Marriage is one of the oldest social institutions, typically sanctioned by law, uniting a man and a woman in a special form of mutual dependence, often to establish and maintain a family. As early as the Middle Ages, the Church sought to regulate the union of spouses very strictly with the establishment of the sacrament of marriage in 1181, codifying marital life from the publication of banns to the consummation. But what actually happened behind the scenes of this so-called marriage?
The Church Formalizes Marriage in the Middle Ages
In the 11th century, during the Gregorian reform, the Church sought to impose a rigid distinction between clerics and laypeople. The former, tasked with ensuring the spirituality of society, were required to remain celibate, while the latter were responsible for the biological reproduction of the species and were required to marry according to increasingly strict rules that were identical for all. Marriage thus became a sacrament based on four central pillars: indissolubility, monogamy, consensus, and exogamy.
The union between a man and a woman must be unique and never be broken during the lifetime of the spouses. The publication of banns is mandatory to ensure greater publicity for the union. Severe sanctions threaten clandestine marriages. The Prior of St. Eloi reminds us that man is made in the image of God (made for himself), and woman is made in the likeness of man (created to help man), which is why she is subject to him!
By the end of the medieval period, women married around the ages of 17 and 18, and men were about ten years older, an age difference that reinforced male dominance. “Le Ménagier de Paris,” a treatise on morality and domestic economy, is intended for young wives. Obedience is imperative for women, but this does not prevent them from playing an important domestic role. The wife brings to the family her dowry plus a wealth of culinary, horticultural, and educational expertise.
A woman who exercises authority over her husband is unnatural; a beaten or cuckolded husband is a sign of scandalous inversion, attracting dishonorable ridicule. The ridiculed man must ride a donkey backward through the streets of the city!
Beat Your Wife or Celebrate Her
The husband holds over his wife a right of correction that an Italian proverb confirms: “Good wife or slob, every woman wants the stick.” Any head of household can punish his wife and family without anyone intervening. It is only when he exceeds what is ”accepted” that he can be condemned. However, such violent examples are rare; murder between spouses represents, in 1380–1422, less than one case of homicide out of a hundred.
The strong hierarchy within the couple does not prevent the expression of feelings.
This marital affection can be seen in the rare epistolary sources from the late Middle Ages.
Out of Wedlock in the Middle Ages
At the end of the Middle Ages, not all heterosexual couples were married. Before the Council of Trent (1545–1563), there were other forms of temporary or permanent cohabitation between men and women, even if they were condemned by the church: adulterous relationships, bigamy, concubinage, and second unions after separation.
It’s the infidelity of the married woman, not that of the man, that constitutes adultery due to the illegitimate children introduced into the household. The term “adultery” is used for women. Concubinage is widespread: clerics live with a concubine as “husband and wife,” sometimes with children too! For many young people from disadvantaged backgrounds, this could be a temporary choice while waiting to have a “real marriage.”
A Calendar for Love
The Church portrays the carnal act as a duty that spouses have to one another under conjugal law. However, it stipulates that such acts should only occur for procreation purposes and at specific times throughout the year. Spouses are required to abstain on Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, as well as during the significant fasting periods leading up to Easter and Christmas, along with numerous feast days dedicated to saints. Furthermore, abstinence is mandated during the woman’s menstruation, pregnancy, the 40 days following childbirth, and prior to the churching ceremony.
Nevertheless, it is important to recognize the practical realities of human behavior. If these prohibitions were strictly adhered to, the frequency of intercourse between couples would have been limited to one to three days per month.
The position of the woman on top of the man is prohibited by the church, as is the one where the man places himself behind his partner because it reduces him to the level of an animal. Canonical texts and medical works assure Christians that if they adopt these positions or if they engage in intercourse during periods not prescribed by the church, they will give birth to infirm, leprous, and deformed children.
However, the historian cannot extend his knowledge regarding these prohibitions.
Was the intimacy of the medieval couple limited? Only revealed to us is the restraint of men and women of the Middle Ages who preferred to cast a modest veil over amorous encounters forever lost.
The Anthesteria (ancient Greek Ἀνθεστήρια, translated as “Flower Festival”) was a festival in the Attic festival calendar. It took place over three days, from the 11th to the 13th of the month Anthesterion, which overlapped with the modern months of February and March. Each of the three days had a different significance, with various rites and festival events. They were celebrated in honor of the god Dionysus, like four to five other festivals within and outside Athens. The festival was based on the second silent fermentation of wine. This means that the must from the previous year’s autumn had been transformed into finished wine in the meantime.
The name of the festival is derived from the Greek word ἄνθος (anthos), which served as an epithet Ἀνθεύς for Dionysus, the god of spring, and literally referred to simple flowers. This indicates the function of the celebrations as a spring festival to welcome the approaching spring. It is also known as the “older Dionysia.”
Attributes of the Anthesteria Festival
The Anthesteria is described as a joyful and exuberant celebration, carrying partly carnival-like features with its processions and costumes. The festival days were accompanied by a fair where various items from the surroundings were offered for sale, such as pottery, especially the pithoi, large painted clay vessels for the festival, young wine, and other export goods. This attracted many merchants and people from neighboring regions. The government gave small gifts to support the festival and officially recognized it. The main location for the festivities was a district on the western slope of the Acropolis, the Limnaion, which was said to be situated in a marshy area.
According to Thucydides:
[2.15.4] Proof that things were like this is that the temples of other gods are also located on the Acropolis, and those temples outside the city are rather built towards the southern part, such as the temple of Olympian Zeus, Apollo Pythios, Earth, and Dionysus in Limnae, where the oldest Dionysia are celebrated on the twelfth day of the Anthesterion month, as the Ionians, descendants of the Athenians, still believe. Other ancient temples are also built in the same area.
How the Anthesteria Festival Proceeded
Day 1: The Pithoigia—Opening of the Barrels
The Anthesteria began on the 11th of Anthesterion with the opening of the wine barrels, also known as Pithoigia. Here, the first reversal of normal circumstances became apparent, as all the temples of the gods in Athens were closed and draped with ropes. In contrast, the Dionysus temple, usually closed throughout the year, was only opened on this one day. This day was entirely dedicated to honoring Dionysus, thanking him for the completion of the new wine and, in general, for his role as its bearer. Mythically, special powers were attributed to this wine as it was the new wine.
In mythology, it was customary to initially consider the new and unknown as potentially dangerous, approaching them with caution and circumspection.
The celebrants handled the new wine in the same way. To eliminate the alleged dangers, specific rituals were performed. This included, for example, offering some of the wine to Dionysus at the beginning of the festival. This act sought to secure his favor and people hoped that he would purify the wine and banish its dangers. Participants took their pithoi and drinking vessels to the Limnaion, where they offered the wine. Additionally, they danced and sang in honor of the god. Slaves were also allowed to participate in this ritual. Apart from that, people enjoyed themselves on the accompanying markets, conducted business, and indulged in the new wine purified by Dionysus.
Day 2: The Choes—Opening of the Jugs
Man playing an aulos, the instrument that accompanied the dances of the Antesterias. Decoration of a dish from 460 BC, Louvre Museum.
Another ritual displaying the unusual reversal of circumstances was the Choes. During the Anthesteria, each participant drank from their individual jug (Chous), instead of the usual practice of drawing from a communal mixing jug. Even children were sometimes given their own jugs (Choes cups), often adorned with images of playing and celebrating children. They were also adorned with flower wreaths on their heads, which, in connection with the first gift, could be seen as a kind of confirmation, an initiation rite. Due to high child mortality, it was believed that children were out of the greatest danger from the age of three onwards, and they were thus welcomed into the world of the elders.
Additionally, there was hope that the natural power of the flower wreaths would transfer to the children, strengthening them for the future. Adults also wore wreaths, which they placed around their jugs on the evening of the festivities and donated to the Dionysian priestess in the sanctuary. The Lenaion (a theater or a section of the Agora) was also entirely decorated with flowers. It is assumed that this function was performed by the Basilinna, who played another significant role in the cultic beliefs during the Anthesteria. The banquet was often accompanied by flute players. Another peculiarity was that everyone silently emptied their drinking bowls. The tradition of individual jugs and silence was based on an old legend about Orestes.
According to this legend, Orestes’ mother treacherously murdered his father, Agamemnon, leading Orestes, in deep despair, to commit matricide. After this terrible act, he wanted to present himself to the Areopagus in Athens on the day of the Anthesteria. The Areopagus decided to welcome Orestes warmly into the city and allow him to participate in the festivities. However, to avoid exposing the residents to the danger of being tainted by his sin, it was decided that everyone should drink from their own jug, contrary to their usual custom. This prevented transmission while still allowing Orestes to participate.
Apart from the crowning of young children, there were other blessing rites on the day of Choes. Perhaps the most important was the Hieros Gamos (a divine marriage), involving the Basilinna’s ritual marriage to the god Dionysus. In the early afternoon, the Ship Cart Procession took place. A ship on wheels, steered by a priest, traveled from the harbor into the city and then to the temple. Several rounds were made in the marketplace, with the population following behind and around the cart. Even the smallest children were allowed to participate in this event. Those on the cart mocked the population, and vice versa, creating a lively and wild atmosphere. Leading the procession was the Kanephoros (an honorific office for an unmarried young woman). The mythological significance suggests that Dionysus made his entrance on the cart for his wedding with the Basilinna, symbolizing his journey across the sea before arriving in Attica.
On the cart, actors portraying Dionysus and his entourage, dressed as gods, satyrs, or maenads, interacted with the crowd. Once the cart reached the temple, the Basilinna had to prepare for the wedding night. In the Dionysus temple, she lit a torch and took an oath affirming her personal purity, chastity, and the fulfillment of her religious duties. Accompanied by the 14 Gerarai (priestesses of Dionysus), under the expert guidance of the Basilinna, they performed various ritual functions at 14 altars in the temple. The title of the women meant “venerable,” expressing respect for their crucial role. They were not viewed as lustful followers of Dionysus but held a high standing in society.
Following these purification rituals, a wooden stele resembling the god was carried in a solemn procession, considered a wedding procession with the Basilinna, from the temple to the Bucolion. These premises were an old, renovated office of the Archon. The procession was accompanied by a large and exuberant audience, walking alongside the cart. Once the Basilinna arrived at the Bucolion, she was the only one allowed to enter, aside from the god, her bridegroom.
To be worthy of this task, she, as the wife of the Archon Basileus, had to meet certain requirements, such as not having had another man before him. On the premises, she then conducted the wedding night, which was said to involve secret rituals. The role of Dionysus might have been represented by individuals, with her own husband being the most likely candidate, essentially providing the outer vessel for the god. While intimacy was celebrated inside, the outside population continued to revel through the night. At the first light of day, the stele was brought back to the Dionysus temple, concluding the wedding night and completing the ritual marriage.
Despite all these festivities and commotion, one must not neglect another crucial aspect of Choes. Towards the evening of the 12th Anthesterion, the transition to Choes began. The entire day was critically viewed by contemporaries, who advised against concluding any business deals and generally regarded it as an unlucky day.
In the evening, according to the Athenians’ beliefs, the deceased began to emerge to haunt the surface.
Day 3: The Chytroi—the Day of the Dead
The final day of the festival stood in complete contrast in its sequence and significance to the first and second days. It was the day of the dead, competitions, and cooking pots.
This is derived from the fact that on that day, a panspemie, a pot dish made from grains without sacrificial meat, was prepared and offered. The panspemie was presented as a gift by beautiful women. The women simultaneously prayed for the dead and their ancestors. The sacrifice was not consumed but, along with the components of water, flour, and honey, was offered in a trench half a meter wide near the Temple of Olympian.
These proceedings were meant to remind people of the chthonic Hermes as a death offering to atone for those flooded during the time of Deucalion (“Deucalion Flood”). The third day of the Anthesteria was considered an eerie time due to its strong connection to the dead, with its negative effects extending even to the entire month. Various defensive measures were taken out of fear of allegedly appearing spirits. Two of them, for example, were to smear doors with pitch and chew hawthorn in the morning, attempting to protect the house and bodily openings from invading souls.
Simultaneously, in honor and appreciation of the dead, mimetic dances, musicals, and rhetorical performances were presented. However, no play considered a sign or characteristic of Dionysus was staged. Various athletic competitions were organized but were regarded as funeral games. Temples were also sealed to keep out uninvited guests, such as ghosts. Particularly interesting was that the time of Chytroi coincided with another festival, the Aiora Swing Festival, mainly celebrated by children and teenagers.
They were supposed to swing long and intensively to cleanse themselves and gain blessings. This was to happen by hurling away misfortune through vigorous movement. The festival served as an expiatory celebration for the deceased Erigone (daughter of Icarius), a rite to honor the dead, to appease them, and thus to gain happiness in the new year. After the end of the last day, various chants were uttered to drive the spirits out of the houses.
Interpretations of the Anthesteria Festival
Connected to Dionysus, the Anthesteria is also called the Short Dionysia, and Thucydides mentions them as the “older Dionysia.”
The interpretation of Anthesteria as the “festival of flowers” dates back to antiquity, although flowers played a very limited role in this festival, only on its first day. In the time of the Cambridge ritualists, A. W. Verrall interpreted the name of this festival as a “calling back” or “re-calling” (from ἀναθέσσασθαι, “to pray back” or “up”), where the spirits of the deceased were called back into the world of the living (which might be compared to the Roman ritual of opening mundus).
His contemporary, Jane Ellen Harrison, viewed Anthesteria primarily in the context of the festival of “all saints,” whose purpose was to appease ancestral spirits.
Harrison considered the “opening of the jars” (Pithoigia) as a ceremony of opening tombs (πίθος would in this case denote a large urn in which the ashes of the deceased were placed), the “festival of wine jugs” (Choës) as a day for liquid offerings – libations (χοαί), and the “festival of pots” (Chytroi) as the day of grave vats (χύτροι), which actually preceded the day for opening the jars.
Later researchers, such as Eleanor Rohde and Martin P. Nilsson, believed that χύτροι meant “water vessels” and connected this festival with the Hydrophoria (“water-carrying”) ceremony, a libation festival organized to appease the dead who disappeared in the Deucalion Flood. Henri Jeanmaire agrees that it is precisely the festival of the dead that sets the tone for the entire festival.
Jean Haudry introduces the concept of darkness into the notion of anthos and interprets the name Anthesteria as the “festival of those who have passed through the darkness (winter).” The arrival of Dionysus at the water symbolizes the “passing of winter darkness” and the end of winter.
Both in the festival of the dead and in the festival of wine, Anthesteria, held at the end of winter, corresponds to the Athenian Oschophoria festival rites, held in the fall, where cooked seeds were offered as a sacrifice, revealing a kind of rhythm in the observance of rural festivals tied to the seasons.
Even though it has its roots in pagan and Christian celebrations, Halloween is extensively observed in many parts of the world today. This celebration of the end of the harvest and the beginning of a new year is traced back to the ancient Celtic festival of Samhain. As a result of the Roman conquest of the Celts in the first century, several Celtic and Roman feasts were joined to form what is now known as All Martyrs’ Day, which was officially established by the Roman Catholic Church in the year 609 AD.
Root of the Name
All Hallows’ Eve or All Hallow Even, which is the night before All Saints’ Day (November 1) and All Souls’ Day (November 2), is where the name “Halloween” has its origins. The phrase “hallowed evening” or “holy evening” serves as its literal root. The contradiction “Halloween” was first created in the late 18th century. “Hallow” means “holy,” and it is related to Dutch and German heiligen.
Origin of Halloween Traditions
Samhain.
The celebration of Halloween is based on Pagan rituals honoring the dead. Samhain was a time when the Celts thought the dead might return to the world of the living. At Samhain, the living and the dead might communicate with one another. The practices of the Pagan past have been woven into the fabric of Halloween, from the costumes to the treats.
In order to trick wandering ghosts into thinking they were one of their own, some Celts dressed themselves in macabre clothing. Some people tried appeasing the ghosts by offering them candy. Following local Pagan practices, Catholic clergy in medieval Europe had their members go door-to-door dressed in costumes and ask for donations in the form of Halloween gifts.
Halloween in Religions at a Glance
There are clear Christian and Celtic influences on the celebration of Halloween. However, the history of the festival is convoluted, and many interpretations of it may be found in other faiths. Here are some facts concerning the significance of Halloween in religions:
Christianity: Some Christians refuse to celebrate Halloween because of its dark history and pagan roots. However, many modern Christians value Halloween for the opportunity it provides to celebrate the reality that death is an inevitable aspect of life.
Jehovah’s Witnesses: Jehovah’s Witnesses do not participate in Halloween because they consider it to be a pagan celebration that encourages spiritism.
Hinduism: The Hindu faith does not traditionally observe Halloween. Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights celebrated on November 12, may sometimes coincide with Halloween, although most Hindus feel uncomfortable with the idea of celebrating the dead anyway.
Judaism: According to Jewish law, it is forbidden to participate in Halloween since it is a Gentile (“non-Jew”) holiday. Many American Jews outside of the Orthodox community observe Halloween’s secular customs despite the fact that this festival is forbidden by Jewish law.
Islam: From the perspective of Islam, Halloween is one of the worst holidays because of its pagan roots and Christian origins. No matter how beneficial or innocuous a Halloween activity may appear, engaging in it is banned (Haram) in Islam.
Buddhism: Buddhism has a long history of legends about ghosts and other supernatural entities. Buddhism celebrates departed souls with a holiday called the Hungry Ghost Festival, or the Yulanpen Festival, around the time of Halloween.
Celtic Paganism: Since Halloween celebrates the conclusion of the Celtic calendar year and the beginning of the long, gloomy winter associated with Celtic paganism, the Neo-Pagans still commemorate Samhain and Halloween today. Beginning in the 15th century, people used to let off fireworks and dress up in costumes to scare away the dead. Many of the customs associated with Halloween can be traced back to Samhain, including the use of pumpkins and costumes.
The Religions That Don’t Celebrate Halloween
Christianity
Since the way it’s celebrated today is largely secular, Halloween is no longer celebrated by Christians for religious reasons. But despite Halloween’s reputation as a celebration of the macabre, many of the holiday’s traditions have deep roots in the history of Christian communities, especially in Catholic history. For instance, medieval European clergy adopted Pagan customs, going door-to-door in costumes and seeking Halloween donations.
This festival is used to commemorate the dead one night before All Saints’ Day. However, there is still a lack of clarity on the church’s official stance on Halloween since it has lost much of its religious significance.
Many of Halloween’s defining features—ghosts, devils, supernatural occurrences, and even vampires—also have their share in Christian mythology. But there are Christians who opt to ignore Halloween because of its pagan history and negative connotations. This is due to a common misconception that it is still a Pagan holiday or even the devil’s birthday.
During Samhain, the Celtic festival from which Halloween sprang, bonfires were lit and costumes were worn to scare away the dead. Many traditions associated with Halloween can be traced back to this festival, including the use of pumpkins and frightful costumes. For this reason, some Christians see Halloween as a satanic festival when wickedness is embraced and the devil is praised.
Jehovah’s Witnesses
The position of Jehovah’s Witnesses on Halloween is unequivocal: they do not participate in it. That’s because Halloween, in their eyes, is a pagan celebration of horror and superstition. The unwillingness of Jehovah’s Witnesses to participate in Halloween festivities stems from the way they read the Bible.
They consider Halloween to be incompatible with their religious views because they think these events have pagan or non-Christian roots. They refer to verses in the Bible that forbid occult activities like divination and communicating with spirits, such as Deuteronomy 18:10–12.
They do not partake in Halloween festivities, nor do they observe other holidays such as Christmas, Easter, or even the national holidays. Their attitude on these festivals mirrors their general approach to religious practice, which places more emphasis on following what they see as Biblical precepts than on following what has become customary in modern society.
Judaism
Jews are forbidden by Halakhah (Hebrew: “the Way”) to celebrate Halloween. This is due to the fact that All Hallow’s Eve was originally a Celtic ritual before being adopted into the Christian calendar by the Catholic Church, and Jews are forbidden by the Torah to celebrate holidays that have their origins in “gentile (‘non-Jew’) customs,” such as Halloween.
Liberal Jewish movements, such as the Reform, enable their members to celebrate Halloween even though it is not observed by Orthodox Jews. It is the opinion of some Jews that Halloween is a Christian celebration that has nothing to do with Judaism. There is also no reason to celebrate Halloween at school since it is not a Jewish holiday.
Like other secular American holidays like Thanksgiving and the Fourth of July, Halloween is celebrated by many American Jews. Some rabbis still contend that the Torah forbids Jews to celebrate Halloween since the holiday’s origins lie in idolatry.
Some Halloween treats are not kosher; therefore, trick-or-treating might be difficult for Jews who observe this diet. Ironically, the custom of dressing up during the Jewish festival of Purim has led to comparisons to the more popular Halloween celebration, especially among questioning youngsters. Therefore, due to its secular character in the current world, some Jews prefer to celebrate Halloween.
While some Muslims may opt to observe Halloween’s secular customs, the vast majority of them do not observe the festival. This is due to the widespread idea that Halloween is a pagan celebration that conflicts with Islamic values. Islam, being a faith that emphasizes piety and avoidance of immoral and pagan acts, does not approve of the festival since it is allegedly a shape of idolatry (shirk).
Dressing provocatively and making use of “haram” materials are examples of Halloween traditions that are banned. However, since Halloween is now a secular festival, non-religious people in largely Muslim countries, such as Turkey, try to celebrate Halloween in smaller, highly devoted groups by inviting others through social media and word of mouth.
Buddhism
There is no canonical position on Halloween held by Buddhists. But Buddhism also has a long history of legends about ghosts and other supernatural entities who are said to linger in the shadows of the afterlife in places like cemeteries, woods, and mountains where life and death meet. Many modern Buddhists believe in these otherworldly entities from their legends. Thus, some Buddhists observe Halloween but in their own unique fashion.
Dressing up in costumes and complimenting other people’s costumes is seen as a harmful behavior in Theravada Buddhism since it might lead to poor karma. Segaki, however, is a holiday observed by Mahayana Buddhists around Halloween, and it centers on providing food for hungry ghosts.
Around August, September, or October, Buddhism celebrates departed souls with a holiday called the Hungry Ghost Festival, or the Yulanpen Festival. In the Hungry Ghost Festival, they set out their family’s ancestral tablets, light incense, and cook three times on the day of the festival to appease the spirits and ensure a happy afterlife. The major event often takes place just before sunset.
Offerings of food and entertainment are offered to the hungry spirits in the hopes that they may be appeased and freed from their misery. Children and adults alike in Portland, Oregon, look forward to Dharma Rain Zen Center’s annual Segaki event in late October.
Samayatara is the female Buddha of the Northern direction, and her festival, which honors midnight and the knowledge of emptiness, is often observed around Halloween among Western Buddhists. Therefore, there’s generally little room or need for Halloween to grow in popularity among Buddhists.
Hinduism
The Hindu faith does not traditionally observe Halloween. It is not a major event in Hinduism, although some people opt to celebrate it anyway. Many Hindus feel uncomfortable with the celebration of ghosts and would rather celebrate Diwali, which sometimes coincides with Halloween. It symbolizes the “victory of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance”.
Bhoot Chaturdashi, which occurs on the 14th day of the Hindu calendar month of Kartika, is a holiday with comparable meaning in Hinduism. On this day, it is said that ghosts and malevolent spirits will be banished forever. There are parallels between this celebration and Halloween’s emphasis on scaring away bad spirits.
Once Religious, Now Secular Festivals
Costume parties, trick-or-treating, pranks, and games are common Halloween activities in the United States, Canada, and Ireland. Different cultures commemorate the event in their own unique ways. Dia de los Muertos, also known as the Day of the Dead, is a celebration held in Mexico and other Latin American nations in commemoration of departed family members and ancestors. Bonfires and fireworks are lit to celebrate Guy Fawkes Day on November 5 in England. Despite these religious roots and connections, Halloween is now a secular celebration in the same vein as Valentine’s Day and Thanksgiving.
The ancient Incas celebrated the Sun and all it brings with a celebration called the Inti Raymi festival. The legendary Festival of the Inti Raymi was and is still celebrated on the day of the winter solstice, June 24, throughout the Andean regions of the southern hemisphere. The city of Cusco, in the heart of the Andes in Peru, hosts the Inti Raymi, also known as the Festival of the Sun. Cuzco was formerly the Inca Empire‘s capital. Inti Raymi was their most important festival.
There are several venues for the event. The major event starts at the Sun Temple (Coricancha), moves through Cuzco’s Plaza de Armas, and concludes at the city’s stronghold, Sacsayhuamán. About 25,000 people, including 700 actors, attend the Inti Raymi festival every year. Every Peruvian has had this moment at some point in their lives. Because Inti Raymi is still among the most important celebrations in Latin America.
The Inti Raymi festival, held to assure a bountiful crop, often ran for nine days and included elaborate dances, processions, and animal sacrifices in honor of Pachamama. Pachamama gave birth to Inti, the sun god, and Mama Killa, the moon goddess. In 1412, the very first Inti Raymi festival was held. In 1535, the final Inti Raymi was held in front of an Inca Emperor.
What Is the Inti Raymi festival?
The Inti Raymi means “Inti Festival” in Quechua. It is a sacred ritual practiced by the Inca. In Quechua, it is known as the Festival of the Sun (or the Sun God). Inti is the name of the Sun God. The stories attribute his birth to the deity who founded the civilization, “Viracocha.” His true origin is not clear. The roots of the Inti Raymi festival can be traced all the way back to the legendary beginnings of Inca culture. The ritual was most likely first created in the 11th century. The Inti, a god seen as symbolic of the Sun, is the focus of this celebration.
Historically There Were Two Inti Raymi Festivals
During the winter solstice, the Incas celebrated “Wawa Inti Raymi,” or the Festival of the Sun Child, and during the summer solstice, they celebrated “Capac Inti Raymi,” or the Festival of the Great Sun. However, the significance of the sun rising grew over time, and a new cyclical era was represented by the Sun’s rebirth. We can think of it as a local Christmas.
It is important to remember that the fertility of the Earth was another goal of this event. It was the conclusion of harvest and the beginning of potato planting, ushering in a new agricultural cycle. For this reason, the Inti Raymi festival had great significance for the Andean people. A good crop was a reflection of how well the event went.
Participants Wait for Dawn Together at the Inti Raymi Festival
The Sacsayhuamán citadel served as the event’s focal point. Festivities were held at what is now known as Huacaypata Plaza or the Place of the Warrior of Cuzco (or Plaza de Armas). During the Inti Raymi festival, the emperor was in the middle, surrounded by his subjects. Each person joined the others in waiting until dawn. Concurrently, they made sacrifices and performed rituals. And then they visited the Temple of the Sun.
For generations, the Inti Raymi festival was celebrated until viceroy (governor) Francisco de Toledo outlawed it in 1535. During the colonial period, the Spanish and the Catholic Church saw Inti Raymi as a dangerous enemy. The Andeans were coerced into adopting a Christian religion by the invading Spaniards. For the Spaniards, the Inti Raymi festival was a heretical celebration since it had no basis in Christian belief.
The Sun God Inti from the Argentina flag, and the Uruguay flag respectively.
When the priests sought to force their beliefs on the locals, the Inca people responded with this celebration as a gesture of defiance. They engaged in what was known as the “Illness Dance” during these acts of defiance. The spread of idol worship also threatened the continuity of this custom. Spanish conquistadors wiped out festivals and many other customs by destroying religious artifacts.
“Adam and Eve”, in “El Primer Nueva Corónica y Buen Gobierno”, 1615.
Andean painters always found a way to infuse Andean ideas, like the belief in the Inti and the Mama Quilla or Killa (Inti’s sister and wife), into their artwork, even when it was about something totally different, such as the Adam and Eve drawing above. The painters used symbols from their old faith in works designed to reflect Christianity. Stories and beliefs about the Inca religion were passed down over the ages through word of mouth thanks to this sentiment. For this reason, the Inti Raymi festival has endured longer than expected.
Inti Raymi Represents the Bond Between the Sun and His Sons
Potato harvest in the Inti Raymi month of June. (Artist: Herbert M. Herget)
To celebrate the Inti Raymi festival, the Incas assembled their subjects in Cuzco. People gathered in droves in Huacaypata Plaza (Plaza de Armas Cusco) to witness the transport of ancestral mummies. They were in pristine condition and brought from the adjacent temples for the celebration. Celebration dances lasted all day long, from sunrise to night, while celebrants drank chicha (the beer of the Incas)and inhaled the smoke of coca fires.
When the Inti Raymi festival rolled around, it always brightened up the darkest days of winter. Because the Incas were afraid that the Sun (their father) would desert them, they decided that the shortest day of the year, June 24, was the best option for this festival. Because June 24 is the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. The event was held annually on the winter solstice when the Sun was at its furthest distance from Earth. Tens of thousands gathered in a last-ditch effort to convince the Sun God to revive their crops.
The Inti Raymi Festival Was Revived in 1940
Since 1940, however, the celebration has been revitalized as Cuzco’s citizens rediscover their indigenous devotions. The Peruvian people still celebrate their largest feast on June 24. It was Faustino Espinoza Navarro, a Peruvian playwright and actor, who revived this Inca holy event. He based the details of the Inti Raymi festival on the descriptions of the event in the “Royal Comments of the Inca” by the Spanish soldier Garcilaso de la Vega (1612). He founded the Cuzco Academy of the Quechua Language and rescued the Inti Raymi festival. Initially, just the religious rite was reconstructed based on the writings of Garcilaso de la Vega.
Since 1944, on June 24th, 1.25 miles (2 kilometers) from the original site of the celebration in the heart of Cusco, a dramatic depiction of the Inti Raymi has been held in Saksaywaman. This festival has evolved into a true show for both locals and visitors to Peru with a well-planned and executed production.
Experts in archaeology, history, and academia did the legwork required to recreate the ancient Inti Raymi festival as accurately as possible. Modern Inti Raymi is still a massive celebration, but it no longer has a mummy procession or animal sacrifice. It starts at sunrise in front of the Coricancha, the Temple of the Sun, and concludes at the Sacsayhuamán citadel district, known for its massive stone walls.
On June 24, locals in Cusco, Peru, offer tourists and travelers the best ways to celebrate the festival. Throughout the day, there are several celebrations and religious observances. The city is made more colorful by the many street fairs and concerts held in the central Plaza de Armas. As one of Latin America’s largest celebrations, Inti Raymi ranks just behind Rio de Janeiro’s own Carnaval.
This day represents the endurance of Peruvian religious and cultural identity over centuries of colonialism and Christianization.
Sacsayhuamán
The Sacsayhuamán fortress is the main piece of the Inti Raymi festival. It is a fortification designed to resemble the head of a puma, a highly revered animal in Inca culture. These ruins are the most impressive of all of Cusco’s environs. The Quechua meaning of the word “Sacsayhuamán” is “satisfied falcon.” Built by the Incas, the citadel had impressive defenses in the shape of a ziggurat, with three stories (representing the puma’s teeth) to keep invaders out.
What method was employed to move these massive pieces of limestone and completely encapsulate and assemble them is unknown. It is important to note that one of the stones in this structure is over 26 feet (8 meters) in length and weighs more than 300 tons. Furthermore, the fortification was made up of three towers. Tradition has it that one of them would have an underground passageway system leading all the way to the Temple of the Sun. However, only around 20% of the original buildings survived.
A Look at How the Inti Raymi Festival Is Celebrated
9:00 am – Coricancha: The devotion of the Sun
At nine in the morning, people gather in front of Coricancha or Qoricancha (meaning, “the corral of gold”) and also known as the Temple of the Sun, to begin the Festival of the Sun.
Because of its status as the holiest site in all of Inca territory, this temple has attained legendary proportions. It served as a sacred site for Inca rituals honoring the Sun, Moon, and Rain gods.
The Sapa Inca, the “Sun God King” or the “Great Inca,” who serves as a ceremonial leader for the day, prays to the Sun God from this temple during the Inti Raymi festival.
11:00 am – Plaza de Armas: the Coca ceremony
After Sapa Inca has finished his invocation, he and his dancers leave the Temple of the Sun and go to the Plaza de Armas.
There are a lot of important characters in the procession, including the Sapa Inca, his wife Quilla, and a number of nobles and priests.
The second stage of the Inti Raymi festival, known as the Coca ceremony, takes place after the procession reaches the Plaza de Armas.
During the reign of the Inca Empire, the Plaza de Armas (formerly Huacaypata) served as the beating heart of the capital city. Even more importantly, it was the only location of the Inti Raymi festival. The “Great Ushnu,” a pyramid-like structure, was where the event was held. This was the place to make a formal appeal to the gods. Here, at this spot, the Inca perform the Coca ritual in honor of the Sun.
Coca leaves are thrown at the high priest’s feet as part of the process, and he is charged with deciphering the Sun’s intent. After a llama is sacrificed (which is staged), two more priests notify the Inca of the Sun’s will. Because the abundance of the next year’s crops is predicted by the Incan high priests by sacrificing a llama and examining its internal organs.
01:30 pm – Inti Raymi performance at Sacsayhuamán
On the esplanade in front of Sacsayhuamán’s fortification, the Inti Raymi festival finally concludes.
In this final stage, a massive procession is planned, and both visitors and residents are welcome to take part. The Sapa Inca is transported in a sedan chair by four separate parties. There are four groups because Qollasuyu, Kuntisuyu, Antisuyu, and Chinchaysuyu stood in for the four regions that existed during the reign of the Inca Empire.
The rite of the Chicha, the rite of the holy fire, and the rite of the sacred bread (Sankhu) follow that. The last ritual involves giving a llama as a sacrifice (again, staged) to the Sun Father.
When the ceremonies are over, the Quechua people put on a spectacular show that includes a variety of dances, musical performances, and songs spoken in their native language.
After the Inti Raymi Festival
A dance show held for the Inti Raymi festival. (Image: Cancillería del Ecuador, Flickr)
Inti Raymi celebrations last for a whole week. But after the ceremony of the Festival of the Sun, the city of Cusco arranges different animations, such as concerts or the appearance of a fair on the sites.
The Inti Raymi festival is a huge deal in the Andean area, and people come from all over the globe to see it. For many Andean indigenous communities, Inti Raymi is the most significant cultural and spiritual festival that has deep historical roots in pre-Columbian times.
FAQ
What are the Inti Raymi traditions?
The participants fasted for three days while still taking water, eating white maize, and chewing chucam herb. They celebrated the winter solstice on the day of Inti Raymi by facing the rising sun with bare feet.
Who celebrates Inti Raymi?
In the Andean communities of Peru, Argentina, Ecuador, and Bolivia people gather towards the end of June for the annual Festival of Inti Raymi to celebrate and express thanks for the wealth of the soil via colorful ancient traditional rites.
What clothes are worn during Inti Raymi?
During the Inti Raymi, people wear scarves, masks, and feathers and carry spears adorned in gold to look like their ancestor gods and the ancient Inca people of the time. The dresses include the rainbow colors of the Inti Raymi flag.
Who Was Inti?
The Inca sun god Inti was also known as Apu Punchau. Several of the mountain spirits that served the Incan gods were known by the name “Apu.” Inti was the ancestor of all Incas. Each and every Inca temple paid homage to him.
References
“Inti Raymi History”, in Spanish, Web Archive, Elin Tiraymi.
“Inti Raymi Festival of the Sun in Otavalo”, in Spanish, Web Archive, Volunteering Ecuador.
Many mysteries surround Christmas, including the origins of Santa Claus and the 25th of December, the day we celebrate Christmas. Despite the fact that it has become more commercialized, Christmas remains a festival with profound roots in our culture. It’s hardly surprising that this holiday has a plethora of traditions because of this. However, their histories are often shrouded in mystery. For what reason is it that Christmas is always celebrated on December 25?
Christmas vs. the winter solstice
As the saying goes, “For on the 25th of December occurs this incision, which is a turning point, and it begins to grow the day when the light gets the increase…” (“Epiphanius,” 310–403 AD)
It’s not a fluke that Christmas is observed on December 24 and 25. It is not so much because Jesus Christ was traditionally born on this day, but because of the importance this day has always had throughout history, even before the advent of Christianity. This day, the winter solstice, was a gift from the gods. The winter solstice is the day at which daylight hours once again start to lengthen. Almost every culture and faith have a ritual or holiday honoring the “winning of the light over darkness.”
A celebration of the sun gods on the winter solstice
Slaying of the bull: The Indo-Iranian god Mithras (Akkadian for “contract”) was revered as the patron of contract, friendship, and order by devotees of Mithraism in the Roman world.
In the early centuries, Christianity was only one of many religions practiced in the Mediterranean area, and as a result, many different cults and practices merged. Mithraism was widely practiced, as were festivals honoring Dionysus, the deity of the Thracians. In ancient Greece, Dionysus was revered as a deity of growth and fertility. Days “grew” to show his impact on the world. Conversely, those who adhered to the Mithraic religion honored an Indian deity of light.
This faith spread from Mesopotamia and the Near East with the rise of the Roman Empire and was officially recognized as the Roman state religion in the 4th century CE. Since then, the winter solstice had been recognized as an imperial feast, the birth of the “Sol Invictus” (the “invincible sun”). Winter solstice celebrations honoring the birth of a deity are not unique to Christianity. In ancient Egypt, this same day marked the feast of the goddess Isis and the birth of the child Horus. Sol Invictus was originally a Syrian god. The Saturnalia, the festival of Saturn, was part of Sol Invictus worship as well.
When exactly was the birth of Christ?
Sol Invictus in the Planetarium mosaic. (Image: Daniel González Acuña)
Christianity faced severe competition from long-standing religions and traditions as it struggled to gain a foothold in the ancient world. To the first Christians, the only festival was Passover; they had not yet comprehended celebrating Jesus’ birth. Church authorities didn’t try to pin down certain dates in Christ’s life or the year he was born until after the new religion had already taken hold and grown. After that, they tried to form a calendar of celebrations.
According to the mythology and these calculations, Christ could not have been born in the midst of winter. The birth would have occurred between spring and fall if the “there were shepherds camping in the neighborhood” (Luke 2:8) hint was to be accepted, as it is the only time of year when Judean shepherds would have been outdoors with their flocks. This reasoning also hinted at the days of March 28th, April 2nd, or May 20th. Yet it was obvious from the start that these rather obscure dates would not be able to impose themselves against the well-established festivals of the “Pagan” cults. The church had to do something about it.
The incorporation of a Pagan holiday
The Apostolic Tradition is credited to a Roman statue, perhaps of Hippolytus, discovered in 1551.
When Pope Hippolytus promoted December 25 as the date of Christ’s birth, the Church went on the offensive in the year 217. He planned to gradually inject Christian significance into the holiday’s traditional Pagan context. During this period, Christian belief and practice grew and gained more traction.
Everything was ratified in the year 330: Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official state religion of Rome and abruptly converted the ancient sun deity of Sol Invictus to the Christian god, who became known as “Lux Mundi” (Light of the World) and “created the sun of justice.” As a result, the date of Christ’s birth, December 25, has been set as a dogma of the Christian faith ever since the year 381.
However, it took many centuries for the new Christian celebration to triumph over the preexisting Germanic and Celtic sun and fertility rituals around the winter solstice in Central and Northern Europe. It wasn’t until a synod in central Europe in 813 that December 25 was officially recognized as a universal church feast instead of a Pagan festival.
As a worldwide Christian holiday, December 25 is widely celebrated as the “Nativity of Mary” or “Nativity of Jesus.” It is a feast honoring the birth of Jesus, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born to the Virgin Mary in a stable in Bethlehem, according to the faith. Nativity is, along with Easter, the central feast of the Christian calendar. The origin of the Feast of the Nativity of Mary is in the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. The development of this feast throughout the Christian community, from its earliest celebrations to the present-day custom of placing Nativity cribs and trees topped with stars, seems to be inspired by the more popular Christmas celebration.
The Story of the Nativity
The birth of Jesus of Nazareth is commemorated annually on the feast of the Nativity of Mary. For Christians, his birth represents the Incarnation of God into a human body, and he is both the Son of God and God. In the story, the angel Gabriel revealed to the young Mary that she would bear the Son of God. This event is known as the Annunciation.
Mary’s carpenter husband Joseph was at first inclined to disown her, but an angel appeared to him in a dream and explained everything. The Gospels state that during the reign of King Herod the Great (72 BC–4 BC), the Roman authorities arranged a massive census, compelling all adult males to return to their hometowns to be tallied. So, Joseph took Mary away from Nazareth, and they set out for Bethlehem. According to the Gospel of Luke, Mary gave birth to Jesus in the city.
A painting of the Nativity of Jesus Christ.
There was a prophecy that a king would come from the line of David, and because Jesus’ birth fulfilled that prophecy, King Herod, afraid for his throne, ordered the slaughter of all the babies in Bethlehem. The term “Massacre of the Innocents” describes this event. However, after receiving a second warning in his dream, Joseph quickly took his family to safety in Egypt. As of now, the Gospels are the sole source for information on this massacre, which has led some to speculate that it was fabricated in order to draw parallels between Jesus’ and Moses’ stories.
But according to Roman historian Flavius Josephus (b. 37 AD), the census recounted in the gospels took place in 6 or 7 AD and was ordered by Governor Quirinus. Nonetheless, Herod’s rule expired in 4 BC; thus, this date presents a dilemma for the story of the Nativity. In other words, Herod’s power predated the Quirinus census. In addition, Quirinus’ census would only apply to Judea (where Bethlehem lies) and not Galilee (where Nazareth is located).
Determining a reliable year for Jesus’ birth
Luke the Evangelist (d. 84 AD) referred to Bethlehem as the City of David. Luke was an apostle of Paul who did not personally meet Jesus during his lifetime. Therefore, there is room for mistake in his gospel.
If Joseph went to Bethlehem to be numbered during the reign of governor Quirinus, then one may be looking at a hybrid of Herod I the Great (72 BC–4 BC) and his successor, Herod Archelaus (4 BC–6 AD), referred to in the story of the Nativity. There are two schools of thought when it comes to determining when Jesus was born: those who believe that the census did not take place and that the event must have taken place just a little before the death of Herod I before 4 BC, and those who believe that Joseph did take the census, but under Herod Archelaus, thus placing the birth of Jesus of Nazareth in 6 or 7 AD.
How December 25 was chosen as the day for Nativity
Roman Pagan festival Saturnalia.
“The Nativity” derives its name from the Latin word for the event, Nativitas or Natalis (which means “relating to birth”). While the feast of the Nativity of Jesus has been going strong since at least the 3rd century, there is no universally agreed-upon date for doing so throughout all of Christianity due to the fact that the date is not explicitly stated in the Gospels and has no historical value.
Today, the Nativity is still celebrated on the date of December 25 because the date was chosen as the feast of the Incarnation by Pope Liberius of Rome in the 4th century for symbolic reasons. Since Christmas is pretty much the rehashing of ancient Pagan celebrations, the date of December 25 was also chosen for Christmas Day for the sake of weakening the Pagan celebrations.
The date was a convenient astrological sign as well. Because the winter solstice (the real basis of many end-of-year celebrations like Christmas) usually occurs in late December.
Just like the Nativity, many faiths use this date to celebrate the triumph of life (light) over death (darkness). The Roman Pagans celebrated Saturnalia (the feast of the god Saturn) on this date; Mithra worshippers celebrated Mithragan (the day of the birth of Mithra) on the same day; Sol Invictus (the “Undefeated Sun”), a solar deity combining aspects of Apollo and Mithra, was born on this day; and the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah (commemorating the re-inauguration of the Temple in Jerusalem) also falls at a near date.
Therefore, the 25th of December is a day with the common symbolism of the winter solstice, utilized by different faiths, including Paganism, throughout history. In 425, during his reign, Emperor Theodosius II established the day of the Nativity. Gradually, the Feast of the Nativity gained prominence. Around the end of the 5th century, Clovis was baptized on Nativity Day; in 506, the Council of Agde declared the Nativity a legal holiday; and in 529, Emperor Justinian declared the Nativity a day of rest.
The first Nativity scene was created by Francis of Assisi
St. Francis of Assisi, in 1223, at Greccio, Italy, arranged a live Nativity scene (with “the faithful” playing the roles) that looks to be the first known example of the term “Nativity scene” as we know it today. Miniature Nativity scenes, like the ones that are popular now, originated in the 16th century, when they were promoted by the Jesuits.
Finally, Christians give presents on December 6 in honor of Saint Nicholas, the patron saint of children, or on the Epiphany, when they remember the gifts the Magi gave to the infant Jesus. The traditional holiday for exchanging presents during the Feast of the Nativity of Mary again varies throughout time and space. But the presents are often handed out on December 25.
Origins of the customs associated with the Nativity
A number of customs dating back to the early Christian period accompany the feast of the Nativity. First, there is the liturgical season of Advent, which consists of the four Sundays immediately before the Nativity of Mary (and also Christmas). Christians traditionally burn an Advent candle on each Sunday leading up to the Nativity of Mary to represent the light that will be born again on that day.
The same candle tradition appears in the Pagan Saturnalia festival in ancient Rome, which occurs at the same time of year. Again, Christmas gift-giving is reminiscent of the ancient Roman practice of presenting sigillaria.
Moving on, one of the most important Christian holidays, after Easter, is the celebration of Christ’s birth at Midnight Mass on December 24, which is seldom conducted on this day. Because the traditional Christmas Eve celebration with loved ones comes too close to the day of Midnight Mass.
During the Nativity season, it is customary for religious Christians to display a miniature replica of a cave or stable in their homes, complete with figurines depicting Mary, Joseph, and the infant Jesus. This is called the Nativity scene. Traditional crib decorations sometimes include a shepherd tending to his flock of sheep to depict the first visitors to the baby Jesus following the angel’s message (angels are sometimes also present around the nativity crib).
However, the donkey and ox that breathed heat into the baby are not recounted in detail in any of the four gospels that are considered canonical. Evidence for them may be found in the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, a late apocryphal document dating back to at least the 6th century.
According to the story, after giving birth in a cave, Mary took Jesus to a stable, where the animals greeted him by submitting to their lord’s care on their knees, echoing a verse from Isaiah: “The ox knows its master, the donkey its owner’s manger.” (Isaiah 1:3) While the donkey and ox were banned from the Nativity scene by the Council of Trent in the 16th century, they have since become a part of the popular Nativity custom. The existence of a Nativity scene in the four gospels, which are considered canonical, implies the presence of domestic animals.
