontal or upper body parts. They were often attached to vessels, equipment, jewelry, sculptures, or structures as adornments (appliques; ornamental needlework).
The Greeks valued female deity heads as independent works of art and presented them as votive offerings. By definition, many things are protomes, and they frequently go by their own distinctive names.
Busts, herms, masks, mascarons, angel heads, portrait medallions, gargoyles, attachments, and acroteria all fit this description when they are artistically executed.
An aryballos protome in the shape of a woman’s head, Late Protocorinthian (c. 650–630 BC). From Thebes, Boeotia.
Why Did Humans Create Protomes?
Few comprehensive studies have been conducted on the evolution of protomes. However, Ancient Greek, Persian, Roman, and Phoenician buildings, sculptures, and crafts often included them for decorative purposes.
A 6th-century BC bovine protome from Persepolis. (Photo, Luis Argerich – Persian Column, CC BY 2.0).
There are three primary factors that led to the development of protomes:
Giving the object a character — The difficulty of depicting legendary and magical entities on corbels, cornices, and other architectural elements that lack distinct and recognized iconography gave birth to the protomes.
Creating a memory — Protomes have been used in art for historical and psychological reasons that are referred to as “the art of memory.” It was around this time that artists decided to solely show the faces of their subjects, whether human or animal. They thought that by emphasizing that, the viewers of the picture would be able to recall the whole animal or person. This method of creative expression attempted to communicate the importance of the topic by depicting just its head.
The animistic view — The third most important factor is religion, which is tied to animistic worldviews. Protomes were used in ancient times with the belief that the symbolic attributes of the entities they represented would be transferred to the places and things in which they were placed. To express more nuanced symbolic meanings, ancient protomes began to fuse together previously distinct beings (humans and animals) to form chimeras, or, more accurately, using mythical creatures (such as flying bulls and horses, centaurs, and birdmen) to demonstrate the cultural mixing that occurred in Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, and Greece.
Protomes Throughout History
The protome of an Egyptian pharaoh on a Warsaw University of Technology building. (Photo, Panek, CC BY-SA 4.0)
Despite the vast history of this ornament, art historians didn’t start using the word “protome” until the nineteenth century.
The Oldest Protome
The rams are the oldest example of protomes. Four rams’ heads etched on a sacrificial bowl from Neolithic Hungary’s Tisza culture in Szeged are the earliest protomes we have. Following these are a variety of Hittite workmanship items from the 15th to 13th centuries BC, and then a Minoan rhyton (a liquid container) with a bull’s head from the 16th or 14th century BC.
A wine horn with gazelle protome, Iran, Sasanian period, 4th century AD.
Throughout the Hellenistic period in ancient Greece, beginning in the 7th century BC, various protomes depicting both animal heads and human busts can be discovered on numismatic pieces such as coins and tokens.
Griffin, Snake, Lion, Bull, and More
Tripod bases for cauldrons were also adorned with protomes. Cauldrons from the 7th or 8th century BC were discovered at Olympia and Samos, and they were decorated with protomes of griffins and other animals. They might be inspired by bull protomes found on cauldrons from Urartu in the 8th century BC.
A feline protome on an Etruscan cauldron, Etruscan Museum in the Vatican.
Cauldrons depicting snake protomes (Bernardini Tomb in Palestrina) and panther protomes (Regolini-Galassi Tomb in Cerveteri) have been unearthed in graves dating back to the 7th century BC in Etruria, central Italy.
For instance, the Phoenician settlement of Alcacer do Sal in Portugal has yielded bronze artifacts depicting protomes of felines, perhaps panthers. These likely served a spiritual purpose.
A carved head protome in a church in Ireland. (Photo, Andreas F. Borchert, CC BY-SA 3.0 DE, cropped from original)
Protomes in the Ancient East
Protomes depicting bulls, lions, and griffins were discovered on jewelry, utensils, containers, and architectural large capitals in excavations at Susa and Persepolis dating back to the Achaemenid dynasty. A rhyton with a goat’s head is also housed at the Reza Abbasi Museum.
A lebes cauldron with griffin protomes from Arcadia on Crete. (Photo, Olaf Tausch, CC BY 3.0, edited from original)
Meanwhile, Rudbar, in the northern Iranian province of Gilan, produced a decorated spherical clay vase from 900 BC with bovine protomes that can be seen now in the Iranian National Museum in Tehran.
The vast hall in which the Persian monarch entertained as many as 10,000 guests at Persepolis (about 521-465 BC) was decorated with a series of Persian columns topped with bull protomes.
Protomes at Darius I’s palace in Susa featured a variety of animal heads (gazelles, bulls, griffins, etc.) in order to impress and scare visitors. The ceiling was supported by protomes, which also had a symbolic and structural purpose by symbolizing authority and the harmony of the cosmos.
On the acroterion (an architectural ornament) of Persian cruise ships and Phoenician fishing boats (“hippoi” or horses) that sailed the Mediterranean, there was a customary practice of depicting a protome featuring the bust of a horse on the ship’s bow.
Some gladiator helmets were also discovered to have the protome. It was usually placed at the face of the crest and included a variety of emblems.
The griffin protome was one of the most prevalent ones on gladiator helmets. The gods of vengeance were believed to travel with this creature in ancient times. The Hoplomachus gladiator is a popular example.
Hoplomachus gladiators often wore a helmet that featured the protome of a griffin’s head.
As shown on a Roman gladiator helmet from the 9th to the 12th century AD, the lion protome was a common decoration on several gladiator helmets.
Just as importantly, the Murmillo gladiators often fought in the arena with a fish protome on their helmets, and their fierce opponent, the Retiarius, was called a “fisherman” who fought with a fishing net.
Even though Brunelleschi lacked architectural training, he was awarded the commission to construct Florence’s famous dome. He did that against a familiar foe’s plotting. The dome of Florence Cathedral, known as the Brunelleschi Dome (also known as Cúpula de Santa María de las Flores), is perhaps the most recognizable symbol of Florence, just as every city has its own unique monument. The uniqueness of this building lies in the fact that Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1466), a goldsmith, rather than an architect, designed and oversaw its construction.
More than 500 years after it was built, Brunelleschi Dome is still the biggest brick dome that has ever been built.
A massive artwork known as a fresco is painted on the interior of Brunelleschi’s Dome. The painting on the dome was created by Giorgio Vasari and his pupil, Frederico Zuccari, about 1579. The Last Judgment is shown in the fresco. The pictures of heaven are painted on one side of the dome, while the representations of hell, including a demon, are painted on the other.
Brunelleschi’s work on the Florence Cathedral dome marked a major architectural and engineering achievement. He used innovative techniques, such as a double-shelled dome and herringbone brickwork, to build the largest dome in Europe during his time.
Origin of the Cathedral
Santa Maria del Fiore or Florence Cathedral.
However, the cathedral’s origins may be traced back decades before Brunelleschi was even born. The Florentine Republic had its capital in Florence in the 13th century. Not unlike the other republics in northern and central Italy, it was eager to impress its peers with displays of pomp and circumstance.
Most importantly, Florence wanted to show rivals like Venice and Pisa that it could keep up with their own impressive developments. This led to the 1296 decision to construct a cathedral. Arnolfo di Cambio was commissioned as the architect, and construction began with the laying of a foundation stone at the site of the bishop’s church of Santa Reparata. There, he would join the ranks of other great architects.
The cathedral was not complete until the early 15th century because of disruptions caused by conflicts with neighboring republics and the plague, which killed as much as 20% of the population in 1347. Santa Maria del Fiore was chosen as the original name for this beautiful Florence Cathedral.
The dome, however, was still absent. A gaping 147-foot-wide (45-meter) crater stood above the church until 1418. There was no blueprint for how such a large dome would be built.
Linear perspective is a technique in art that creates the illusion of depth and three-dimensionality on a flat surface. Brunelleschi made significant contributions to linear perspective by developing a system that allowed artists to accurately represent spatial relationships in their paintings.
There Is No Blueprint for the Cathedral Dome
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), the goldsmith and master builder. (Credit: Jason Pier, Flickr)
The traditional way of building would have needed too much wood to support the arches using a wooden scaffold. The manner of construction also necessitated that the scaffolding be left up for a minimum of 16 months. But after so much time, the wood is likely to be rotten. In addition, not even the building itself seemed to be a sufficient safety precaution. The weight of such a dome would have been too great for the walls to bear. The whole structure may have been toppled by the dome.
An alternative strategy was required. The Opera, the institution responsible for building the cathedral, declared a contest. They aimed to find an approachable design for the dome’s construction. The prize money was a hefty 200 florins (30,000 to 200,000 USD) as well.
Time for Filippo Brunelleschi had come. He was a professional goldsmith, therefore he was no stranger to contests. Earlier, in 1401, Brunelleschi had competed against goldsmith Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378–1455) and lost to him. This was 17 years ago. For that time being, the doors of the Baptistery were at issue, which was their profession of interest. However, this time, a really groundbreaking feat of architecture was required.
Some of the mysteries of its construction, which Brunelleschi pioneered, remain a mystery even now despite his leaving neither blueprints or drawings behind.
For the preceding decade, Brunelleschi had been traveling extensively, spending most of his time in Rome. There, he examined old structures, or what remained of them, in the spirit of the emerging Renaissance.
Herringbone brickwork is a pattern of bricklaying that resembles the bones of a fish. Brunelleschi used herringbone brickwork in the construction of the Florence Cathedral dome to provide stability and strength to the structure, allowing the dome to stand without the need for additional supports.
There Was No Need for a Timber Structure for Constructing the Dome
It was time for Brunelleschi to put in his bid, and he did so with Tuscany’s top architects. Specifically, he was interested in constructing a “double shell,” or two separate domes. Anchors and chains of iron and wood, like those used to hold a barrel, were planned to be used to keep the walls in place and prevent them from collapsing. Most importantly, his design wouldn’t require the use of a wooden scaffold, which was how most builders traditionally supported a dome during construction.
Two shells were created by Brunelleschi for the internal framework. A lighter inner shell and a heavier outer shell built of wind-resistant materials. Brunelleschi avoided the weight issue during construction by building two domes, allowing workmen to perch atop the inner dome while constructing the outer dome.
However, Brunelleschi’s involvement in the competition raised eyebrows due to his unusually low profile about the specifics. Brunelleschi’s paranoia about intellectual property theft was not wholly unfounded. The Opera eventually settled on a middle ground, adopting most of Brunelleschi’s design but assigning him a second construction manager, who was Brunelleschi’s opponent from 1401, Lorenzo Ghiberti.
A massive artwork known as a fresco is painted on the interior of Brunelleschi’s Dome.
It was estimated that it would take 16 years to finish building the dome. A considerable amount of time, during which Ghiberti made many attempts to replace Brunelleschi. One possible explanation is that he saw that Brunelleschi was the more talented and creative master builder. As an instance, he built a herd of oxen with a “gearbox” that allowed them to go backwards. Because of the height of the dome, Brunelleschi knew that the standard horse-drawn vehicles of the time—a form of impeller with gears—were not enough for lowering loads. But the gears on Brunelleschi’s ox team allowed this to be done without reharnessing the animals.
The dome’s construction also ended up being an architectural wonder. Using the so-called opus spicatum technique, the bricks for the inner dome were arranged in a herringbone pattern. Having done so, the dome’s stability was greatly improved, and collapse was avoided.
Brunelleschi had no professional training in architecture. Experts are still unable to completely comprehend his ingenious construction techniques for the dome.
The Challenger to Brunelleschi’s Dominance Was Eliminated
At the beginning of the 14th century, the competition to create the bronze doors for the Florence Baptistery was the city’s most important public commission. For the “Binding of Isaac”, Lorenzo Ghiberti’s work on the right; Filippo Brunelleschi’s on the left. (Credit: The Opera di Santa Maria del Fiore)
Reportedly, Brunelleschi used a ploy to get rid of Ghiberti and his disruptive influence. One day he claimed to be sick so he could force Ghiberti to bring in the crucial wooden beams, knowing full well that his opponent was unable to do so. Suddenly feeling better, Brunelleschi showed up at the building site to publicly criticize Ghiberti’s work, leading to the architect’s dismissal. Brunelleschi was finally able to build the dome without interference. The cathedral was dedicated on March 25, 1436, exactly 140 years after the first stone was put.
The lantern structure that was to make the city’s highest building even taller (374 feet or 114 meters) was put off for another decade. However, on April 15, 1446, not long after the building project had begun, Brunelleschi passed away. He was so well-respected at the time that he was laid to rest in the cathedral’s crypt. This distinction was reserved for the city’s most notable citizens, and in this instance, it went to a jeweler and a self-taught architect.
Brunelleschi became well-known because of the dome he designed. Most importantly, modern scholars recognize him as a pioneering Renaissance architect, despite the dome technically not being a Renaissance-style building. In contrast to the Roman Pantheon’s dome, which Brunelleschi may have used as inspiration, Santa Maria del Fiore’s dome is made up of four arches and separate components.
Brunelleschi’s whimsical interweaving of multiple disciplines and utilization of historical structures as inspiration, however, have led many to label him the archetypal Renaissance man. The next two centuries of history were supposed to be molded by the ideas of the Renaissance, not only in the Florence area, but all across the heart of Europe.
