The concept of hubris, also known as hybris or ubris (in ancient Greek: ὕϐρις / húbris), is a Greek notion most commonly translated as “excessive pride” or “hybris.” It refers to a behavior or intense emotion driven by passions, especially pride and arrogance, as well as an excess of power and the dizziness that arises from excessive success. The Greeks contrasted it with temperance and moderation, which involve self-awareness and an understanding of one’s limitations.
In ancient Greece, from a legal standpoint, Hubris referred to a violent transgressive act considered a crime. This concept covered violations such as assault, sexual aggression, and the theft of public or sacred property. Two well-known examples are the speeches of Demosthenes, Against Midias and Against Conon, which were pleas dealing with public accusations of “outrages” (γραφὴ ὕβρεως / graphḕ húbreōs). Philosophically and morally, it represents the temptation of excess or reckless folly in humans, tempted to rival the gods. In Greek mythology, such actions often led to severe punishments inflicted by the gods.
Mythology
In Greek mythology, Hybris is an allegorical deity personifying hubris. According to Aeschylus, her mother is Dyssebeia (Impropriety), while Hyginus places her among the children of Night and Erebus.
In Aesop’s fable “The War and His Bride,” recounted by Babrius and indexed as 367 in Perry’s Index, it tells how Polémos, personification of War, drew Hybris as his wife in a marriage lottery. He loves her so much that they are now inseparable. Babrius warns, “Let Hybris never come among the nations or cities of men, finding favor with the crowd, for after her, War will be at hand.”
Some manuscripts of the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus mention her amorous involvement with Zeus, making her the mother of the god Pan. However, this may result from a misreading of the name of the Arcadian nymph Thymbris. More commonly, Pindar attributes Hybris’s son to Coros, the god personifying Satiety.
Hybris is accompanied by Anaideia, personification of lack of pity and mercy.
The Nature of Hubris
The ancient Greek religion lacked the concept of sin as conceived in Christianity. Indeed, the Greeks did not envision that a god would be concerned with what they thought in the secrecy of their souls: “No teaching, no doctrine capable of giving this affective participation of a moment enough cohesion, consistency, and duration to direct it towards a religion of the soul.”
Nevertheless, hubris remains the fundamental fault in this civilization. It is related to the notion of moira, a Greek term meaning, among other things, “destiny.” The ancients conceived destiny in terms of a division. Destiny is the lot—the share of happiness or misfortune, fortune or misfortune, life or death—that falls to each individual based on their social rank, relationships with gods, and fellow humans. The person who commits hubris is guilty of desiring more than the share allocated to them by destiny’s division. Excess refers to the desire for more than what the just measure of destiny has assigned.
The punishment for hubris, by the gods, is nemesis, which forces the individual to retract within the limits they have exceeded. Herodotus makes this clear in a significant passage:
“Look at animals that are exceptionally large: the sky strikes them with lightning and does not let them enjoy their superiority; but the small ones do not provoke its jealousy. Look at the tallest houses and the trees too: lightning descends upon them, for the sky always lowers what exceeds the measure.”
If hubris is the wrongful movement of exceeding the limit, nemesis signifies the opposite movement of vengeful retraction. Hubris is not limited to characters from mythology, the realm of imagination, or tragic heroes; it was also the fault of real individuals. Socrates accuses Alcibiades of it in Plato’s writings, and Plato discusses it in “The Symposium,” where hubris is considered a characteristic flaw of youth. In Homer’s archaic social organization, when there is a murder, the family or close associates of the deceased personally pursue the accused.
However, the accused can involve their clan and request the abandonment of charges by paying a ransom known as the “blood price.” In his treatise “Laws,” Theophrastus mentions two types of justice altars in Athens: Altars of Vengeance and Altars of Injury, essentially untailored stones serving as platforms in front of the Areopagus. The accuser’s altar was called the “stone of implacability” (ἀναιδεία / anaideía), meaning that of unyielding vengeance that refuses to accept the blood price (αἰδεῖσθαι / aideîsthai, “to have pity”). The accused’s altar was called the “stone of hubris,” meaning the pride that leads to crime.
Literature and Morality
Mythology is replete with tales featuring characters punished for their hubris towards the gods, seen as undue divinization. Figures like Tantalus, Minos, Atreus, and others are all cursed for this reason. In Hesiod’s “Works and Days,” the various races of men (bronze, iron, etc.) that succeed each other are likewise condemned for their hubris. In a sense, Agamemnon’s transgression in the first book of the Iliad can be considered hubris, as he deprives Achilles of the rightful share of booty that should rightfully be his.
In this excerpt from Aristotle, hubris is translated as “outrage”:
“V. He who outrages despises. Indeed, outrage is the act of mistreating and afflicting concerning circumstances that cause shame to the victim, not for the purpose of obtaining something else but to derive enjoyment from it. Those who seek revenge do not commit an outrage but an act of vengeance.
VI. The cause of the pleasure felt by those who commit outrages is that they believe they gain an additional advantage over those they harm.
That’s why young people and the wealthy tend towards insolence. They think their insults give them superiority. Linked to outrage is the act of dishonoring, for one who dishonors despises, and what has no value is not subject to any estimation, neither good nor bad. Hence Achilles’ angry words: ‘He has dishonored me, for by taking her (Briseis) he has stolen the honor that was mine,’ and this one: ‘Like a base outcast…’ These expressions provoke his anger.”
Hubris is often seen as the hamartia (ἁμαρτία / hamartía, “error,” i.e., folly) of characters in Greek tragedies and the cause of the nemesis that befalls them. Albert Camus illustrates this clearly regarding Xerxes in his essay “The Rebel”: “The Ancients, if they believed in fate, believed first in nature, in which they participated. To rebel against nature is to rebel against oneself. […] The height of excess for a Greek is to flog the sea, the folly of a barbarian. The Greeks depict excess, acknowledging its existence, but they assign it its place and thereby a limit.
” However, tragedies represent only a small portion of hubris in Greek literature, and generally, hubris occurs through interactions among mortals. Consequently, it is commonly accepted that the Greeks did not view hubris religiously and even less so as something typically punished by the gods.
The concept of hubris as a fault shapes the Greeks’ morality as one of moderation, temperance, and sobriety, following the maxim pan metron (in ancient Greek: πᾶν μέτρον, literally meaning “measure in everything,” i.e., “never too much” and “always enough”). Humans must remain aware of their place in the universe, considering both their social rank in a hierarchical society and their mortality in the face of immortal gods.
Other Related Myths
The myth of Prometheus
The myth of Icarus
The myth of Lucifer
The myth of Bellerophon
The myth of Arachne
The myth of Niobe
Myths related to the underworld: Tantalus and Sisyphus
The myth of Oedipus
The myth of Iblis
The myth of the Golem
The myth of Laomedon, king of Troy
The myth of Babylon
Modern Usage
In French media, this term is often used to refer to the excessive pride of a leader (political or otherwise). According to historian Vincent Azoulay, this trend may stem from its widespread use in the Anglo-Saxon press for many years.
The sea serpent, a legendary sea creature resembling a land snake, is one of the main subjects of interest in cryptozoology. Reports of alleged sea serpent sightings come from various parts of the world and different times (these creatures were said to have been seen for hundreds of years). In his latest work, Bruce Champagne estimates that over 1200 individuals have reported their sightings. Sea serpents were claimed to be seen from the decks of ships as well as from the shores. Observers included both individuals and groups, among which sometimes were scientists. Despite numerous reports, there is a lack of physical evidence for the existence of these animals. Their presence has not been officially confirmed and is regarded by science as one of the maritime legends.
The most famous depictions of sea serpents come from engravings in the works of 16th, 17th, and 18th-century researchers such as Olaus Magnus, Erik Pontoppidan, and Hans Egede. In their time, almost everyone was convinced of the existence of sea serpents, and elaborate illustrations of these creatures adorned most maritime maps. However, science did not confirm their existence, yet many people still maintained that these animals inhabit the seas and oceans.
Particularly well-known were cases of the so-called Gloucester sea serpent or Caddy. Reports of alleged sea serpent observations from the decks of HMS “Daedalus,” HMS “Plumper,” or “Avalanche” were also notable. The first scientific publication dedicated to these alleged creatures was authored by Anthonid Cornelis Oudemans in 1893. Subsequently, others like Bernard Heuvelmans, Loren Coleman, and Patrick Huyghe followed suit. There were also a few purported photographic pieces of evidence for the existence of sea serpents. However, their authenticity was questioned by experts.
Earliest Sea Serpent Reports
The Arabian Nights, illustrated by Virginia Frances Sterrett, 1928.
In Norse mythology, Jormungand or Midgårdsorm was a sea serpent so long that its body encircled the entire world, Midgard. Some maritime tales described instances where sailors mistook its back for a chain of islands. Sea serpents also frequently appeared in Scandinavian folklore, especially Norwegian.
In 1520, Catholic Archbishop of Trondheim, Erik Walkendorf, wrote a letter to Pope Leo X describing sea serpents.
The smallest of them is 60 feet long and 10 feet thick. The square head is longer than the body. They are gray and only seen when the air is clear and the sea is calm; they are vile creatures that kill humans.
In the 16th-century work of Swedish clergyman and writer Olaus Magnus, titled Carta Marina, information about many maritime monsters, including sea serpents, is presented. Furthermore, in his 1555 work, History of the Northern Peoples, Magnus included the following description of a Norwegian sea serpent:
Those who sail to the coast of Norway for trade or fishing tell incredible stories of a snake of terrifying proportions, 200 feet long and 20 feet wide, dwelling in crevices and caves near Bergen. In bright summer nights, this serpent leaves its caves to devour calves, lambs, and pigs or ventures into the sea, feasting on maritime nettles, crabs, and similar marine creatures. It has long hair hanging from its neck, sharp black scales, and fiery red eyes. It attacks ships, seizes people, and swallows them, rising from the water like a column.
Lutheran missionary Hans Egede, in his book Det gamle Groenlands nye Perlustration eller Natural Historie from 1746, wrote about a sea serpent:
…a terrifying sea monster… that was seen in 1734 beyond the colony. It was a colossal creature: its head was a yard long and protruded from the water. The body was as wide as a ship and three to four times longer than its width. It had a pointed snout and blew like a whale. It had large, wide limbs, and its body appeared to be covered in scales, with very tough skin. The overall shape was serpentine. When it submerged, it surged back, and then raised its tail above the surface for the length of a ship.
Erik Pontoppidan, Bishop of Bergen, popularized tales of the Norwegian sea serpent in the 1750s. In two volumes of “A Natural History of Norway,” he included many descriptions of this legendary creature. He claimed to have received data directly from fishermen and merchants – people who allegedly saw the creature with their own eyes. Pontoppidan describes in one chapter a sea serpent, which he calls serpens marinus or Aale-tust:
I was among those who doubted the reality and existence of the sea serpent, but in the end, my doubts were dispelled by solid evidence. (…) Hundreds of our best sailors and fishermen saw the sea serpent with their own eyes. I met many people from our fjords in the north; they were able to answer my questions, and their descriptions of the creature were the same. (…) I must assure you of the truth of the existence of this serpent before I begin to describe it. This marine creature resides in the depths, except for July and August, which are sometimes its playtime. It emerges when the sea is deadly calm but submerges as soon as the slightest disturbance appears on the surface.
Pontopiddan described several encounters with the alleged sea serpent. In 1745, north of Bergen, a fisherman reportedly noticed a long creature floating close to his boat. The creature had a head resembling a seal’s and a thin body the length of the boat. Another account dates back to around 1750. Another fisherman supposedly observed the monster from such a close distance that he could touch it. Pontoppidan also speculated that sea serpents might not be related to land snakes at all. In his opinion, these creatures could be representatives of entirely different types or species. Another clergyman, Knut Leem, who dealt with the Lappish language, in his 1767 book titled “Description of the Sami People in Finnmark” wrote:
The sea serpent known from the southern coasts is also seen in Finnmark, a terrifying sea monster, like the Kraken. It is about 240 feet long, with black eyes and a head the size of a whale but shaped like a snake. Its neck is narrower than the body and has long, light green hair hanging on both sides of the neck, similar to a horse’s mane. The back is also light green, but the belly is rather whitish. It is often seen in calm weather, its spiral body partially floating above the water, partly hidden in it. People fear this dreadful sea creature and should keep away from it if possible.
Sea Serpents in Later Times
Cover of the pulp magazine Amazing Stories (June 1926, vol. 1, no. 3).
Gloucester Sea Serpent
One of the most well-known alleged sea serpents is the so-called Gloucester Sea Serpent. It is said to appear in the Atlantic Bay of Gloucester, north of Boston, and off the coast of New England. The first reports of encounters with this creature date back to the 17th century. In 1641, Obadiah Turner described such a creature. According to his account, witnesses saw the most magnificent serpent near Lynn, Massachusetts. The alleged monster was about 88 feet long.
The first mention of the sea serpent that appeared in print comes from John Josselyn’s work titled “An Account of Two Voyages to New England” from 1674, in which he described conversations with residents of the colonies around Massachusetts Bay. They mentioned a creature sunning itself on a rock at Cape Ann.
In 1779, during the American Revolutionary War, the crew of the American ship “Protector” reportedly encountered a sea serpent, which they fired upon. According to reports, the creature escaped without visible injuries. Another account from 1780 comes from Captain George Little of the frigate “Boston,” who allegedly encountered a strange creature in Broad Bay, off the coast of Maine. He described the encounter as follows:
At daybreak, I discovered a large serpent or monster, emerging from the bay, on the surface of the water. (…) I went into the boat and followed the serpent. When I was a hundred feet away from it, the sailors were ordered to shoot at it, but before they were ready to do so, the serpent dived. It was no more than 45-50 feet long; the widest diameter of its body, I think, was 15 inches; its head was almost human-sized, held 4 to 5 feet above the water. It resembled a common black snake.
In August 1817, two men reported an encounter with a sea serpent. Around the same time, Amos Story’s wife observed an object through a telescope, initially mistaking it for a floating tree trunk. When she looked again a few moments later, the supposed trunk had disappeared. During the same period, Mary Row claimed to have seen a monster approximately 330 feet long with a head resembling that of a horse. On the same day, Amos Story himself witnessed the alleged sea serpent:
Its head seemed to be of a shape very much like that of a sea turtle, raising it ten to twenty inches above the water’s surface. Its head, from that distance, appeared larger than the head of any dog I have ever seen. From the back of the head to the next visible part of the body, which I estimate, was three or four feet in length. It moved very rapidly in the water, I would say a mile or two at most, in three minutes.
In the same year, on August 12, sailor Solomon Allen III also claimed to have seen a strange creature. According to his account, the sea serpent had a head similar to a rattlesnake but the size of a horse’s. Allen stated that the creature moved in a chaotic manner, sometimes winding on the water’s surface and sometimes swimming straight. Two days later, another sailor, Matthew Gaffney, claimed to have shot the sea serpent.
According to his account, he aimed at the creature’s head, which, when wounded, began to swim towards the ship. However, just before the boat’s side, the creature dove and emerged again at a considerable distance from the vessel. Gaffney mentioned that the sea serpent’s body reminded him of a caterpillar, as it was divided into barrel-like segments.
The Gloucester Sea Serpent case gained such notoriety that in 1817, the Linnean Society of London, specializing in the taxonomy of newly discovered species, decided to investigate. On August 18, the creature was given the Latin name Scolophius atlanticus. The basis for this was the discovery of a deformed land snake, which the Society members considered to be a juvenile form of a large sea creature. When the true nature of this finding came to light, researchers became the subject of widespread mockery.
William Crafts even wrote a play titled “The Sea Serpent; or, Gloucester Hoax: a Dramatic jeu d’esprit in Three Acts.” For many, these events became evidence that the entire Gloucester Sea Serpent affair was nothing more than a common hoax. However, new reports of encounters with the alleged monster continued to emerge. Soon after, on August 14, 1819, Samuel Cabot claimed to have seen a creature about 78 feet long with a head resembling a snake’s head off the northeastern coast of Massachusetts.
In 1912, the Gloucester Daily Times reported in an article titled “The Sea Serpent is No More: Killing the Legendary Animal” that the monster had become entangled in the nets of the Boston fishing steamer “Philomena.” After its destruction, the creature was said to attack the ship. According to the press account, sailors from the “Philomena” and two other assisting vessels, the “Victor” and “Ethel,” killed the sea serpent after two hours of struggle. Its body, 50-65 feet long, was said to sink into the ocean depths.
Another article from Gloucester Times dated June 12, 1912, titled “Sea Serpent Seen Near Thatchers,” describes the observation of a sea serpent by the crew of the ship “Flora,” commanded by Captain George Brooks. The sailors claimed to see only part of the creature’s body, about 25 feet long.
From the 19th century, there are many reports of alleged Gloucester Sea Serpent encounters. For example, in 1817, there were 18 reports of supposed sightings; in 1839, 12; in 1875, 9; and in 1886, 13. Over a hundred years, approximately 190 reports were recorded. In the 20th century, such reports became noticeably rarer – 56, with the majority occurring before 1950.
Sea Serpent, Maelstrom, Carta Marina.
One of the last accounts is from May 4, 1997, when two fishermen, Charles Bungay and C. Clarke, were fishing in Fortune Bay, located on the southern coast of Newfoundland. At one point, they saw something they mistook for bags of garbage floating on the water’s surface. They decided to pull it aboard, only to realize it was a living creature that raised its head and stared at them. They estimated the length of the creature’s neck to be almost 6.5 feet, and its head reminded them of a horse. According to the fishermen’s account, the creature looked at them and submerged underwater.
There is a lack of more credible reports of encounters with the alleged creature in the last 20 years. Supporters of its existence argue that the Gloucester Sea Serpent most likely became extinct or moved elsewhere.
Caddy
Another well-known case of a supposed sea serpent is Caddy, a creature said to appear in the Canadian Cadboro Bay (hence the name, also proposed as the Latin name Cadborosaurus willsi) in British Columbia. It is typically described as an elongated creature with fins and a crest on its back. A distinctive feature of Caddy is said to be its head, resembling that of a camel. Witnesses usually estimate the length of the creature to be between 40-65 feet. According to Edward Bousfield and Paul LeBlond, between 1881 and 1994, 178 observations of this supposed sea serpent were recorded.
Cryptozoologists are intrigued by the frequency of encounters with Caddy and the precision and coherence of the reports about observing this creature. In many cases, multiple individuals claim to have seen the same creature, sometimes several dozen people. One report from October 26, 1895, describes an encounter in Bellingham Bay where Caddy was seen by 17 people simultaneously. Another observation reportedly occurred in 1933 when two individuals observed a terrifying creature with a camel-like head from their yacht. In 1934, two government officials claimed to have seen two monsters each measuring 65 feet in length.
Several times, remains believed to be from Caddy were found. In October 1937, in Vancouver, the stomach of a killed sperm whale contained a 20-foot body of an unknown creature. It had a cylindrical shape, a head resembling a camel, and a tail with a fin. A photograph of this carcass was taken, but what happened to it afterward is unknown.
Scientists have been unable to identify the remains visible in the photograph. Similar cases occurred in 1936 (the Fircom carcass) and in 1947 (the Effingham carcass, now considered the remains of a basking shark).
In 1939, Captain Paul Sowerby claimed to have encountered Caddy at sea:
“We were heading north, and about thirty miles off the shore, we saw this thing sticking about four feet out of the water. So, I went down to it and looked at it. At first, it looked like a polar bear with shaggy hair. When we had it on our starboard — and the water was as clear as crystal — it looked like a column submerging at least forty feet and with huge eyes. I had an old Newfoundlander as a mate who said, ‘Do you see those big eyes?’ I didn’t notice the snout and nose, just those big eyes.”
Most Caddy observations are relatively well-documented. For instance, on February 13, 1953, ten people claimed to have seen it from various angles, and their accounts were consistent. In the 1980s, the number of reports decreased, but Caddy is allegedly still spotted to this day. In the 1980s and 1990s, oceanographer Paul LeBlond from the University of British Columbia and marine biologist Edward Bousfield from the Royal British Columbia Museum conducted research on this phenomenon. According to them, Caddy must be an unidentified marine mammal.
Alleged Sea Serpent Encounters
Apart from the American Atlantic coast, sea serpents have purportedly been observed in many other locations. Reports of encounters with these creatures differ from alleged observations of other unknown animals not only in the high number of such reports but also in the fact that many were conducted by several people simultaneously for an extended period. Instead of one or a few witnesses claiming to have seen the creature for a moment, some observations include reports from dozens of people who claim to have observed sea serpents for several hours. In many cases, these observations are well-documented and have been considered more than just ordinary maritime legends. However, most of them occurred at a time when photographic documentation was challenging or outright impossible.
HMS “Daedalus”
On August 6, 1848, the frigate HMS “Daedalus” was en route to St. Helena. Near the Cape of Good Hope, Captain Peter McQuahe and the crew claimed to have seen an enormous sea serpent. According to their account, the creature swam parallel to the ship, with its head raised four feet above the water’s surface. The sailors estimated that beneath the head, there was a body about 20-foot long. The sea serpent swam so close to the “Daedalus” that the witnesses could examine it closely. They described it as having a brown color on the back, but yellowish-white on the throat and belly. The creature accompanied the vessel for about 20 minutes. The sailors also claimed to have noticed something like a mane on the serpent’s back. The incident gained considerable attention in the mid-19th century, even catching the interest of the London Times, which dedicated a significant article to the event.
Around the same time, biologist Sir Richard Owen also investigated the matter and concluded that the “Daedalus” crew members did not see an unknown scientific creature but encountered a sea elephant on their way. Owen argued that reports from individuals without zoological education were unreliable. According to him, sailors had never seen a massive sea elephant swimming in the open sea, so they mistook it for an unknown creature. Owen assessed the credibility of sea serpent reports on par with accounts of ghost encounters. The Times published his article, and McQuahe later responded on the same pages, maintaining his previous description of the sea serpent and denying that it could be a sea elephant, optical illusion, or any other explanation.
HMS “Plumper”
Another case of a supposed sea serpent encounter was described in the Illustrated London News on April 10, 1849. It recounted events allegedly occurring a year earlier in the North Atlantic when the HMS “Plumper” encountered a sea monster resembling a serpent on its course. A naval officer described the supposed creature as follows:
“Being west of Oporto (Portugal), I saw a long, black creature with a sharply pointed head, moving slowly. I think about two knots, northwest, at that time there was a light fresh breeze. I could not determine its exact length, but its back protruded about twenty feet above the water’s surface, and its head, as far as I could judge, from six to eight…”
Richard Ellis, author of the book “The Search for the Giant Squid,” suggested that, in his opinion, the crew of the HMS “Plumper” encountered a giant squid. He pointed out the lack of a description of the creature’s snout and eyes, as well as the peculiar shape in the illustration from the Illustrated London News.
“Avalanche”
The Courrier d’Häiphong newspaper on March 5, 1898, described events that supposedly took place in July 1897. The French gunboat “Avalanche” was patrolling Hạ Long Bay in French Indochina at that time. Commanded by Captain Lagrésille, the unit allegedly encountered two sea serpents with small heads, about 65-foot in length and 6.5-10 feet in thickness. The crew observed that both creatures moved in the water by bending their bodies vertically (like marine mammals) rather than horizontally (like reptiles). The alleged sea serpents were about 2000 feet away from the ship, but despite the distance, the captain decided to pursue them.
He ordered the crew to shoot at the strange creatures, but the onboard marksmen missed, and the creatures disappeared beneath the water, hissing loudly and leaving a disturbance on the surface resembling a sea boil. It was not the only observation reported by the “Avalanche” crew. On February 15, 1898, in the waters of Vinh Bái Tử Long Bay, the ship supposedly encountered two sea serpents again. The captain directed the ship straight toward the creatures, and two shots were fired from a distance of 1000-1300 feet. One of the creatures dived underwater, while the other was allegedly pursued by the ship for two and a half hours.
This creature is approximately 100 feet long, has dark and smooth skin, black fins, and each emergence is preceded by a splashing stream of water caused by rapid breathing.
When it submerges, its trail can be followed due to whirlpools of water with a diameter of 13-16 feet, created by vertical undulating movements. The creature’s head resembles a seal’s head but is twice as large, and along its back, there are ridges resembling saw teeth.
On February 26, Captain Lagrésille hosted Commander Joannet and nine officers from the battleship “Bayard” on board his ship. When he told them about the extraordinary events from two weeks earlier, he was ridiculed. At the same time, the gunboat was again passing through Vinh Bái Tử Long, and the strange creatures were said to appear once more. The “Avalanche” allegedly chased the sea serpent again, this time for over 35 minutes. The officers on board, from a distance of about 655 feet, were said to watch the monster. Two of them had cameras, but they failed to prepare the equipment before the creature disappeared.
“Valhalla”
Poster for the film The Saga of the Viking Women and Their Voyage to the Waters of the Great Sea Serpent also known as Viking Women and the Sea Serpent (1957).
Another alleged observation took place in 1905 off the coast of Brazil. On December 7, around 10:15, the oceanographic yacht “Valhalla” supposedly encountered a strange creature. Onboard were two scientists, Michael J. Nicoll and E. G. B. Meade-Waldo, from whom the account of the encounter with the sea creature originates. According to their story, a dorsal fin about 6.5 feet long emerged from the water, rising two feet above the surface. At one point, the long neck of a large creature also surfaced. It was reportedly as thick as a human body, ending with a head resembling a turtle’s. The creature moved its neck from side to side in a very specific way. Based on this account, cryptozoologist Bernard Heuvelmans concluded that the yacht likely encountered an unidentified marine mammal.
Three days after the alleged encounter of the “Valhalla” crew with the sea serpent, the merchant ship “Happy Warrior” supposedly encountered a similar creature. Described as several times longer than the ship, the creature had a long neck and allegedly moved at a speed of about 6 knots. The “Happy Warrior” was said to encounter the monster less than 80 miles from the location where scientists from the “Valhalla” allegedly observed the creature.
Other Cases
In 1876, in the Strait of Malacca, the British steamer “Nestor” supposedly encountered a strange creature of astonishing length, about 210 feet. Three-quarters of this length were said to be the tail of the sea serpent. A similar report comes from December 30, 1947, when the passenger ship “Santa Clara” allegedly collided with an eel-like creature near the coast of North Carolina. As a result of this collision, a 50-foot creature perished. In 1969, the French-flagged merchant ship “Saint-François-Xavier” reportedly killed a large creature with a long, ringed body using its propeller. The creature had a large dorsal fin on its back.
Photographic Evidence Sea Serpent
Several alleged observers of sea serpents have managed to capture more or less distinct photos purporting to depict these creatures.
On September 12, 1964, Robert Le Serrec claimed to encounter a sea serpent resembling a giant tadpole in the shallow waters of Stonehaven Bay, located on Hook Island off the coast of the Australian state of Queensland. According to his account, he was in a small boat with his family and friend Henk de Jong when his wife spotted a dark object beneath the water’s surface. As they approached, they purportedly realized it was a large creature resembling a giant tadpole with a long, thin tail. According to the story, the creature remained motionless, possibly due to a longitudinal wound on its back.
Le Serrec had a camera and a film camera, so he took pictures of the creature. At one point, the monster allegedly started moving and swam away, bending in a manner characteristic of fish and reptiles—horizontally. Witnesses described the creature as dark-colored, with a sizable head featuring visible eyes and a wide mouth. It was estimated to be around 80 feet long. However, Le Serrec’s photos are widely considered fraudulent. Experts who examined them concluded that the placement of the creature’s eyes was anatomically impossible. The film he shot was also deemed unreliable, very blurry, and distorted.
Additionally, Le Serrec’s credibility is questionable. In 1959, he was accused of offering money to several individuals in exchange for fabricating a supposed sea serpent observation.
Other photos purportedly depict a large unknown marine creature, specifically the so-called Morgawr (Cornish for sea giant), said to appear in Falmouth Bay, Cornwall. In February 1976, the Falmouth Packet magazine received a letter signed “Mary F.,” accompanied by two photos claiming to show the alleged Morgawr. The letter described the creature as follows:
It looked like an elephant raising its trunk, but the trunk was a long neck with a small head at the end, like a snake. It had humps on its back that moved in a funny way… the creature frightened me. I wouldn’t want to get a closer look at it. I didn’t like the way it swam.
The identity of the mysterious “Mary F.” was never discovered, and the negatives of the alleged monster photos were never examined. Despite this, Janet and Colin Bord, researchers of mysterious phenomena, managed to analyze copies of the photographs, concluding that “it seems that these photos are original.”
Film Evidence
A video recording from May 31, 1982, allegedly showing a sea serpent, is another piece of evidence. The footage features a cylindrical object measuring 33-55 feet in length and approximately 12 feet in diameter. It was said to be filmed in Chesapeake Bay (bordering the states of Virginia and Maryland). In August 1982, seven scientists with various specializations, employed by the Smithsonian Institution’s complex of museums and research centers in Washington, analyzed the recording. In their summary report, George Zug from the National Museum of Natural History in Washington stated that the researchers could not identify the object, but it appeared to be animate.
Known Species
Skeptics question the authenticity of accounts of sea serpent encounters, suggesting that many alleged witnesses saw known species such as oarfish, whales (both whales and dolphins), known small sea snakes, eels, ribboned sharks, oarfish, Regalecidae fish, large cetaceans, or simply floating tree trunks, bird flocks, or giant squids.
Despite the majority of cryptozoologists acknowledging that some accounts may be observations of known animals, they point out that many descriptions do not resemble any recognized zoological creatures. However, skeptics remind us that human imagination can magnify even the most ordinary phenomena into extraordinary proportions.
Classifications
Supporters of the existence of sea serpents highlight the diversity of descriptions of alleged creatures. What skeptics consider evidence of the falsity of these stories, cryptozoologists see as evidence of the existence of at least several species of large unknown marine creatures. Several classifications of sea serpents and similar creatures have been proposed based on accounts from alleged witnesses.
Anthonid Cornelis Oudemans
In 1893, Dutch biologist Anthonid Cornelis Oudemans published the first scientific work dedicated to sea serpents—The Great Sea Serpent. In this publication, he described a creature that he gave the Latin name Megophias megophias. According to Oudemans, this creature had a long neck and tail, as well as four fin-like limbs. Only the male had a mane on its back. The scientist claimed that this species inhabited almost all the seas in the world. However, many cryptozoologists noted that Oudemans combined observations of various creatures, creating an image of an animal composed of encounters with different species.
Bernard Heuvelmans
In his 1961 book “In the Wake of the Sea Serpents,” which contains descriptions of 587 accounts of alleged sea serpent encounters (with 358 considered observations of unknown animals), Bernard Heuvelmans mentions the most famous attempt to create a typology of these creatures. He initiated this effort in 1954. Heuvelmans listed the following creatures:
Longneck, Megalotaria longicallis – reaching approximately 65 feet in length, featuring an elongated neck and a short tail, a type of sea lion. The blubber masses of its body may resemble small humps. Heuvelmans lists 82 observations of this hypothetical creature, with 48 considered certain. Longneck has a small head, resembling that of a dog or seal in its early years, later resembling a horse, camel, or giraffe. It also has very small eyes and often peculiar growths on the nostrils. Its four limbs are fin-like, similar to those of seals.
Sea Horse Olausa Magnus, Halshippus olai-magni – an elongated creature related to seals, with a head strongly resembling that of a horse. It also possesses a type of mane, very large eyes, and a wide mouth. Length ranging from 32 to 65 feet. There are 71 reported observations of this creature, with 37 considered certain.
Multi-humped, Plurigibbosus novae-angliae – possibly related to whales, having a series of humps on its back. Sometimes, just behind its moderately long neck, a fin appears (Heuvelmans claimed it might depend on sexual dimorphism). The tail is equipped with a horizontal fin like that of whales. The body length is 32-65 feet. There are 59 observations, with 33 considered certain.
Superotter, Hyperhydra egedei – a giant-sized marine otter with a highly flexible, elongated body. Approximately 65-100 feet. There are 28 observations, with 13 considered certain.
Multifinned, Cetiscolopendra aelani – a bizarre creature with an elongated body equipped with a series of appendages resembling fins. Additionally, it seems to have a segmented body and armor or plate-like scales. It also has a short neck, a wide muzzle, and nostrils covered with fur. It moves by bending its body vertically. Length ranges from 30 to 100 feet, with an average of 65-69 feet. There are 26 observations, with 20 considered certain.
Supereel – several species of fish: eels, lampreys, or even sharks. The elongated body gives the impression of a long neck with a small head at the end. Length varies from 30 to 100 feet. There are 23 observations, with 12 considered certain.
Sea Crocodile – a giant crocodile or another type of reptile. Equipped with an elongated snout with teeth and a long, strong tail. Moves by bending its body horizontally, similar to other marine reptiles. Length ranges from 50 to 65 feet. There are 9 observations, with 4 considered certain.
Yellow Belly – a giant creature shaped like a massive tadpole. Elongated and flattened body with a strong tail and a wide mouth. Brightly colored (yellow), with black vertical stripes on the sides and back. Length ranges from 65 to 100 feet. There are 9 observations, with 3 considered certain.
Father of All Turtles – a giant-sized sea turtle. Four reports, all poorly documented.
Great Invertebrates – a category added to Heuvelmans’ classification by other cryptozoologists.
Loren Coleman and Patrick Huyghe
The classification of sea serpents and lake monsters developed by cryptozoologists Loren Coleman and Patrick Huyghe in 2003 in the book “The Field Guide to Lake Monsters, Sea Serpents, and Other Mystery Denizens of the Deep.” It partially overlaps with Heuvelmans’ typology:
Classic Sea Serpent – a four-legged, elongated creature. When swimming, its back bends, forming “humps.” According to the authors, it most closely resembles the extinct Basilosaurus fossil whale.
Sea Horse – related to seals. Only males have manes, but according to Coleman and Huyghe, females have an appendage ending in nostrils. Seen in both salt and freshwater.
Mysterious Whale – a category encompassing unknown species of whales: baleen whales with double dorsal fins, sperm whales, dolphins, etc.
Great Shark – megalodon, a giant shark considered an extinct species.
Mysterious Manta – a manta ray with an unprecedented pattern on its back.
Great Sea Centipede – similar to Heuvelmans’ multifinned creature.
Mysterious Reptile – similar to Heuvelmans’ sea crocodile.
Turtle-Cryptid – similar to Heuvelmans’ Father of All Turtles.
Mysterious Mermaid – most likely surviving specimens of Steller’s sea cow.
Giant Octopus, Octopus giganteus or Otoctopus giganteus – a large-sized octopus inhabiting the tropical part of the Atlantic.
The creature called Imugi (螭龍) is an imaginary animal in Korean legends, representing a creature in its state before transforming into a dragon. It is believed that after spending a thousand years in cold water, it transforms into a dragon, ascends to the sky with thunder, and flies with the legendary Yeouiju. It is said that if someone witnesses Imugi ascending at that moment, Imugi will never ascend again. There is a proverb related to Imugi, describing someone as a “failed dragon,” metaphorically referring to a person full of mischief and lacking recognition, causing harm to others.
Various spellings such as Ishimi, Mili, Youngno, Gangcheol-i·Kangcheol-i·Kwangcheol-i (強鐵), Bari, Hwalyong (虺龍), and Iryong (螭龍) exist.
The Story of Imugi
According to the story of Kim Shimin handed down in Byeongcheon-myeon, Dongnam-gu, Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, the entrance of the current Baekjeon Village has a large Zelkova tree and Turtle Rock (龜岩). It is said to be the place where Kim Shimin shot a snake, known as Sasacheo (射蛇處). On the back of the rock, there is a plaque that reads ‘Kim Clan’s Residence, Baekjeondongcheon (金氏世居栢田洞天).’
Kim Shimin, who played a significant role during the Japanese invasions of Korea (the Imjin War), was intelligent and had a tall stature from a young age. As a result, he naturally enjoyed military games and always took on the role of commander. When Kim Shimin was eight years old, he and his friends were playing a military game by the roadside. At that moment, a procession of a nobleman passed by, and the attendants asked them to make way. Kim Shimin, without faltering, exclaimed, “Even if it’s a nobleman from the capital, I cannot let him pass without going through the military gate.” Observing this, the nobleman patted Kim Shimin’s head, saying, “A strong young lad,” and peacefully walked past.
There was also an unbelievable story when Kim Shimin was nine years old. The entrance to Baekjeon Village (present-day Gajeon-ri Sangbaek Village), where Kim Shimin lived, was near the winding Baekcheon Stream (present-day Byeongcheoncheon). There was a rock submerged in the water near Baekcheon Stream, and underneath it, there was a large cave. In the cave lived a large Imugi that frequently appeared, startling people and causing harm to livestock. Kim Shimin decided to drive away the Imugi. Reading a book, he learned that snakes can be caught with a bow made of mulberry wood and arrows tipped with mugwort.
Gathering the local children immediately, Kim Shimin armed them with mulberry wood bows and mugwort-tipped arrows, and they ran to Baekcheon Stream. Placing one of the children on top of a rock at the entrance of the village, they lured Imugi with its shadow. Some versions of the story even claim that they made the child’s shadow reflect in the water to entice Imugi. When Imugi revealed itself upon seeing the child’s shadow, Kim Shimin shot an arrow with mugwort onto Imugi’s belly, hitting its vital point and capturing it. It is said that Imugi’s blood stained Baekcheon Stream red for several days after this event.
Characteristics and Origin of Imugi
Imugi is a mythical creature in Korean mythology, resembling a snake. Numerous legends about this figure originate from various regions and periods in Korea.
Characteristics
Imugi is serpent-like, hornless, and a mythical chthonic (representing the underworld) creature. Its body can be long, reaching several tens of meters, covered with scales. It cannot fly unless it captures a Yeouiju, turning into a dragon through it. Yeouiju (여의주, 如意珠) is a pearl-like object that grants its possessor unlimited power, allowing them to create as they wish.
In some stories, Imugis are considered proto-dragons cursed to be unable to fully evolve into dragons.
Others suggest that they need to live in cold water for a thousand years to transform into a full-fledged dragon. Being a chthonic being, Imugi is often found in waters such as lakes, slow-flowing rivers, or caves. Generally benevolent and helpful, encountering an Imugi is considered a sign of good luck. Despite this, it can be cruel and malevolent in some myths, causing harm to humans.
There are different types of Imugi, one of which is named Kkangcheori (깡철이, Kkangcheori). This Imugi is capable of flying even without obtaining Yeouiju.
It is said to roam in the region of Kjongjangdo, causing droughts. Known for recklessly dealing with fire, it is often regarded as a troublemaker and an evil dragon.
Origin of the Name
The term “Imugi” can be traced back to the Samguk Yusa (삼국유사, 三國遺事; “Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms,” 1279), specifically the story of Imugi (or Imok) within the Pojang narrative. Imugi (이목, 璃目) is the son of the Dragon King of the Western Sea. In the legend, Pojang hides Imugi from the wrath of the Heavenly Lord and points to a pear tree when his envoy seeks him. Believing Imugi is there, the Heavenly Lord strikes the tree with lightning. The fall of the pear tree (이목, Imok) sounds the same as Imugi’s name, and according to oral tradition, the alternative name for a plum tree (이목, imok) also sounds the same.
Imugi Myths
Legend of Pojang
Set in the Silla and early Goryeo periods (10th century BCE), the story tells of Pojang (보양, 寶壤, Boyang), a monk from the Unmun Temple returning from China. The Dragon King of the Western Sea (Seohaeyongwang, 서해용왕, 西海龍王) gives him a golden silk robe and assigns his son Imugi to accompany Pojang, watching over his journey. One night, following Pojang’s command, Imugi brings rain. The Heavenly Emperor (Cheonje, 천제, 天帝) judges this as Imugi exceeding his allowed boundaries and attempts to kill him. Pojang hides Imugi under the veranda and points to a pear tree, which the Heavenly Lord, believing Imugi is present, strikes with lightning before leaving. Imugi is saved, and the destroyed pear tree is revived, thanks to the monk’s intervention.
Imugi often transforms into a dragon living in a lake, as discovered by a monk who followed him. During a severe drought, the monk requests that Imugi bring rain to prevent a poor harvest. Initially reluctant due to the fear of the Great Jade Emperor’s anger, Imugi agrees after the monk promises to help him escape the Jade Emperor’s fatal punishment. The monk hides Imugi under stone slabs, and when the Emperor’s envoy arrives, he points to a jujube tree, naming it Imugi. Thanks to the monk’s actions, Imugi survives, and instead of leaving the area, he continues to live in the lake, appearing as a friendly being willing to self-sacrifice to help humans.
Imjong Mountain Stone Piles
According to legend, a furious Imugi lived in a lake on Mount Imjong (이명산, 理明山, Yimyeongsan). To break its tyranny, villagers from the surrounding areas threw fire-burnt stones into the lake. The heated stones caused the lake to boil, prompting the Imugi to emerge and flee. Buddhist monks believe that the stone piles on the mountain’s peak consist of these stones that defeated the Imugi.
Sambuyeon Waterfalls
The legend of Sambujeonpokpho (삼부연폭포, 三釜淵瀑布, Sambuyeonpokpo) dates back to the late Three Kingdoms period during the reign of King Gung Ye (궁예왕, Gungyewang, 901-918) in Chollwon, Kangwon Province. Four Imugis lived in the area, engaging in moral and religious practices. Three of them transformed into dragons, cracking the rocks and creating three springs—Nogeutang, Sottang, and Gamatang. The fourth serpent missed the chance to become a dragon, occasionally withholding rain to torment people. During severe droughts, rain rituals were performed, and prayers for storms were offered near the three waterfalls.
Imugi in Mythology
Imugi is considered the king of all creatures living in freshwater, including lakes, ponds, and rivers. Particularly, any swimming creature falls under the dominion of Imugi. It is said that when a school of fish exceeds 2500 individuals, Imugi appears somewhere and becomes their king. However, from the perspective of the fish, Imugi is seen as a tyrant since it preys on them. If Imugi resides in a place like a fish farm, it is said to cause significant damage. Nevertheless, there was a belief that if Imugi grew up alongside a school of fish, for some unknown reason, Imugi would not appear.
The Imugi living underwater has a deep connection with water, similar to dragons. However, while dragons were considered powerful water deities capable of summoning rain, storms, lightning, hail, and clouds, Imugi was perceived to possess a much weaker ability, capable only of summoning clouds. Imugi was not seen as having control or management over water like dragons, and its presence was thought to prevent nearby springs from drying up.
On the other hand, there were frequent conflicts among Imugi over rights to lakes and other water bodies. Strong Imugi would dominate large and favorable lakes, while weaker ones had to settle for smaller ponds or rivers with fewer fish. As a result, weaker Imugi sometimes sought help from others in their battles.
The movie “D-War,” directed by Shim Hyung-rae, is based on the legend of Imugi.
Imugi is a major theme in the Naver webtoon “Please Make Me Pass,” where characters such as Bari, Mili, Youngno, Kwangcheol-i, and Ishimi use the alias of Imugi.
Imugi also makes an appearance in the webtoon “Mystic Apartment: Ghost Ball Double X – 6 Prophecies.”
Imugi is featured as a central theme in the novel “Gwihojeon.”
Moreover, Imugi appeared in the Thursday drama “Gumihojeon,” which aired from October 7, 2020.
Have you ever wondered how the world came to be, according to ancient Norse beliefs? What was there before the earth, the sky, the sea, and the gods? The answer is Ginnungagap, the vast and empty abyss that existed between the realms of fire and ice.
—> Details about Ginnungagap is found in both the Prose Edda and the Poetic Edda, two primary sources of Norse mythology. These texts, attributed to the Icelandic scholar Snorri Sturluson, contain detailed accounts of the Norse cosmogony.
Ginnungagap, which means “the gaping gap” or “the yawning void”, is the name given to the primordial space in Norse creation myth. It is described as a dark and silent place where nothing existed except the potential for life.
In Norse cosmology, there were nine worlds, each with its own inhabitants and characteristics. But before these worlds were formed, there were only two extreme realms: Niflheim, the land of mist and cold, and Muspelheim, the land of fire and heat. Ginnungagap, which extended from north to south, was the barrier separating these two realms.
The first sparks of creation happened when the cold winds from Niflheim met the hot sparks from Muspelheim in Ginnungagap. The clash of these opposite forces produced drops of melted ice, which formed the first living being: Ymir, the giant. Ymir was the ancestor of all the giants, who were the enemies of the gods. Ymir was also nourished by the milk of Auðumbla (Audhumla), the primeval cow, who licked the salty ice and revealed the first god: Buri, the father of Bor, who was the father of Odin, Vili, and Ve.
—> Ginnungagap is the cosmic void from which Yggdrasil, the world tree, emerges. Yggdrasil’s roots extend into Ginnungagap, connecting different realms and serving as a central axis of the Norse cosmos.
The three brothers, Odin, Vili, and Ve, decided to kill Ymir and use his body to create the world. They threw his flesh into Ginnungagap and made the earth; his blood became the sea; his bones became the mountains; his teeth became the rocks; his hair became the trees; and his skull became the sky. They also took sparks from Muspelheim and placed them in the sky to make the sun, the moon, and the stars.
They then created the first humans, Ask and Embla, from two pieces of wood and gave them the world of Midgard to live in.
Ginnungagap, therefore, was the origin of everything in Norse mythology. It was the source of life, but also of chaos and destruction. It was the place where the opposites met and created something new. It was also the place where the final battle, Ragnarök, would take place, when the giants and the gods would fight and destroy each other, and the world would end in fire and ice. But after Ragnarök, a new world would emerge from Ginnungagap, where the survivors would start a new cycle of life.
Muspelheim, also known as Muspell or Muspel, is a realm in Norse mythology associated with fire, heat, and the primordial forces of creation. It is one of the Nine Worlds and is often mentioned in the Prose Edda and Poetic Edda, two primary sources for Norse mythology.
Muspelheim: Key Takeaways
Muspelheim is often described as a realm of intense heat and flames. It is ruled by the fire giant Surtr, a powerful being associated with destruction and chaos.
Muspelheim is considered one of the oldest realms in Norse cosmology. It is said to have originated at the same time as Niflheim, the icy realm, and the void known as Ginnungagap.
Surtr is a prominent figure in Muspelheim and is foretold to play a significant role in the events of Ragnarok, the end of the world in Norse mythology. It is said that Surtr will lead the forces of Muspelheim to battle against the gods.
According to some Norse myths, Muspelheim, along with Niflheim, played a role in the creation of the world. The meeting of fire and ice from Muspelheim and Niflheim respectively gave rise to the being Ymir and the creation of the cosmos.
In addition to Surtr, Muspelheim is said to be inhabited by various fire giants, spirits, and supernatural beings associated with heat and flame.
The Origin of Muspelheim
According to the Prose Edda, written by the Icelandic scholar Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, Muspelheim was one of the two primordial worlds that existed before the creation of the universe. The other world was Niflheim, the land of ice and darkness, located in the north. Between them was a vast emptiness called Ginnungagap, where nothing lived.
In the beginning, sparks and flames from Muspelheim flew across Ginnungagap and melted the ice from Niflheim, creating water droplets. From these droplets emerged the first living being, the giant Ymir, and the cow Auðumbla (Audhumla), who nourished him with her milk. Auðumbla licked the ice and revealed another being, Búri, the ancestor of the gods. Búri had a son named Borr (Bor), who married Bestla, the daughter of a frost giant. They had three sons: Odin, Vili, and Ve, who became the first gods.
The gods killed Ymir and used his body to create the world. His flesh became the earth, his blood became the sea, his bones became the mountains, his teeth became the rocks, his hair became the plants, and his skull became the sky. The gods also used the sparks from Muspelheim to create the heavenly bodies, such as the sun, the moon, and the stars.
The Inhabitants of Muspelheim
Muspelheim is the domain of the fire giants, also known as the sons of Muspell. They are fierce and destructive beings who oppose the gods and the other races of the nine worlds. They are ruled by Surtr, the black one, who wields a sword that shines brighter than the sun.
Surtr is the oldest and most powerful of the fire giants, and he guards the border of Muspelheim against any intruders.
Another notable inhabitant of Muspelheim is Logi (Hálogi), the personification of fire. He is the brother of Kári, the god of the wind, and Aegir, the god of the sea. He once competed with Loki, the trickster god, in a contest of eating. Logi devoured not only the meat but also the bones, the plates, and the table, proving his superiority over Loki.
Muspelheim is primarily inhabited by the fire giants, and the most notable figure associated with this realm is Surt, a powerful and fire-wielding giant.
The Role of Muspelheim in Ragnarok
Muspelheim plays a crucial role in Ragnarok, the final battle between the gods and the giants, and the end of the world as we know it. According to the Poetic Edda, a collection of Old Norse poems from the 10th to 13th centuries, Muspelheim will be the source of the fire that will consume everything.
Before Ragnarok, a series of disasters will occur, such as wars, famines, plagues, and natural calamities. The sun and the moon will be devoured by the wolves Sköll and Hati, and the stars will disappear from the sky. The earth will shake and the mountains will crumble, releasing the monsters that were imprisoned by the gods, such as the Midgard serpent (Jörmungandr), the Fenrir wolf, and the Hel goddess. The rainbow bridge, Bifrost, that connects Asgard, the home of the gods, and Midgard, the home of the humans, will break, and the forces of chaos will invade the world.
Among them will be the army of the fire giants, led by Surtr. They will march across Bifrost and reach the plain of Vígríðr, where the final battle will take place. Surtr will confront Freyr, the god of fertility and prosperity, who will have given away his magical sword to his servant Skírnir. Freyr will fight valiantly, but he will be slain by Surtr. Surtr will then swing his sword and set the world on fire, burning everything to ashes.
After the destruction, a new world will emerge from the ruins, and life will begin again. Some of the gods and the humans will survive the cataclysm, and they will live in harmony and peace. A new sun will rise, and a new generation of gods will rule. Muspelheim, along with the other eight worlds, will be reborn, and the cycle of creation and destruction will continue.
Attestations
Vǫluspá, the first poem of the Poetic Edda:
O'er the sea from the north | there sails a ship
With the people of Muspell, | at the helm stands Loki;
After the wolf | do wild men follow,
And with them the brother | of Byleist goes.
In the Gylfaginning, the first part of the Prose Edda by the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson, the following is repeatedly referenced:
Yet first was the world in the southern region, which was named Múspell; it is light and hot; that region is glowing and burning, and impassable to such as are outlanders and have not their holdings there.
In the video games God of War, players have the opportunity to explore the realm of Muspelheim. Within this realm, they can undertake various side missions, such as navigating through levels to reach the peak of the mountain and confronting one of the valkyries.
In the animated series Primal, the leader of the Vikings is brought to Muspelheim in the presence of Surtr, who bestows demonic powers upon him for seeking vengeance against the protagonists Spear and Fang.
In the Dawn of Ragnarök expansion for Ubisoft’s Assassin’s Creed Valhalla, Surtr and his massive oyster hordes from Muspelheim invade the dwarven realm of Svartalfheim, flooding much of the realm with magma pools and streams.
Muspelheim is a fascinating and important part of Norse mythology, representing the primal force of fire and the inevitable fate of the world. It is the origin of life, the source of destruction, the enemy of the gods and the ally of the new order. It is a world of contrasts and extremes, of beauty and horror, of light and darkness.
A “hulder” is a beautiful supernatural female creature who owns cattle, resides in mountains and hills, and attempts to lure young men, especially with games and songs in Scandinavian folklore. Her back resembles a hollowed-out tree, and she has a cow’s tail. “Hulder” comes from Old Norse hylja (“to conceal”), which is the root of the Norse name Huld, which is a name for the trolls.
According to Norwegian folklore, the hulder lures men into the mountain, from which they cannot escape if they stay too long. If the hulder woman marries a human, however, she will lose her tail, and the couple can live in the village on equal terms with other people. In Swedish, she is called “skogsrået.” In Danish, hulder is sometimes referred to as “hyldefolk,” as they have been associated with the elder tree—the “elder mother” from Hans Christian Andersen’s fairy tale is one example.
The Origin of the Hulder in Folklore
The concept that the departed make a triumphant return to this world at designated holy periods gave rise to these folk stories, along with a set of taboos and the practice of offering sacrifices to the ancestor spirits.
Celebrations of rebirth in both culture and the natural world took place around the winter solstice, or Yule, and Christmas periods. In Christian times, however, ancestral spirits were portrayed as dangerous entities that should be avoided at all costs, and so these scarier sagas came into existence. They underwent a metamorphosis into hulders, or troll-folk, who arrived around Christmastime to cause chaos and ruin the holiday spirit. The original identity of hulders is not known anymore.
Hulder in a drawing by Norwegian Theodor Kittelsen.
When it became illegal to worship ancestors, the hulders adopted certain aspects of beliefs about the dead, even though they were not originally ancestral spirits. As time went on, the practice of worshipping the dead faded away. However, at the winter solstice and other significant holidays, notably Christmas, remnants of this cult persisted in certain regions, either as a matter of custom or as a measure to ensure one’s safety.
Folktale Stories About Hulder
In the Bible
Hulders are part of many folk stories and, ironically, they even made part of the Bible. A Norwegian tradition tells the tale of an unexpected visit from God to Adam and Eve, which is believed to be the genesis of the underground dwellers. When God came, Eva still hadn’t bathed and combed all of their children, despite having a large brood after being kicked out of the Garden of Eden.
The children she wanted him to see were the ones she chose to highlight, while the rest were hidden. “Well, those who are dulde [hidden] shall be hulde [invisible].” God, however, saw right through her. Because of this, the offspring and their descendants now reside in the hills and mountains, where they are almost invisible to the naked eye, and they are called hulders. Hulder is also known as Tallemaja, or “pine tree Mary” in Swedish folklore.
“Two gunshot distances away”
The hulder is one of those popular underground creatures in Scandinavian folklore. There have been sightings of this monster in the Finnskogen region as late as 2013. Harald Polden, a hunter, recounted his meeting with the hulder in the Helleland wasteland east of Egersund. Boiling water over a fire, he unexpectedly saw a lady across the bog, “two gunshot distances away.” When he used his binoculars, he allegedly saw her haughty stance, brown hair, and emerald eyes.
The length of her skirt and her long braids both baffled him. Polden saw that she was walking about barefoot as her skirt crept up slightly, and a third braid—a cow’s tail—emerged under the skirt.
All of a sudden, she leaned forward. Also about this time, Polden’s pot overflowed. He removed it from the flames, but at that moment, nobody was standing by the swamp. A local mother and daughter listened intently as he told them the tale. The little girl turned to her mom and said, “There you go.” Like Polden, she had been through it in that same spot.
A Violin Player
So many spelman (Swedish folk music players) allegedly learned their music from Hulder since they are also musical women. It was a summer day when Ole Arntsen (1823–1911), a smallholder (croft) and spelman from the Halsen farm in Sæterlandet, was cutting grass for his goat from the roof of his boathouse. Someone he couldn’t see smacked him in the head out of nowhere. He passed out, rolled off the roof, and crashed upon the pebbles of the shore.
He lay there, puzzled, after doing a serious injury to himself. A hulder perched on a big rock along the stream greeted him as he heard violin music. Then he heard someone playing the violin, sitting on a large rock by the water. Hulder had clogs on her feet that had iron attachments. She was creating a rhythm with her violin by hitting the stone with her iron-clad shoes. That is the reason Ole referred to the tune as “jar-førå” which has become a proper Norwegian folk song.
2002
Just north of Arendal, close to the hamlet of Gautefall, a little girl snapped an alleged photo of a hulder in November 2002. This was at the same time as a string of phone calls from locals who claimed to have seen a hulder, describing her as wearing a summer dress, walking barefoot in the snow, and carrying a cow’s tail in her wake.
Hulder, the Protector of Cattles
Since the hulder was believed to have her cowshed just below the human cowshed in Lofoten, it was deemed best to keep a stall in the cowshed unoccupied. When she felt crowded in her own stall, she would politely ask the humans to let her use their vacant one. In exchange, she watched after the well-being and prosperity of the humans’ cows.
On the other hand, the hulder is very vindictive; therefore, using her stall might result in injury to the animal standing there, or even many animals. The hulder was allegedly so impeded that a farmer in Lofoten had to relocate his cowshed no less than three times. He couldn’t understand why his animals weren’t doing well. According to the man, his cowshed was just over her dining table since hulder informed him one night.
Even after relocating the shed a short distance, the man’s livestock continued to perish, and they were forced to pull their lifeless bodies to the brink of the river. As he slept one night, the hulder informed him that her child’s cradle was now directly over his stable and that a lot of terrible things were dripping down on the baby. He had to relocate the stable once again, but once he did, he and the animals were finally at peace.
Marrying a Hulder
There were allegedly hulders on the farm in Tjentland in Ryfylke, particularly in the cooking house, where they gathered and prepared meals just like everybody else. A hulder and her daughter once entered the kitchen while the family was baking. The eldest son of the farm found the girl attractive, and he was warned by her mother: “If you touch her, you must take her as your wife, whether you like it or not, as much as you know.” But the boy laughed and continued to giggle with the girl.
So, he became engaged to her, but he started to feel uneasy about the actual wedding. Once, he hid under a large tub by tipping it over himself. The daughter tried to tilt the tub away, but he took out a knife and cut off her fingers. However, it still didn’t help him, and they got married. The hulder’s tail fell off at her baptism, but three days thereafter, three big milking cows showed up at the farm and entered the stall unaccompanied.
The couple lived together, but not entirely peacefully, as he couldn’t forget hulder’s real background. He was a skilled blacksmith, and one day, after she had called him to dinner several times, he took a glowing iron and held it under her nose. In return, she took a horseshoe from the floor of the smithy and straightened it out. The man inquired in astonishment, “Are you that strong?” She affirmed, “So now you understand what I could have done to you if I had wanted. But I care too much about you to use force to get my way.” They got along well after that, and according to local belief, their descendants may still be found in Årdal, Ryfylke today. The cattle of their family have always fared better than those of other families.
Hulder on Elstad Farm’s
The cover of Asbjørnsen and Moe’s Norwegian folktales and cave tales shows Hulder, 1896.
Elstad Farm in Ullensaker, Norway, is the setting of a legendary tale in “An Evening in a Proprietor’s Kitchen,” written by Asbjornsen. “If you go to Elstad, tell Deld that Dild fell into the fire,” someone shouted out to a farmhand as he was on his way home after an errand.
Someone sprinted out of the house, yelling, “Oh, that was my child!” as soon as they heard the news. A hulder had been stealing food from the farm while unseen, and the farmhand had unwittingly brought the news to her. Not only does this tale have a reputation in Ullensaker municipality, but it also has popularity in 70 other Norwegian towns and other European nations. Plutarch has the earliest version, which dates back to roughly 100 AD.
The Hulder with the Golden Items
An ancient tale tells of a hulder who had a golden apple, seven golden chickens, and a golden lantern. The king’s daughter was up for marriage to anyone who caught these golden chickens, according to the proclamation. With a fishing net and a bag of peas as his tools, a little kid embarked on an optimistic journey. The hulder was unaware that he had lured the hens with peas and ensnared them in the net.
After receiving the golden chickens, the king was happy, but he would not consent to a wedding without the hulder’s golden lantern as well. That night, the child went back to the hulder and grabbed the lantern from her as she set it down by the well to get water.
However, the monarch would not honor his word until the youngster also presented him with the golden apple. On this occasion, the lad retrieved a lengthy set of tongs, ascended to the rooftop as the hulder slumbered, and through the chimney, he planned to nip her blanket up and take the golden apple.
But he unintentionally squeezed her nose. She caught him and inquired as to his preferred method of death. He stated his preference for indulging in porridge to the point of death. With that, the hulder began to whip up a pot of porridge. Just before she delivered the porridge, the lad whipped up a big bag, fastened it to his chest, and proceeded to scoop the porridge into it without being noticed.
After stuffing himself enough, he set the spoon down and pretended he was about to explode, so she should just wrap him in the blanket and throw him out immediately. The second he stepped outdoors he tossed off the bag and bolted with the blanket. In her wrath, the hulder seized a pipe, inhaled deeply, and drew the lad back to her. Nobody heard from him again.
The Hulders on Christmas Eve
Among the many Jule or Christmas tales told about Rogaland county, the “Trond Saga” is by far the most popular. On Christmas Eve every year, the hulders would gather in large numbers at the farm Kvame in Hjelmeland and the people had to desert their houses to ensure peace.
The first to show up would be Trond, a bearded elderly guy. The remainder would then arrive, and rejoicing, dancing, and commotion ensued. They would later go down to dinner, but not before raising a glass to Trond at the head of the table. Someone remarked, “Now I toast to Trond!”
On one of the farms that hulders visited, one farmhand decided to stay and frighten the hulders. As night fell and everyone had gone, he proceeded to boil pitch in a pot. He leaped onto the ledge holding the boiling pot and sat there the second the hulders came.
As a group, they entered and adorned the table with sparkling silverware. One hulder came under the ledge and decided to rest. At this moment, the boy began pouring the boiling pitch into hulder’s mouth. After her piercing scream, everyone in the group ran away. The child yelled after her as he held the pot to his neck, asking, “Have you tasted a hotter soup?” He then descended to get what the subterranean creatures had left in the room.
The next year, the same boy asked to stay at the farm for Christmas while everyone else fled. The hulder inquired if the cat had returned this year in the evening as he peered in through the door. The kid yelled out, “Yes, he’s here and has had seven kittens, worse than himself!” No more hulders visited the farm after that hulder ran away.
The narrative has been documented in six distinct versions in Rogaland, a county in Norway. Depending on where you are, the visitors may be nicknamed trolls or hulders.
Mictlan, formed from the Nahuatl terms “micqui” (death) and “tlan” (place), translates to “place of the dead” in Aztec mythology. It is the underground regions where the dead must go to free their teyolia (soul, one of the three components forming a person according to the Nahuas people) and vital energy, tonalli. It is also known as Chicunauhmictlan or Ximoayan (“place of the disembodied”). Only those who die of natural causes are allowed to reach this realm, which is commonly referred to as the underworld by anthropologists and is called “tlalmiqui” (from Nahuatl “tlalli” meaning earth and “micqui” meaning to die).
What Exactly is Mictlan?
The eight levels of the Mictlan, described on a sheet of the Codex Vaticanus A or Codex Rios.
Mictlan is the underworld of Aztec mythology, and it serves as the last destination for most departed souls, consisting of nine diverse levels, each posing severe difficulties. The dead travel with the psychopomp Xolotl for four years, facing dangerous terrain including smashing mountains, flesh-scraping winds, and blood rivers full of jaguars.
Mictlantecuhtli, lord of the underworld, had a vital part in the Aztec creation story, which makes Mictlan especially significant. In Nahua belief, the realm is an integral element of a cosmos ruled by living forces. Mictlan, controlled by Mictlantecuhtli and his wife Mictecacihuatl, is the last resting place within this cosmological framework.
Those who died for reasons associated with the rain deity Tlaloc still travel to a different afterlife place in Aztec theology called Tlalocan (a paradise). The significance of Mictlan resides in the difficulty of its trip, which reflects the Aztec conception of the afterlife and the interaction of cosmic forces.
Mictlantecuhtli and his wife, Mictecacihuatl, are the de facto rulers of this underworld.
The Funeral Rite for Mictlan
Upon a person’s passing, if they are destined for Mictlan, their limbs are carefully folded and secured, allowing the body to be enveloped in a cotton shroud for the nobility, or ixtle for common individuals which is a resilient plant fiber derived from agave.
The ritual begins with a prayer and the pouring of water over the head, during which it is said, “This is the water you enjoyed while living in the world (Tlalticpac).” A green stone is used as a vessel for the deceased’s tonalli (life energy) during this ceremony by being put in their mouth.
The dead will have the “papers” they need to confront the perils of Mictlan, as indicated by Bernardino de Sahagun. In the Codex of Florence’s Book III appendix, it is detailed how the dead are spoken to and their journey through death is described.
For the last voyage through Mictlan, a dog is sacrificed before the cremation of the burial bundle and the offered gifts. According to Bernardino de Sahagun, the red dog was intended to transport the dead over the Chignahuapan River. Anthropological research consistently reveals this fact.
Although Sahagun explained that only white dogs were capable of facilitating the crossing, later stories often depict a black dog in this role.
The Mexicas used the Xoloitzcuintle dog breed in ritual sacrifices. They maintained them as pets, giving them plenty of love and care, and hoping that someone in Mictlan would identify them by the cotton cords they wore around their necks.
According to Aztec mythology, the afterlife journey of the departed lasts four years and takes them through eight or nine levels of Mictlan’s underworld. There are many perils and tests in store for them on their voyage. The departed go through a series of transformations as they become immaterial and disembodied on their way to freeing their tonalli and teyolia.
Only those who die of old age or common diseases, regardless of their social rank (lords or commoners; macehuales), are allowed passage to Mictlan.
Tonatiuhichan (Thirteen Heavens) and Ilhucatl-Tonatiuhtl (the Sky Where the Sun Is”) receive ceremonial offerings,
Macuiltonaleque (the five Aztec gods of excess and pleasure) and Cihuateteo (the Aztec mythology spirits) get soldiers who have died in combat, prisoners who have been slaughtered by their foes, and women who have died giving birth.
Tlalocan (the Aztec paradise) is the afterlife destination for those who die in water-related accidents or illnesses, or who are devoted to the god Tlaloc.
Chichihuacuauhco serves as a temporary home for young children as they wait for a second opportunity on Earth.
There is an idiom that mulls over the mystery of death: “Tocenchan, tocenpolpolihuiyan” (variously translated as “our common house,” “our common region where we will go to get lost,” or “the place where all will go”), which implies that all souls, without exception, make their way through Mictlan upon death. According to the 16th-century Florentine Codex, some people’s stays in Mictlan are permanent, while others are only passing through.
Mesoamericanist Christian Duverger suggested the idea that the trip to Mictlan was a “reverse migration,” with the dead following in the footsteps of their northern-bound Mexica ancestors.
Origins of the Mictlan
Cipactli described in the Borgia Codex.
According to the Aztec founding myth of the world, as told in the Aztec tale of the Five Suns, the universe was organized using the severed corpse of Cipactli, a hungry chimerical crocodile beast that floated in the primordial emptiness and symbolized the earth in the primeval waters.
Its head is utilized to build the heavenly planes of the Thirteen Heavens; its body becomes the earthly space of Tlalticpac (“earth place”); and its tail and extremities are employed to make the realms of the underworld, Mictlan. Nighttime on Earth is inextricably linked to the afterlife because the sun deity Tonatiuh passes through Mictlan at night to shine light on it (a similar story is found in Egyptian mythology with Ra, his solar barque, and his travel to the underworld to raise the sun again).
The Aztec wind deity Quetzalcoatl journeys into Mictlan, gathering the bones of people from earlier incarnations and exploiting them to build the current mankind. But in Gerónimo de Mendieta’s “Historia eclesiástica indiana” (Indiana Ecclesiastical History), the god of fire and lightning, Xolotl, disguised as a Xoloitzcuintle dog, not Quetzalcoatl, travels to Mictlan to get the bones the gods would use to create a new human race. When the gods are sacrificed at the birth of the Fifth Sun, Xolotl, according to Mendieta, plays the role of the priest, not the victim.
The Levels and the Dead’s Trip to Mictlan
Only two primary sources, Bernardino de Sahagun’s “General History of the Things of New Spain,” also known as the Codex Florentine, and the Codex Vaticanus A, also known as the Codex Rios, partially written by Pedro de los Rios, provide substantial information about the journey of the deceased to Mictlan. They have certain things in common but also have some key differences.
The picture in Codex Vaticanus A is the clearest we have. The first two pages make reference to Latin script and artistically show the travel through eight different levels. Ana Guadalupe Diaz Alvarez, in her analysis of this codex, points out that the artist decided to depict Mictlan as a succession of decedents carrying out various tasks, each of which stands as a discrete time in the story.
When the same artist depicts the heavens, however, everything is clear as day. The “place where flags fly” and the “place where people are signposted,” both of which are referenced in this codex, remain mysteries. According to Nathalie Ragot, we still don’t understand these two sections of Mictlan.
The Spanish mesoamericanist Sahagun also talks about eight layers of Mictlan, although his description and arrangement are different. There are Nahuatl proper nouns in the Codex Florentine. Christian Aboytes presents a nine-tiered Mictlan in “Amoxaltepetl, El Popol Vuh Azteca,” with descriptions of each tier.
The Location of the Mictlan
Mictlampa, north of Mictlan, Codex Borgia, page 52.
Mictlan, ruled by Mictlantecuhtli and his consort Mictecacihuatl, is a dark and foul place at the center of the earth (in Nahuatl, “Tlalxicco,” derived from “tlalli” meaning “earth” and “xicco,” the locative form of “xitli” meaning “navel“), located on a vertical plane where the world consists of Thirteen Heavens and the realms of the afterlife.
Mictlan’s horizontal position is less often discussed. In Molina’s lexicon, “Mictlampa” (which means “on the side of Mictlan”) designates the geographic north. Humanity’s home on Earth, called “Tlalticpac,” expands laterally in comparison to the vertical realms of the heavens and the afterlife in Mictlan.
Mictlan is consistently linked to “topan” (on, above) in Nahua oral ritual practices, as analyzed by Ana Diaz in “Cielos e inframundos” (Heavens and Underworlds). As in the phrase “in topan in mictlan in ilhuicac” (above us, in Mictlan, in the sky). The author underlines the lack of connection between the name Mictlan and a space lying below or beneath the earth. This raises the possibility that Mictlan was seen as belonging to the cosmos.
Given its reciprocal connection with regions plainly indicated as superior by the word “ilhuicac” (heaven, paradise), it is difficult to associate Mictlan with a definite and tangible place. It’s a realm of imagination and choice, where things may be imagined and decided just as they are. It’s less about describing the underworld and more about describing the otherworld or the beyond.
Ana Diaz claims that the images on pages 29 and 30 of the Codex Borgia show how the four gods of creation view the upper and lower worlds as fundamentally similar, but that their differences are due to the ritual action of words and offerings that precede and direct their creation.
Codex Borgia, page 30.
In her article on the Nahuatl concept of “ilhuicac” (heaven), which she applies to an examination of Mictlan’s location, Katarzyna Mikulska argues that the vertical axis is not so clearly divided between day and night but rather between the diurnal and nocturnal aspects of vertical spaces. She claims this is supported by the artistic depictions of the night sky and Mictlan underneath the ground seen in ancient codices. Colors, which may also symbolize directions in space, are used to show the differences between the nighttime sky and the daily sky. The north is represented by black, the south by blue, the east by red, and the west by white.
Terminology
Mictlan was not the exclusive word utilized in early Aztec and Spanish sources. In addition to Mictlan, indigenous people also employed a number of additional terms to describe various elements of this underworld.
This level is also known as “Ximoayan” (or “Ximoan”), which translates to “place of the skeletal ones.” This idiom refers to how the departed feel after making it to Mictlan from wherever they passed on earth. “Chicnauhmictlan” (also known as “ninth place of the dead”) is a geographical phrase that places Mictlan on the ninth and last tier of the underworld. It is sometimes called “tlalli inepantla,” which literally translates to “at the center of the earth.” If you ask Nathalie Ragot, it means “more in the heart of the earth than at the center, in the sense of depth.”
In their lack of understanding, Spanish chroniclers incorrectly linked Mictlan to the Christian concept of “hell,” using the Spanish word “infierno,” which was translated as “inframundo” in subsequent translations and further contributed to geographical misunderstanding. Even though these two views of the underworld occasionally have parallels, as occurs with other faiths, this relationship is actually inaccurate.
Banshees are solitary beings, often portrayed as hideous old women.
Their mournful wails signify an impending tragic demise.
Banshees bridge ancient Gaelic beliefs with modern European folklore.
Irish Celtic mythology has magical female characters such as banshees, banshies, and bean sí who are either sorceresses or messengers from the Otherworld (sidh, an original spelling of the Irish word sí). It’s related to other European mythical creatures including those from the Welsh and Norse traditions. Banshee in mythology is a solitary, old woman with loose, unkempt, and flowing gray hair. She wears a long, tattered robe and is often depicted barefoot. Her skin is deathly pale, and her features are gaunt and mournful. Her eyes are hollow, emitting an eerie, otherworldly glow.
The banshee goes by many distinct names across languages and time periods. Its most common form in English, “banshee”, comes from a 1771 text and it is a phonetic borrowing from Irish Gaelic.
“Woman of the sidh” translates directly from Irish Gaelic as “bean sidhe” (or “bean sí,” originally “ben síd”) and from Scottish Gaelic as “bean sith.” In Gaelic Celtic mythology, the name “sidh” (or “sí,” “síd,” “sith,” “sidhe”) referred to the Otherworld.
The word subsequently came to signify “hill, mound” (a portal to the realm of gods or death) and then “sidhe/sith” (sometimes mistaken with Aos sidhe) and, finally, “hill people” or “fairy” in English.
In Ireland, the banshee is known as “bean chaointe” (Scottish: “caointeach,” English: “keening woman“), which literally translates as “woman who wails funeral dirges.”
In southeast Ireland, the banshee is also known by a number of dialectal variations of the word “badhbh,” a phrase derived from “Badh” (formerly “Bodhb”), the name of a protective (or warrior) goddess in Celtic or medieval mythology, Bodb Derg.
Banshee in the Celtic Mythology of the Gaels
The Banshee (1897), watercolor by Henry Meynell Rheam.
Although much of the sources originate from medieval Irish literature (written after the Christianization of Ireland), it is believed that the bean sí has Celtic roots.
The mixture of pagan and Christian notions in medieval writings makes it difficult to ascertain the original meaning of “bean sí.” Bean sí may have originally meant some kind of female-related “mystical or magical quality” (sí). Not until the eighth century did the term “bean sí” in writings come to mean “woman from the Otherworld.”
Occasionally, the Sidh shower their blessings upon deserving men, such as Conn and Bran Mac Febail, and transport them to the “Delightful Plain,” Mag Mell. Sometimes their apparition brings about disease that no medicine can treat, and without divine intervention, death follows.
The death of Muirchertach Mac Muiredaig features a banshee and her abilities in a story that has been Christianized on the surface. The lady in this narrative develops her powers outside of the sidh, before she is converted.
The queen from the Otherworld, Sin, has captivated the king with her beauty. She insists that he get a divorce and send his wife packing. If he so much as mentions her name (geas), he will be killed. With the might of her sorcery, the stones become lambs, water turns into wine, plants become pigs, and armies are created at her command. She also has the ability to create precious metals.
Banshee in the British Isles Mythology
All the folklore and beliefs of the British Isles (Ireland and Great Britain) center on the banshee. These myths were mostly transmitted orally (via stories, accounts, songs, and ceremonies) from one generation to the next. Scholars in the early 20th century compiled traditional stories and folklore about banshees, which had been subjects of belief since the Middle Ages (5th–15th centuries).
The association of banshees in folklore with the proclamation or portent of death is a defining feature of this mythical creature. The presence of a banshee was associated with death and combat in medieval stories and legends, serving as a portent of the afterlife in both Christian and pagan faiths. In today’s culture, the banshee is still a portent of death inside the home, usually due to natural reasons.
According to the most common belief, the position of the goddesses in Irish and Celtic mythology as bringers of death is where the traditions of banshees first arose. The ancient Irish custom and practice of funeral keening (vocal lament for the dead), Anglo-Saxon beliefs in fairies, medieval and modern beliefs in haunting female spirits (with ties to a particular family), and aos sidhe (the “people of the mounds”) legends are all frequently cited as possible sources for banshees.
Guardian of the Family
There was a banshee for every powerful Irish household. This mysterious entity would stick with the family no matter where they went.
“One of the most beautiful superstitions of Irish fiction is to assign to certain families of ancient lineage and distinguished rank, the privilege of a banshee, or domestic fairy, whose office is to appear in mourning to announce the approaching death of a member of that race.”
— Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft (1830) by Walter Scott, a Scottish historian and poet
A dark-clothed coachman led by a headless ghost often precedes the appearance of a banshee connected to a long-dead family. The dead person’s soul is retrieved by this coachman. Two Coldstream Regiment troops witnessed such a vehicle in London in January 1804. They were so shaken up by the sight of a headless lady walking up Birdcage Walk on the coach that they had to spend some time recovering there.
The lares of ancient Rome, with their roots in Etruscan mythology, were similar to the banshee in that they were worshiped as protection deities for individual households such as the Lar familiaris (“lar” from the Etruscan for “lord”).
Laundress
Yan’ Dargent, The Washerwomen of the Night, oil canvas, 1861.
In County Galway and the surrounding areas in the west of Ireland, the banshee was said to purify clothing in a river in the 20th century. Like the death omen of the bean-nighe spirit in Scottish Gaelic mythology and the kannerezed noz in Brittany, this is a fable about a laundress who works at night (also known as Les Lavandières or Midnight Washerwomen).
There is a clear line between this current tradition and ancient Irish tales about the Celtic goddess Badb wiping the bloodstained robes of those doomed to die in battle.
Mourner
According to legend, the banshee may occasionally cry out the news of a death with a series of mournful chants, or “funeral chants.” Bean chaointe in Irish, caointeach (or caoineag) in Scottish Gaelic, and keening woman in English all describe banshee for this conduct.
These spontaneous vocal lamentations paid honor to the departed and their family in ancient Gaelic culture via the practice of mourners, which is where the term “funeral chants” comes from. This funeral custom, which may be seen in many different parts of the globe, is attested in medieval Ireland and Scotland. The Catholic Church in Ireland outlawed the practice, and it eventually died out. These (occasionally compensated) mourners would dress like the famous banshee, donning a long robe and displaying unbraided hair.
Screamer of Tragic Ends
In later legend, especially the oral tradition of the 20th century, the banshee foretells death with a shrill shriek or howl that jolts even the soundest sleeper up. This contemporary practice seems to be especially widespread in parts of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales that have been affected by non-Gaelic civilizations.
The banshee’s wail is unlike any other kind of human or animal scream and is more akin to a death rattle or the sounds of a woman giving birth. When heard in the home, this scream is a portent of a tragic end.
The banshee’s wailing is reminiscent of the screams of other revenant characters from medieval European tradition, who also presage death.
From these many reports, it is possible to infer a few defining traits of the banshee’s physical appearance.
Solitary Being: In all depictions, the banshee seems to be alone.
Hideous Old Woman: Unlike the historical Irish custom, in which ladies covered their long hair with a scarf, she is often portrayed as a horrible old lady who is extremely skinny and has hair that is loose and exposed. There are tales of banshees who comb their hair, or whose combs are taken by humans.
Long Robe: The banshee is easily recognizable by her long gown, which is often of an antique design. The banshee is often seen without shoes. Legendary ghostly characteristics, such as her deathly white complexion or gruesome features, are occasionally included in descriptions.
Other Myths Related to the Banshee
There are some mythical creatures with similar features to the banshee.
Sluagh: The sluagh are wandering ghosts that appear in Irish and Scottish legends. Because of their destructive nature, mankind is warned not to let them into the Otherworld (including heaven).
Dame Blanche (White Lady): The White Lady in French mythology and the banshee have several characteristics, and their legends often intertwine. The present tale of the White Lady seems to have evolved from the older banshee myth. References to the White Lady and banshees appear in the mythology of England, Ireland, and Wales, suggesting that the tale of the White Lady had an impact on these countries. The Lady of the Bourbons’ palace, for instance, who arrived on the eve of the death of a noble family member, is often cited as an example of a White Lady who has been likened to a banshee in the country.
Other Characters: More similarities between the banshee and other beings may be drawn, such as those between Melusine (a mythic water sprite), Áine (the Irish goddess of summer), Aibell (an Irish guardian spirit), and Saint Brigid of Ireland.
References to Banshee in Modern Culture
Literature
In Keeper of the Lost Cities by Shannon Messenger, elven healers can have banshees with them, which tell them if their patient is dying or in critical condition.
Marigold (Elven Chronicles, #1) by Marya Ashworth, the protagonist, Marigold, encounters a boy being attacked by banshees in the forest.
Comics
One of the X-Men in Marvel Comics can unleash a devastating scream. Banshee was his name and he debuted in 1967.
Silver Banshee is a DC Comics supervillain and an adversary of Superman. She first appeared in 1987 and is known for her skeleton appearance and deathly cry.
When the JAM infiltrates the flying aircraft carrier Banshee IV (depicted in the manga Yukikaze), the Fairy Air Force will shoot it down.
Silky, a minor character in Kore Yamazaki’s manga The Ancient Magus’ Bride (2013), was formerly a banshee.
The banshee first appears in the fourth volume of Touya Mikanagi’s manga Karneval (2009).
Paper-Based Role-Playing
It’s a monstrosity from the Dungeons & Dragons 3.5 Monster Handbook II. In the original Dungeons & Dragons game, she is a wicked elf turned undead whose scream killed anybody who heard it. A “howling spirit” was another name for this beast. Games Workshop adopted this being and made it into an elf warrior in their games years later.
Banshees are Eldar fighters in the Warhammer 40,000 world, introduced by Games Workshop in 1987. Their screams have the power to doom souls.
Banshees are a kind of vampire kin in Warhammer.
Music
Red Hot Chili Peppers‘ “do me like a banshee” is a line from their song “Suck My Kiss.”
“Well, call of the banshee, hey hey” appears in Green Day‘s song “Peacemaker” off of their album 21st Century Breakdown.
The Cranberries‘ “The Glory” lyrics sang: “Do you remember? Late in September, the banshee cry, when someone dies.”
The Vision Bleak‘s song “The Call of the Banshee” references the legend of the banshee.
Siouxsie and the Banshees are a band from London, England, who started making music together in 1976.
One song by Brocas Helm includes “Cry of the Banshee,” and Pagan Altar has a song called “The Cry of the Banshee.”
Canadian composer John Hawkins wrote some songs under the moniker “Banshee.”
The line “But she sings of greed / Like a young banshee” is from Iggy Pop‘s song Tiny Girls.
Henry Cowell composed the string piano composition The Banshee.
An LP by Bones is known as Banshee.
Danny Elfman composed a song for the movie The Nightmare Before Christmas, directed by Henry Selick which sang: “Skeleton Jack might catch you in the back, and scream like a banshee.”
The Agonist‘s 2009 album Lullabies of the Dormant Mind has the song “The Tempest” (also known as “The Siren’s Song” and “The Banshee’s Cry”).
Animal Collective has a song called “Banshee Beat.”
‘I heard the banshees calling your name,’ Lights sings in New Fears.
Movies
David Collins’ mother is a banshee in Tim Burton’s Dark Shadows (2012) featuring Johnny Depp.
Martin McDonagh’s film The Banshees of Inisherin (2022) features her.
Humans refer to the Ikrans (a kind of dragon ridden by the Na’vi) in James Cameron’s Avatar as banshees.
TV Series
In the Gargoyles (TV series) the Banshee is one of the Gargoyles, the nighttime angels, and one of Oberon’s Children.
After much investigation, Holland Roden’s character Lydia Martin on the MTV series Teen Wolf is revealed to be a banshee. This is also true of his grandma Lorraine Martin and a character introduced in Season 4, Meredith Walker.
One banshee (the “Grand Banshee”) represents Mother Nature in the mini TV series The Magical Legend of the Leprechauns (1999). Whoopi Goldberg portrays this character.
The Banshee, a TV show written and directed by Steven C. Miller, follows a professor and his pupils as they encounter a banshee.
Episode 21 of season 3 of Charmed has a visual representation of the banshee. There are various deviations from tradition in this episode, but the look of the exiled women (white skin and hair) and their piercing cries are in keeping with what the tales describe.
Misery is a banshee in Ruby Gloom, who perpetually wails and brings bad luck upon herself and her family.
Video Games
Banshees are playable enemies in Lionhead Studios’s Fable II, appearing both on Knothole Island and in the Moors. These screams are unique to the individual and reveal the agony he may have brought upon his loved ones in order to torment them.
Both banshees and the Death School’s level 10 spell can be encountered and fought against in Wizard101.
The “Banshee’s Scream” is the most powerful spell in Baldur’s Gate II: Shadows of Amn. It is the greatest level of spells, level 9.
Banshees are dangerous creatures that may be encountered in Brusthonin, inhabited by the Asmodians, in Aion: The Tower of Eternity. Their signature “horrifying scream” assault is designed to frighten off the player character.
The Bainshee is a playable class in the kingdom of Hibernia in Dark Age of Camelot. This person, who can only be female, takes the form of a ghost in white curtains.
The Banshee is only one of many spirits your group might detect in Phasmophobia. She can give forth a gut-wrenching scream that can be picked up by a parabolic microphone and serve to identify it from other ghosts. However, the Banshee, unlike her role model, may be either a man or a woman—the ghost forms are produced at random for each game.
Banshees are nocturnal creatures that must be defeated in Final Fantasy XI.
The Necromancer race in Heroes of Might and Magic V has a special ability called “Banshee Howl” that may lower the morale and initiative of enemy creatures.
The banshee is a female ghostly entity who serves the Scourge and the Forsaken in Warcraft III and World of Warcraft. The banshee Queen Sylvanas Windrunner directs them in the WoW.
The banshee is the evolved form of the haunter (which evolved from the ghost) in Tales of Symphonia: Dawn of the New World.
Zombies known as banshees populate the Deadlands of Nabreus in Final Fantasy XII.
The banshee appears as a minor boss in Crypt of the NecroDancer. Her scream silences the game’s soundtrack and makes room for the wind whenever she takes damage. As soon as it is vanquished, music is once again heard.
The banshee is one of the playable monsters in the Blood and Wine add-on for The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt.
The “Witch,” a particular zombie in Left 4 Dead and Left 4 Dead 2, seems to be very obviously influenced by this mythology; she is a sobbing lady sitting in a corner, and if you disturb her, she will inflict very lethal wounds on you every time.
Outside of contemporary popular culture, the Banshee is an American single-seat, twin-engine fighter jet that entered service after World War II.
The Altamaha-ha (or Altie) is a legendary beast from the mythology of Georgia State. Numerous sightings have been recorded in Darien, McIntosh County, Georgia, USA, along the Altamaha River.
Native American tales place the earliest sighting of this Altamaha River monster even before the 1700s. They describe a serpent-like creature that dwelt in the river. Researchers are divided on whether or not the animal is a manatee or alligator gar.
It’s a snake-like aquatic mammal with a dolphin’s tail.
The 20th century saw a proliferation of reports of sightings of this cryptid on the rivers. Several people saw a serpent-like monster around 1920. Altamaha-ha, or Altie monster, was seen once again by hunters in 1935. A party of boy scouts saw it in 1940, and two Reidsville authorities saw it again in 1950.
Two anglers in 1969 claimed to have seen a ten- to twelve-foot-long Altamaha-ha with a crocodile-like snout and a horizontal tail. Cathead Creek is a branch of the Altamaha River, and in 1980, two people witnessed what they believed to be a stranded mystery animal in the area.
The witnesses estimated its length between 20 and 30 feet (6–9 m).
According to reports, this unidentified creature struggled to get back into the water due to its size, but eventually it made its way down the muddy bank.
Regular sightings have been reported to cryptozoologists, with the monster being described as a giant in length and swimming more like a seal than a fish or eel. Sightings are supposedly uncommon since the creature’s greenish skin makes it blend in with the foliage.
Located in southern Georgia, close to the mouth of the Altamaha River, the creature is a common resident of the region’s various streams and forsaken rice fields.
Modern Sightings
For many minutes in 2002, a fisherman claimed to have seen the monster above the water once again. In 2010, an amateur photographer filmed Altamaha-ha swimming in the area of Fort King George.
However, recent reports of this mysterious species have often been linked to an alligator gar, an euryhaline ray-finned fish.
The 327-pound alligator gar captured in Mississippi in 2011 was at least 95 years old, making it the oldest and biggest of its kind.
Origin of the Legend
Muscogee are a cluster of closely related Native American tribes native to western Georgia, along with other neighboring states where they have a long history of settlement. Muscogee culture is where the myth of Altamaha-ha was first told. The Lower Muskogee Creek Tribe is often credited as the progenitor of this lake monster.
It’s a snake-like aquatic mammal with a dolphin’s tail. It allegedly prefers to inhabit water basins and wetlands.
So, one would find this creature in caves, bogs, and other moist environments.
The first mentions of it are from the year 1700, and most encounters occur when swimmers mistake it for an underwater hill. This mysterious creature poses no danger to humans in the stories. The indigenous people who lived before Christopher Columbus told tales about it.
Legacy of Altamaha-Ha
In 2018, alleged remains of Altamaha-ha were found on a beach close to Wolf Island National Wildlife Refuge, sparking Altamaha-ha hypotheses.
Opinions about the creature’s identity varied, with suggestions ranging from a decaying fish to a deep-sea shark or a hoax involving a model.
The performance artist Zardulu later admitted that he had fabricated the phony remains using a stuffed shark and papier mâché. The same papier mâché was used to create Fiji Mermaid, a 19th-century sea monster.
In addition, the Darien-McIntosh County Visitor Center in Darien, Georgia, is home to a sculpture of Altamaha-ha created by paleoartist Rick Spears.
Altamaha-ha is a fabled monster that has been the subject of legends and sightings, much like Sasquatch, Champ, El Chupacabra, and the Loch Ness Monster, but for which no proof exists.
Significance of the Altamaha River
The Altamaha River, spanning 137 miles, flows into the Atlantic Ocean near Darien, Georgia. It has been vital for transportation, fishing, and hunting for centuries. The river hosts rare plant and animal species, including seven unique species of freshwater mussels.
