Julius Caesar‘s conquest of Gaul in 51 BC led to its provincialization and integration into the Roman Empire, particularly under Augustus, who created the provinces of Lugdunensis, Aquitania, and Belgica, while the Transalpine region became Narbonensis. But what about the Gallic elites? Did they also succeed in integrating into the imperial elites? What was their relationship with Rome and the emperor?
Sources
Discussing the Gallo-Roman elites presents a source issue, as they are limited. Regarding texts, besides Caesar’s Commentaries, we can cite Livy (who died in 17 AD and was close to Augustus), Strabo (who died around 25 AD), but especially Tacitus and Suetonius, both living in the 2nd century AD.
Epigraphy is a major source, as inscriptions were often made by the elites. Lastly, funerary monuments also inform us about the Romanization of these elites.
Here, we will address the Gallo-Roman elites broadly, meaning the Gallic notables following the Romanization of Gaul.
These individuals were socially recognized at the local level for political, administrative, or even broader activities, such as in the economic domain. They became elites by integrating into the highest spheres of power, even reaching the Senate in Rome. We will discuss the Three Gauls and Narbonensis until the Antonine period.
A “Pro-Roman” Gallic Elite?
Even before the Gallic Wars, there was already an elite that could be described as “pro-Roman.” This was particularly the case with the Aedui. Their relations with Rome date back to around 120 BC, when the Romans defeated the Arvernian king Bituitus, benefiting the Aedui. They became privileged partners of Rome, especially in trade, so much so that they were considered “fratres consanguineique populi romani” (brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people). It is no coincidence, then, that Caesar claimed to respond to their call for help in 58 BC, and that after the Gallic Wars, Aedui, with his help, became the first Gauls to enter the Senate.
This Aeduan dominance persisted later under Claudius.
However, the Aedui were not the only ones already close to Rome. From the Republican era, the elites of Narbonensis were culturally and institutionally Romanized, giving them a more positive image in Rome compared to the notables of Gallia Comata, Aedui included.
The Dominance of the Iulii
After his victory, Caesar rewarded his allies with Roman citizenship, a distribution considered generous and criticized, according to Suetonius (a much later source): “Caesar leads the Gauls to triumph, and also to the Curia. The Gauls have left their trousers; they have taken up the broad stripe.” However, the reward was individual, as were grants of magistracies or land. The same applied under Augustus, who founded Autun (Augustodunum), the new Aeduan capital, where universities were created to teach Gallo-Roman notables Latin.
The Gauls elevated to Roman citizenship by Caesar and Augustus were called Iulii, after Julius. They mainly came from a military nobility and landowning aristocracy. The fate of two Aedui is noteworthy: Eporédirix, an Aeduan leader mentioned by Caesar in his Commentaries, was initially pro-Roman (he was with them at Gergovia!), but later joined Vercingetorix and was captured (or his namesake, as Caesar’s account is unclear) at Alesia.
Inscriptions from the 1st century BC later mention a C. Iulius Eporédirix (a Roman citizen from the 40s–30s BC), and we can trace them to the 1st century AD and a figure named Iulius Calenus, who, in 69 AD, was tasked by Vitellius’ victors with negotiating with the defeated at Cremona. This tribune, an Aeduan, seems to be a distant descendant of Eporédirix, illustrating the transition from an Aeduan chief to a Roman knight, a journey of a Gallic family seemingly fully integrated into the Empire.
However, this progression should neither be generalized nor idealized. The integration of Gallic notables into the imperial elite did not happen overnight and was not systematic. This explains the request made to Claudius and his response in 48 AD.
Claudius’ Role in Favor of the Gallo-Roman Elites
Born in Lyon in 10 BC, becoming emperor in 41 AD (after succeeding Caligula), Claudius had close ties with Gaul. Upon his accession, the Gauls of Gallia Comata did not yet have full citizenship, and the notables had no access to the ius honorum (the right to hold public office). Although under Caesar and early Augustus, some Gauls (Iulii from the Three Gauls, Domitii, Valerii, or Pompeii from Narbonensis) had gained equestrian rank and even Senate membership, this ceased after 18 BC. Narbonensis regained this right in 14 AD, but Gallia Comata had not. Hence the request made to Emperor Claudius.
He responded with a famous text, which we know from Tacitus and especially from the Claudian Table, a bronze plaque discovered in the 16th century. Claudius decided to grant the ius honorum to the Aedui (and later to other Gauls). This caused outrage among Roman senators, as Claudius had anticipated, evidenced by his words: “Indeed, I see well in advance the objection that will be made to me…” Gaul, especially Gallia Comata, still had a negative image in Rome, tainted by the terror gallicus.
The Council of the Gauls
As in the rest of the Empire, the imperial cult served as the link between local elites and the emperor.
In 12 BC, Drusus, the father of the future Emperor Claudius, constructed a federal sanctuary for Gaul at Condate, near Lyon. Each year, on August 1st, the elites of the Three Gauls gathered there to celebrate their loyalty to the emperor around the altar dedicated to Rome and Augustus. The Assembly of the Gauls (or concilium) was led by an elected sacerdos, the first being logically an Aeduan, Caius Julius Vercondaridubnus. Under Tiberius, the construction of an amphitheater allowed for games to accompany the assembly’s meetings.
The purpose of creating this Council of Gauls was to integrate and Romanize the indigenous elites. The institution was above the provincial governor (also based in Lyon), answered only to the emperor (to whom it could present requests), and its members were of equestrian rank. It was a mandatory gathering of the Gallo-Roman elites, representing the sixty peoples of Gallia Comata. The Assembly thus played a real political role, and emperors, like Claudius or even Caligula, who in 39 AD organized an oratory competition, attended it.
The Evergetism of Gallo-Roman Elites
Another marker of the Romanization of the Gallo-Roman elites is their practice of evergetism, which refers to the benevolent acts offered to cities (and indirectly to the emperor), often in the form of monuments.
One famous example in Gaul is the amphitheater of Lyon, mentioned earlier. Its construction was initiated in 19 AD by the sacerdos of the Santones, Caius Julius Rufus. This prominent local figure also gifted an arch to his city of Saintes, where, in an inscription, he does not hesitate to compare himself to Germanicus.
Other examples exist, such as a portico donated by the Bituriges to the baths of Néris, a theater in Eu, or another in Jublains.
Transformations and Integration
The integration of Gallic notables was essential for the Empire. By maintaining good relations with the indigenous population, the imperial elites could better exercise their functions in the province. Meanwhile, the local elites could aspire to social advancement.
However, these relations were not always straightforward, especially in Gaul, and often proved asymmetrical. This partly explains the relative integration of Gallo-Roman elites into the imperial elites, with notable differences between Narbonensis and northern Gaul (Gaule chevelue).
Other factors are at play: we previously mentioned the military and landowning background of the Iulii. They appear to have struggled following the revolt of Vindex in 69 AD, which led to repression among their ranks. They lost influence within the Gallo-Roman elite, which began to diversify, integrating, for instance, notable merchants—a trend that intensified under the Antonines. However, these conclusions should be tempered, as sources are scarce.
This heterogeneity of Gallo-Roman elites, combined with a level of urbanization that was less pronounced than elsewhere (and since elites are formed in cities), ultimately resulted in Gaul being less represented within the imperial elites (the equestrian order, and even more so the senatorial order) compared to provinces like Spain or North Africa.
After the conquest by Julius Caesar, the Pax Romana was established in Roman Gaul, which quickly became one of the most prosperous provinces of the Empire. Despite a few last revolts, the “Roman peace” settled under the principate of Augustus, and in two centuries, the landscape of Gaul transformed. The countryside became organized, the region adorned with new cities, and architects built roads and monuments. Romanization seemed complete. These two centuries of Pax Romana give an impression of prosperity: agriculture and crafts developed, and trade flourished. However, real difficulties slowly emerged, foreshadowing the major crises to come.
Conquest of Gaul by Caesar
Roman settlement in Gaul dates back to the late 2nd century BCE. At the time, Gaul was inhabited by a myriad of warlike Gallic tribes. Responding to a call for help from the Greek colony of Massalia, the Romans occupied it in 121 BCE and advanced along the coast toward their Iberian province and up the Rhône valley. They founded the colony of Narbonne, which became the center of the new and highly prosperous Roman province of the same name. To secure this province and consolidate his power in Rome, the Roman general Julius Caesar undertook the conquest of what was called “long-haired Gaul” in 58 BCE, which extended from the Pyrenees to the English Channel and the Rhine. The Gauls, united under the Arvernian leader Vercingetorix, were ultimately defeated during the siege of Alesia, following a war that lasted seven years.
Gaul slowly recovered from the ordeal of war and Roman conquest. Caesar then directed his policy in two directions: first, he planned, especially in southern Gaul, to settle former soldiers, veterans, in military colonies to ensure control of the country and serve as centers of Romanization. This was the case with Narbonne, Fréjus, Béziers, Arles, and Orange. Second, he secured the support of Gallic elites. Some had helped him during the conquest, while others supported him during the civil war against Pompey. He granted them Roman citizenship and gave them his name, Caius Julius. Thus was formed what has been called “a nobility of the Julii,” upon which his successor, Augustus, relied.
Pax Romana in Roman Gaul
Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. Credit: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 3.0
When Augustus, after defeating Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, established the principate, he took care to promote certain ideological themes that inspired hope and confidence. The civil wars before Octavian, the future Augustus, came to power had been so long and deadly that it was essential to reassure the populations of the Roman Empire. Augustus promised peace and made this his political program. This was the Roman Peace, in other words, submission to Roman law. In Rome, the Altar of Peace was built to commemorate the final pacification of the Iberian Peninsula. In all the provinces, altars were also erected, reminding the provincials that the time of war was over and a new era, the Peace of Augustus, had begun.
The new emperor’s actions were evident in many areas. First and foremost, it was essential to pacify, which in reality meant suppressing by force the last centers of resistance that occasionally reignited. The emperor sent his son-in-law Agrippa, who in a few battles eliminated the opponents, particularly in Aquitaine. Augustus himself visited Gaul several times to quell the frequent unrest in border areas.
Augustus’ Influence
Map of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent in 116 AD. Credit: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 3.0
The territory was divided into provinces organized into two groups. On one side, the former province of Transalpine Gaul, bounded by the Pyrenees, the Cévennes, the Alps, and the Mediterranean, with the Rhône valley as its central axis, was now called Narbonese Gaul and remained under senatorial control, as it had been during the Republic. On the other side, the Three Gauls, made up of three provinces governed by legates appointed directly by the emperor: Aquitaine, with its northern border extended to the Loire; Lugdunensis, between the Seine, Loire, and Marne; and Belgica, covering the entire north of the country. Each of these provinces was divided into cities.
This group of the Three Gauls had a federal capital carefully nurtured by Augustus, located in Lyon. This site, long occupied by the Celts, saw the foundation of a Roman military colony in 43 BCE on Fourvière Hill: Lugdunum. The rapid growth of this colony was partly due to the commercial center developing at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers.
But it was to Emperor Augustus that Lyon owed its political importance. The city was promoted to the capital of the Three Gauls. It became the meeting place for annual assemblies of delegates from all Gallic cities, where provincial matters were discussed. These assemblies, in another form, predated Romanization.
With remarkable political acumen, Augustus co-opted the former power structures of independent Gaul to serve his and Rome’s policies. He also made the city a central hub, as evidenced by the road network designed by Agrippa. From Lyon, major roads radiated out toward the north, northeast, and the Rhine frontier, eastward to the Alpine passes, southward to the Mediterranean, and westward to the Massif Central. Finally, Lyon became the capital of the official cult dedicated to Rome and Augustus.
The imperial cult was established early in municipal settings, as demonstrated by the Maison Carrée in Nîmes or the Temple of Augustus and Livia in Vienne. This cult strengthened the emperor’s power while also fostering the integration of the provincials.
Augustus also focused on southern Gaul. Urbanization, already well advanced in the 1st century BCE, accelerated thanks to numerous measures: the founding and strengthening of colonies, the granting of a more favorable legal status (Latin rights), and funding for civic works. He provided city walls for Vienne and Nîmes and subsidized the construction of theaters in Arles, Orange, and Vienne.
Resistance and Integration
However, Gaul in the 1st century AD was shaken by revolts whose aims are difficult to understand due to a lack of sources. The first of these revolts erupted under Tiberius in 21 AD, shaking the Pax Romana. These revolts are recounted by Tacitus, who highlights a particularly serious issue: debt. It was because they were burdened by heavy taxes and forced to go into debt that the populations of the Loire Valley, the Treveri, and the Aedui took up arms. Their discontent was even greater because they had previously enjoyed tax exemptions, which the Emperor Tiberius had to remove due to a severe financial crisis. These revolts, led by Romanized Gallic nobles, mostly broke out in the North and Northeast and were harshly repressed by Roman legions from the Rhine frontier.
Another revolt was fomented nearly fifty years later, in 69-70 AD, under very different conditions, as it was initially caused by a crisis affecting the imperial regime itself, weakened during Nero’s reign. However, within this complex movement, one can detect a clear expression of anti-Roman sentiment. It is known that Aedui peasants (eight thousand, according to the sources) followed a Celtic leader from Bohemia, Mariccus, who, speaking of Roman oppression, presented himself as the “liberator of Gaul.” The uprising had no further consequence, as Mariccus was arrested by the magistrates of Autun and executed. Nonetheless, it is significant because of the resonance it found in rural areas. Despite these sporadic resistances, the dominant sentiment was one of attachment to Rome, particularly within the ruling classes.
It is indeed in terms of integration that relations between Gauls and Romans were increasingly established, something the Emperor Claudius had understood very well. In a speech delivered in 48 AD, partially preserved in Lyon on a bronze plaque, he advocated for the Gallic nobles of the long-haired Gaul who wished to access imperial magistracies. Before a reluctant Senate, Claudius deployed all his knowledge and historical culture to demonstrate that Rome’s strength had always resided in its ability to welcome and integrate conquered peoples. After much hesitation, the Senate was convinced: integrating the Gauls would favor the development of the subjugated provinces.
Transformation of the Gallic Rural Landscape
Ancient authors tend to associate the development of the Gallo-Roman countryside with the Pax Romana: it was thanks to the peace established by the Romans that Gaul, naturally fertile, could devote itself to agriculture. This view is partial. Agriculture had already reached a remarkable level of development long before the conquest. However, it continued to grow during the Roman period due to more rational land use, increased productivity, and a deeper integration of production into trade networks.
The Romans exerted their influence over the rural population in two ways: first, they seized land to allocate it to former soldiers, Roman citizens who became full-fledged landowners within the colonies; second, they imposed a land tax, the tributum, on provincial non-citizens, an obvious mark of their subjugation. To establish colonies, count the population, and set the tax base, the Romans undertook a vast land surveying effort, the traces of which can still be observed in some areas of the present-day landscape.
On hundreds of hectares, they marked out large squares of 710 meters per side, delineated by roads, paths, or boundary markers. Properties within these large squares—called centuries—were delimited, identified, and allocated. All the information was then recorded and archived by specialized administrative services, as evidenced by the fragments of the land registry from the colony of Orange.
The Gallo-Roman Villa
The pre-Roman Gallic agricultural estates were replaced by large rural estates, known as villae, which were self-sufficient but also engaged in trade, as evidenced by pottery and jewelry found during excavations. The villa was a production unit consisting of agricultural land, the residence of the landowner (the villa in the strict sense), and outbuildings and workshops: a forge, carpentry shop, mill, brewery, weaving workshop, and, in southern estates, a winemaking facility.
The size of the estates varied significantly, influencing the modes of exploitation. It is likely that on estates of 50 to 100 hectares, direct farming with a predominantly servile labor force, a common practice in the South, was used. On very large estates, tenant farming or sharecropping was employed. The dominance of large estates should not overshadow the fact that the countryside was also inhabited by native villages and hamlets.
Under these conditions, exploitation took on very diverse forms. Alongside subsistence farming, speculative production developed, particularly on the villae, benefiting from the technical improvements introduced by the Gauls: the plow with a metal share, the wheeled plow, the harvester, various crop rotation practices, and fertilization. There was a marked increase in productivity, allowing for the production of surplus goods for commercial sale.
The North focused on cereals (wheat, millet, barley) and textile plants (flax, hemp), which were sold in the Rhine region. The South increasingly turned its production towards olive cultivation and, above all, viticulture. The latter expanded greatly during the 1st century and spread to Burgundy and the banks of the Moselle. With well-adapted grape varieties and efficient winemaking techniques, Gallic wines circulated within the country and the Mediterranean Basin. This rural development was closely linked to the extraordinary growth of urbanization.
Cities, Political and Cultural Centers
The establishment of municipal structures by the Romans was accompanied by a considerable expansion of urbanization. This effort was particularly focused on the Three Gauls, where cities were almost non-existent. The chosen sites were often located in plains near oppida: such as Clermont-Ferrand at the foot of Gergovia and Autun near Bibracte.
Contrary to a somewhat simplistic view, Gallo-Roman cities were not built according to a rigid, imposed Roman model. It is pointless, for example, to insist on finding a regular orthogonal plan. Where circumstances allowed, a grid layout was used, but this was not the primary concern for builders. The essential aim was to equip the city so it could serve as a political, administrative, economic, and religious center. The heart of the city was occupied by the forum, a large square around which the main public buildings were situated: the curia, basilica, temples dedicated to official gods and the emperor.
These political centers, with their porticoed forums like Ruscino, and colonnaded temples like those in Nîmes and Vienne, had a grand and theatrical character that seemed to appeal to these small provincial towns. Alongside these public life centers, which everywhere reflected the influence of Rome, the numerous leisure and relaxation buildings demonstrated the importance of collective life.
Among these buildings, the baths, theaters, and amphitheaters still impress with their size and capacity. The theater in Autun could hold 38,000 spectators, while the amphitheater in Arles accommodated 28,000 people, and the one in Nîmes, 24,000. The density and scale of these monuments, designed to enhance urban life and foster social gatherings, prove that they attracted not only the city’s population—typically around 8,000 to 10,000 inhabitants—but also the surrounding region’s people.
Religions and the Christianization of Roman Gaul
The religious landscape of Roman Gaul was exceptionally rich. The imperial cult, associated with Rome, does not seem to have had a significant impact on the Gauls: many Gaulish beliefs and practices continued, with major Celtic deities still being venerated and indigenous sanctuaries remaining active. However, contact with the Romans expanded the pantheon, enriching and diversifying the iconography, and leading to the development of unique syncretisms. Furthermore, from the 1st century onwards, salvation cults from the East, such as the cults of Cybele, Mithra, and Christianity, began to spread along trade routes, in cities, and in frontier regions. The rise of these spiritually and emotionally charged religions reflected growing anxieties during difficult times.
By the 2nd century CE, Christian presence was noted in Lyon and Vienne, among communities from Asia Minor. After the persecutions of 177 CE, Bishop Irenaeus wrote the first Christian texts in Gaul. Evangelization of Gallic cities became very active in the 3rd century, thanks to various bishops such as Denis in Lutetia, Trophimus in Arles, Martial in Limoges, and Saturninus in Toulouse. Unlike the cities, the countryside remained attached to pagan worship, and it was not until a hundred years later, with Saint Martin, bishop of Tours, that they began to fully convert. The massive conversion of Gaul only occurred under Constantine, the emperor who established Christianity as the official religion throughout the Empire in 312 CE.
Commerce and Craftsmanship during the Pax Romana
In cities, all trades and crafts were represented. Traditional woodworkers, such as carpenters and coopers, were well-known through their large guilds, which had a religious aspect; metal trades have left enough artifacts—arms, vases, jewelry, and coins—to attest to the skill of founders, blacksmiths, and bronze workers. Stoneworking was more recent, as the Gauls had little stone architecture, but they quickly became excellent builders, with quarrymen, stonemasons, and bricklayers active in the numerous construction sites across Gaul.
However, it was perhaps in pottery and glasswork that the Gallo-Romans reached their greatest mastery. Gallic potters, already numerous and skilled during the period of independence, quickly adopted manufacturing techniques from Italy, particularly from Arezzo. They produced red-slipped pottery called sigillata, from the word sigillum, referring to the stamp with which they signed their wares. Centers of sigillata production multiplied in the Southwest at La Graufesenque, Montans, and Banassac, in the Center at Lezoux, and in the Northeast. This pottery fueled a thriving trade in Gaul, Italy, and the provinces.
Solid glass had long been used by the Gauls for jewelry (bracelets, necklaces), but during the Roman period, the spread of glassblowing techniques enabled glassmakers to create, with incredible boldness, flasks, bottles, and goblets in a wide variety of shapes and colors.
This artisanal production, along with agricultural products, fueled local, regional, and international trade. Lyon, Narbonne, Arles, and, to a lesser extent, Bordeaux, became major commercial centers, though all cities engaged in trade of raw materials (lead, copper, tin), agricultural products (wheat, wine, olive oil), textiles, and manufactured goods (ceramics, glassware).
Trade routes had definitively lost their colonial character from the Republican era. Consumers exhibited diverse needs and benefited from a relatively flexible market and a general rise in living standards. The wine trade is a good example: while Gaul exported large quantities of wine, especially to Italy, it simultaneously continued importing Italian wine.
Why? It was because the wines were of very different qualities: Gallic wine was an ordinary wine, mainly intended for the population of Rome, which was a heavy consumer, while Italian wine imported into Gaul was of a quality reserved for a wealthy clientele. Similar observations can be made for the oil trade. These lucrative activities were managed by specialists, the negotiatores, who were well-known in Lyon and Narbonne. Within their powerful guilds, linked to transporters and shipowners, they were regarded as prominent figures.
The End of the Pax Romana in Gaul
Life in Gaul during the first two centuries CE conveys an impression of peace and prosperity. In all sectors of economic life, activity was intense, and by the end of the 2nd century, resistance seemed definitively subdued. Gaul, protected by strong fortifications along the Rhine, appeared capable of withstanding the fearsome Germanic incursions. Yet some cracks were already appearing: city budgets were increasingly in deficit, peasants were agitating against the accelerating land concentration, and the state itself, under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, was shaken.
By the 3rd century, Gaul faced both the military anarchy that destabilized the Empire and the first barbarian invasions. Despite occasional periods of respite, the Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century, and with it, the Pax Romana. Roman Gaul would survive in the new kingdoms founded, notably that of the Franks.
125-121 BC: Rome’s legions, led by consul Fluvius Flaccus, intervene in Gaul for the first time in 125 BC, in what is now Provence. They defeat the local Gaulish peoples: the Ligurians, Salyens, and Vocontii. Four years later, consul Fabius Maximus defeats the Allobroges (settled between the Rhône and the Southern Alps). A new Roman province is born: Gallia Transalpina (Transalpine Gaul).
118 BC: Domitius Ahenobarbus establishes the Colonia Narbo Martius (Narbonne). The general and consul turns the city into a commercial crossroads of the western Mediterranean.
102 BC: Fortified in a camp on the Rhône, consul Caius Marius defeats two Germanic-Celtic tribes, the Teutons and Cimbri, at Aquae Sextiae (Aix-en-Provence). These tribes sought to cross the Alps to attack Rome. His triumph halts further foreign invasions on Gaulish soil.
61 BC: Led by their chief Catugnatos, the Allobroges rise again to take control of Transalpine Gaul. The province’s governor, Caius Pomptinus, defeats them at the Battle of Solonion near Valence (Drôme).
58 BC: Wishing to match the military exploits of his rival Pompey (106-48 BC), Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), proconsul of Transalpine Gaul, begins his conquest of “long-haired Gaul” (Gallia Comata), inhabited by powerful tribes like the Arverni (Auvergne), the Aedui (Burgundy), and the Carnutes (Central Loire Valley). Caesar exploits rivalries between these tribes to carry out his Gallic Wars.
52 BC: Upon his return to Rome, crowned with victories, Caesar learns of unrest in Gaul: Roman merchants have been massacred in Cenabum (Orléans) and the Arverni chief Vercingetorix (80-46 BC) has raised an army of 80,000 men. In June, Caesar’s legions lay siege to the oppidum of Gergovia but are defeated by the Gauls. Caesar imposes a two-month siege, from August to September, at Alesia, starving the population. Vercingetorix is forced to surrender. The following year, all of Gaul becomes Roman.
40 BC: After the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, Rome is divided between his grand-nephew Octavian, generals Lepidus and Mark Antony, who form a triumvirate. They conclude the Pact of Brundisium (Brindisi, Italy), which recognizes Mark Antony as master of the East and Lepidus of Africa. Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus, rules over Gaul.
27 BC: Founded in 43 BC by proconsul Munatius Plancus, Lugdunum (Lyon) is elevated to the rank of capital of Gaul. The city houses the only mint outside Rome authorized to strike gold and silver coins and becomes the empire’s second aqueduct system.
16-13 BC: Emperor Augustus (63 BC-14 AD) gives Gaul a new administrative framework. Transalpine Gaul, governed by a proconsul, becomes Narbonensis, named after its capital Narbo Martius (Narbonne).
Long-haired Gaul is divided into provinces: the Three Gauls: Belgica with its capital Durocortorum (Reims), Lugdunensis with Lugdunum (Lyon), and Aquitania governed from Mediolanum Santonum (Saintes). Gaulish peoples are grouped into civitates (cities), and their governor is the emperor himself.
12 BC: The imperial cult establishes its first sanctuary in Lugdunum (Lyon) and a second in Narbo Martius (Narbonne). Every year on August 1st, the Council of Gaul, bringing together representatives from the sixty cities of the three provinces, elects a high priest to celebrate Rome and the emperor.
9 AD: Three Roman legions led by General Publius Quinctilius Varus are massacred by the Germans in the Teutoburg Forest (modern-day Germany). The province of Germania slips out of Rome’s control. The Romans consolidate the border on the Rhine but no longer seek to control the area between the Rhine and the Danube, which from the third century will become the starting point of the “barbarian invasions.”
The Julio-Claudians, Heirs of Augustus
21 AD: While Julius Caesar had exempted most Gaulish peoples from taxes, Emperor Tiberius (42 BC-37 AD) demands a tribute from all. Julius Florus, leader of the Treveri (inhabitants of modern-day Belgium), and Julius Sacrovir, leader of the Aedui (in Burgundy), launch a revolt. Defeated by legions returning from Germania, the two members of the old Gaulish aristocracy commit suicide.
48 AD: Emperor Claudius (10 BC-54 AD), born in Lugdunum (Lyon), delivers a remarkable speech in the Senate advocating for Gaulish nobles to be considered full Roman citizens. Only the elites of a few tribes allied with Rome, like the Aedui, will gain this status.
68-69 AD After the death of Nero (37-68), the last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Rome plunges into political chaos, with four usurpers succeeding each other. The Gauls are drawn into this civil war through the governors of the Three Gauls.
Peaceful Rule of the Flavians
70 AD: Under Emperor Vespasian (9-79), the first emperor of the Flavian dynasty, the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) is solidified during an assembly in Durocortorum (Reims), where, “in the name of Gaul,” the Gallo-Roman elites swear loyalty to Rome.
90 AD: During the reign of Emperor Domitian (51-96), the construction of public buildings multiplies in the major Gallo-Roman cities. Amphitheaters are built in Nîmes, Orange, and Arles. A 275-meter-long and 48-meter-high aqueduct, meant to bring water from the Uzès spring to the city of Nemausus (Nîmes), begins to be erected: this will be the future Pont du Gard.
92 AD: Worried about the increase in Gaul’s wine exports, which threatens small Roman vineyards, Domitian orders, by decree, the uprooting of half of Gaul’s vineyards.
Under the Antonines and Severans
177 AD: As Christianity emerges in Gaul, Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180), alarmed by this new religion, demands public executions. Among the most notable are 66 martyrs thrown to the wild beasts in the amphitheater of Lugdunum (Lyon).
197 AD: Emperor Septimius Severus (145-211) sacks Lugdunum (Lyon), the capital of Gaul, which had allied with the usurper Clodius Albinus. Gallo-Roman senators are executed.
212 AD: The Constitutio Antoniniana, also known as the Edict of Caracalla, grants Roman citizenship to all free men in the empire who had not yet acquired it.
Third Century Crisis of the Roman Empire
253-274 AD: Abandoned by the empire, plagued by military anarchy, the Gallo-Romans secede to defend against the first “barbarian invasions” from the east. General Postumus seizes Cologne and declares himself “Emperor of the Gauls” in 260, before being assassinated. In 274, Emperor Aurelian (214-275) restores unity. He is killed by the Praetorian Guard a year later.
284-286 AD: Driven into misery, armed bands of landless peasants, slaves, and deserting soldiers, called the “Bagaudae,” loot and plunder northwest Gaul. Emperor Diocletian (245-313) violently suppresses these outcasts of Roman conquest.
303 AD: To weaken the power of governors, Diocletian divides Gaul into sixteen imperial provinces grouped into two districts: Diocesis Galliarum, north of the Loire and Rhône, with Augusta Treverorum (Trier) as its capital, and Diocesis Viennensis, which extends to the southernmost provinces, with Vienna (Vienne) as its capital.
Rise of Christianity
313-392 AD: Emperor Constantine I (272-337) converts to Christianity in 313. Theodosius I (347-395) continues his work with the Edict of Thessalonica in 380, which declares Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. He bans all pagan practices in 392.
406 AD: The “barbarian invasions” sweep across Gaul. Vandals, Suebi, and Alans, Germanic tribes, cross the Rhine and destroy everything in their path. Weakened, Emperor Flavius Honorius (384-423) does not intervene.
410 AD: Rome is sacked by the Visigoths of Alaric I. This Germanic people then seizes Narbonensis and Aquitaine in Gaul.
Collapse of the Roman World
476 AD: On September 4, Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, barbarians allied with the Huns of Attila, confronts Romulus Augustulus (461-507), the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire. He deposes him and becomes the first Germanic king of Italy. The Western Empire collapses.
486 AD: The Roman Empire is replaced in Gaul by a Frankish kingdom ruled by Clovis (465-511). From the Merovingians to the Carolingians, a new Gallo-Frankish identity emerges. Roman civilization begins to merge with the “barbarian” world of the Franks, leading to the birth of the French language.
Julius Caesar represents more than just ancient Rome today; he represents the entire world. Scholars agree that he was the impetus behind the rise of modern Europe. Caesar possessed an abundance of charisma, a quality crucial for a politician and a statesman. He won the hearts of many of his contemporaries and successors. His reputation as an exceptional leader and politician, a brilliant orator and writer, and a multitalented genius has stood the test of time. Julius Caesar’s commentaries on the Gallic and civil wars are his main contribution to the literature. Caesar’s writings were studied for their military advice and inspiration. It’s no coincidence that in the Roman catacombs of The Count of Monte Cristo, Alexandre Dumas does not miss the chance to mention Caesar’s Commentaries.
Caesar’s terrible death as a martyr has been glorified and has provided artists with endless fodder for their craft. Along with Judas, a traitor to divine glory, Dante placed Brutus and Cassius, the two main Caesarean killers, in the Ninth Circle of Hell, where Lucifer himself torments them for their transgressions against human grandeur. Numerous anecdotes, semi-legendary tales, and common adages have Caesar as their inspiration or central figure. Examining the ancient traditions allows readers to establish their own impressions of the Roman dictator, who is certainly not easy to assess objectively.
1- Caesar Was Born by Caesarean Section – Hence the Name of the Operation
Medieval depiction of Caesarian birth. Source: British Library
Before the time of Julius Caesar, obstetricians routinely performed procedures similar to the Caesarean section (“sectio caesarea”). Dionysus, the god of wine, and Asclepius, the god of healing, were both taken from the wombs of deceased mothers in Greek mythology and resembled genuine medical instances. Ancient Indian, Chinese, Babylonian, Iranian, and other texts also make reference to this procedure. Laws enacted by King Numa Pompilius (“leges regiae”) of ancient Rome prohibited the burial of a pregnant woman without first removing the fetus. This was the case 700 years before Caesar was born.
According to Pliny the Elder, several well-known Romans were born via Caesarean section. These include Scipio Africanus, who beat Hannibal; Manius Manilius, who led an army into Carthage; and the first of the Caesars (not Julius Caesar himself). Pliny states that Caesar’s ancestor was prematurely delivered through the cutting of the mother’s womb (caeso). Thus comes the family name of the Caesars: a caeso matris utero dictus.
Born around 100 or 101 BC, Julius Caesar is considered one of the most influential figures in history. Due to the aforesaid rule, fetal removal was only performed when the mother was either near death or had already passed away, as it was not possible to perform the procedure in a way that would have kept both mother and child alive at the time. Additionally, we know that Caesar’s mother, Aurelius, lived through delivery and passed away in old age in 54 BC because of the accounts of Suetonius.
This is an example of a fabricated etymology. Explaining this misunderstanding is challenging. Pliny’s participle caesus (“dissected,” “cut up”), produced from the verb caedere, may have been mistaken for the adjective caesareus (“from Caesar”) by subsequent authors, in particular the developers of the 10th-century Byzantine Dictionary of the Court. Legend has it that Caesareus, or “Caesar,” was named after him. The mythology of Caesar’s birth was already widely circulated by the Middle Ages, with many medieval manuscripts featuring scenes of the young Caesar being ripped from his mother’s womb.
Verdict: Hardly.
2- Caesar Fought Asterix and Obelix, but Could Not Defeat Them
Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar, painted by Lionel Royer in 1899.
Claude Zidi’s film “Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar“, based on the comic books by René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo, is based on characters that do not exist in real life. Long hair and breeches, a barbarous garment severely loathed by the Romans, are the only features they share in common with the actual Gauls of history.
It is true that Caesar was at war with the Gauls, and he was victorious. He held the office of consul in 59 BC. Following his year as consul, Caesar often served as viceroy with proconsular powers in a Roman province for the following year. Caesar foresaw this and had a law passed through a people’s tribune that gave him control of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyric (present-day Albania and Croatia) for five years.
The Senate later added Gallia Narbonensis (“Gaul of Narbonne,” modern-day Provence), which the Romans had conquered in the last third of the second century BC. Transalpine Gaul, or “Gaul on the far side of the Alps,” was the target of Caesar’s conquest plans. This region was roughly the size of modern-day France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Switzerland combined. Due to the Gallic fashion of having long hair, the Romans also referred to this untamed land as Gallia Comata.
Caesar won early victories in the war by subjugating many of the Gallic tribes and defeating the Germanic tribes that had invaded Gaul. Caesar’s mandate was extended for another five years in 56 BC.
All of the native tribes of Gaul, including the Eburones, Belgae, Nervians, and others, were ready to erupt at any moment. The all-Gaulish great uprising, which started in the winter of 53 BC, was the biggest difficulty the Romans ever faced. Vercingetorix, a youthful leader of the Arverni people, commanded the army in the year 52. It was true that Caesar had to retake Gaul. By the end of 51 BC, the Romans had finally managed to bring peace to Gaul.
Caesar “took by storm more than eight hundred cities, subdued three hundred nations, and fought pitched battles at different times with three million men, of whom he slew one million in hand-to-hand fighting and took as many more prisoners,” as Plutarch puts it, during the years Caesar spent in Gaul. Despite the questions that these unbelievable numbers pose, the outcomes of the Gallic Wars were outstanding. Rome captured a sizable territory and made massive plunder. Caesar benefited monetarily, but more crucially, by acquiring an army that was disciplined, experienced, and loyal.
The relatives and offspring of Asterix and Obelix were quickly Romanized. Caesar had already appointed a number of Gauls to the Roman Senate, and they celebrated their newfound status with songs like “Galli bracas deposuerunt, latum clavum sumpserunt,” which translates to “The Gauls set aside their bracae [the trousers of Gauls] and took up the laticlave.” The Roman upper magistrates and senators wore the pretense toga, distinguished by its wide purple border. After another few centuries, the Gauls would abandon their Druid priests and their own language in favor of a distorted form of Latin. Gaul eventually became one of the Roman Empire’s most Romanized regions.
Verdict: Wrong.
3- Did Caesar Crossed the Rubicon and Said: “The die is cast (Alea Iacta est)”
Caesar Crossing the Rubicon, Adolphe Yvon, 1875.
This took place at the outset of the dramatic civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Even though they were related (Julia, Caesar’s only daughter, married Pompey), the erstwhile allies of the first triumvirate turned out to be bitter enemies.
Julia passed away during delivery in 54 BC, and Crassus was killed in a failed Parthian war the following year, in 53 BC. For all intents and purposes, this spelled the end of the triumvirate. In Gaul, Caesar was racking up victory after victory. Pompey, on the other hand, was envious of Caesar because he believed the Gallic viceroy would eventually surpass him as Rome’s most capable military leader due to the viceroy’s growing popularity.
Caesar’s opponents in the Senate brought up the idea of removing his authority over Gaul sooner rather than later. At first, Pompey approved of these plots, but eventually he publicly aligned himself with Cato the Younger’s radical Optimates, who were adversaries of Pompey’s ex-father-in-law. Since the Optimates saw both Caesar and Pompey as prospective tyrants out to destroy the Senate, they opted for the lesser of two evils and formed an alliance with Pompey.
As of March 1, 49 BC, Caesar’s mandate was officially due to end. Caesar planned to run for consul (while he was absent), so he could switch from pro-consul to consul simply by resigning his current position. But his detractors called for his urgent presence and planned to put him on trial. The Gallic Command’s years of operating autonomously and without consideration for the Senate had amassed enough evidence against it. Pompey and the radical Optimates demanded a resolution for Caesar to relinquish his authority and dissolve the army during a Senate sitting on January 1, 49 BC.
In the event that the Gallic commander would not comply, Caesar was labeled an “enemy of the fatherland.” At 49 years old, Caesar heard about the turmoil in Rome and led his XIII legion (the only one he had west of the Alps) to the Rubicon River, which divided Cisalpine Gaul from Italy proper. Sulla’s dictatorship forbade the governor of the province from entering Italian territory with an army, and the governor’s crossing of the Rubicon with the legion heralded the start of a civil war.
All historians of his time cite Caesar’s apprehension and reflection at the Rubicon. According to Suetonius, Caesar said the following to his friends: “Even yet we may draw back; but once cross yon little bridge, and the whole issue is with the sword.” Then, miraculously, a tall, handsome man started playing the flute, grabbed a trumpet from one of the troops, splashed into the water, and swam to the other side while trumpeting the war signal.
Moving on, Caesar said, “Take we the course which the signs of the gods and the false dealing of our foes point out. The die is cast (Alea iacta est)“. The Greek historian Appian reports that a resolute Caesar told those in attendance, “My friends, stopping here will be the beginning of sorrows for me; crossing over will be such for all mankind.” Then, saying, “Let the die be cast,” Caesar “crossed with a rush like one inspired”. According to Plutarch, who also cites the same remark, Caesar originally spoke it in Greek.
Caesar made his way rapidly across Etruria and into Rome after crossing the Rubicon on January 10, 49 BC. This sparked yet another uprising during the latter years of the Roman Republic.
Verdict: He did.
4- Caesar Seized Power in Rome by Force
‘La clémence de César’ 1808 painting by Abel de Pujol depicting Julius Caesar.
Caesar crossed the Rubicon and marched toward Rome. As he marched into Italy, he encountered little in the way of real opposition; the Pompeians either surrendered or fled, while the smaller communities eagerly welcomed Caesar upon his arrival. Due to the quick advancement of the enemy, Pompey and his friends evacuated Rome, leaving behind the state treasury as well. With part of his army, Pompey marched to Greece. Seven more of his faithful troops were stationed in Spain.
Caesar’s policy of clementia (mercy) during the civil war, in which captives were routinely freed and no one was punished, was in direct response to the enemy’s strategy of clemency (pity). Caesar’s legions were open to recruits at will, and officers were frequently sent back to Pompey. This was in sharp contrast to the horrors done by both the Marians and the Sullans during the first Roman civil war and was unprecedented in the civil conflict that had plagued the Romans since the time of the Gracchus brothers (the final third of the second century BC). Caesar won every major battle, yet the civil war still lasted five years. The same dogged Pompeians who Caesar repeatedly crushed, only to free and forgive, turned against him.
The Civil War’s last fight took place at Munda, Spain, in March 45 BC. For a long time, nobody knew how everything would turn out. At some point, the lines of the Caesarians shook; suddenly, Caesar snatched his shield and raced forward to the enemy’s line. He took a barrage of spears before the ashamed centurions came to his aid. Caesar confessed that the fight at Munda was his toughest. He had often battled for success, but now, for the first time, he had to fight for his life.
Verdict: Correct.
5- Caesar Had An Affair With Cleopatra
Cleopatra and Caesar by Jean-Leon-Gerome (Alternate version), before 1866.
The meeting of Caesar and Cleopatra was tense. Dejected after Caesar’s historic victory against Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC), Pompey fled to Egypt in search of asylum, having previously shown excellent service to the late King Ptolemy Auletes of that country. Ptolemy XIII, King of Egypt at the tender age of 13, and his elder sister, Cleopatra VII, Queen of Egypt at the ripe old age of 20, were engaged in a bloody dynastic struggle for control of the Hellenistic state their father, Auletes, had founded. Ptolemy’s local royal guards made the decision to have Pompey killed to avoid a conflict with Caesar. They dispatched a boat for Pompey, and as soon as he got off the ship and onto the boat, he was murdered in front of his wife and son. Caesar, having accompanied Pompey to Alexandria, was appalled by the brutality and could not contain his emotions when he was presented with the severed head of his former opponent as a gift.
Caesar invaded Egypt with just two undermanned armies, yet the Romans nevertheless managed to seize key buildings like the royal palace in Alexandria. Egypt was understandably worried; Caesar intended to get revenge for the assassination of Pompey. There were signs of an impending war. The Roman said he wanted to resolve the succession dispute in Egypt and used this as an excuse to call for Cleopatra, who had either been kicked out of Alexandria or had fled the city herself. According to Plutarch, the girl was smuggled into the Roman camp away from her brother by having one of her friends carry her in a “bed bag.” This audacity on Cleopatra’s part impressed and fascinated Caesar. Herein lies the prologue to what would become one of the most widely read books in history.
The Egyptian queen was praised for her great beauty, loverliness, and sexuality by a wide range of authors from antiquity to the present era. Not surprisingly, the myth of “Cleopatra’s Egyptian nights” arose as a result of the widespread belief that she was a seductress, a demonic woman, and a charmer. According to Roman author Aurelius Victor from the fourth century, “many men paid with their lives for the possession of her for one night.” Cleopatra was the queen of Egypt, yet her flawless beauty is not reflected in antique busts or on coins commemorating her. Cleopatra was really appealing due to her brilliance and charisma. “The beauty of this woman was not what is called incomparable and strikes at first sight, but her treatment was distinguished by irresistible charm, and thus her appearance, combined with rare conviction of speech, had a huge charm, oozing in every word and oozing in every movement, firmly impressed in the soul,” wrote Plutarch. Her voice was like music to my ears; it was soothing and entrancing.
Cleopatra had an impressive education and mastered a number of tongues. Although she was the personification of the Egyptian goddess Isis and governed Egypt as its queen, the Greek-born Ptolemaic dynasty had dominated Egypt since the fall of Alexander the Great’s kingdom.
Caesar, unsurprisingly, sided with Cleopatra in her bid for Egypt’s crown and remained there for a significant amount of time. With the help of his newly arriving troops, Caesar quickly put down the anti-Roman uprising in Alexandria and ultimately beat Ptolemy’s forces. The young king was drowned in the Nile while trying to escape, and Cleopatra became ruler of Egypt. After that, the Roman commander was in no hurry to depart Egypt; instead, he and Cleopatra sailed down the Nile in a massive flotilla of 400 ships, taking in the sights and enjoying the finer things in life.
Even after Pompey’s death, the civil war continued. Caesar had to depart Egypt in the early summer of 47 BC because the Pompeians had grown stronger in the intervening months, and he didn’t want to risk losing the benefits of the Pharsalus triumph. Cleopatra gave birth to a son named Caesar (the Alexandrians dubbed him Caesarion, that is, “little Caesar”) not long after Caesar left, and the child, according to Suetonius, resembled his father in appearance and bearing.
Caesar invited Cleopatra to Rome in 46 BC, when he presented her with a sumptuous Tiber Riverside home and hosted a grand celebration in her honor. The purpose of the trip was to seal an alliance between Rome and Egypt, but the Egyptian queen ended up staying in Rome for quite some time. On the other hand, Caesar did not end his marriage to Calpurnia in order to wed Cleopatra. On the night before the Ides of March, he went to sleep for the last time.
Before leaving for the Senate on March 15, 1944, he spent some time with his wife, with whom he later bid farewell. Caesarion was never legally acknowledged as Caesar’s son, and Caesar did not name him as an heir in his testament. Suetonius adds that Caesar adored Cleopatra more than any other woman in his life.
Verdict: It’s true.
6- Caesar Is the Author of “I came; I saw; I conquered (Veni, vidi, vici)”
The Triumphs of Caesar IX: Julius Caesar, Andrea Mantegna, circa 1488.
The Latin words sound even more powerful because they all start with the same letter: Veni, vidi, vici. This phrase was first used by the Caesarians and Pompeians in the civil war during the Pontic campaign (49–45 BC). During a time of internal instability in Rome, the Bosporan monarch Pharnaces began reclaiming the territories that had belonged to his vanquished father Mithridates at the hands of Pompey.
The majority of the Kingdom of Pontus was annexed by Rome and made into the province of Pontus in 63 BC. Pharnaces betrayed his father during those events, for which he received a part of his kingdom (the Bosporus Kingdom) from the Romans. But that wasn’t enough for Mithridates’s son, who had visions of reestablishing a mighty Pontic empire. As soon as Caesar found out that Pharnaces was against him, he left Egypt. On August 2, 47 BC, they fought near the city of Zela, but Caesar won. The iconic “lightning” phrase was created because the Pontic battle was over in a flash, in just five days.
Various ancient authors testify that it was Caesar who uttered it, though with some discrepancies. According to Plutarch, Caesar wrote these remarks in a letter to his friend Amantius (however, it appears that Plutarch misrepresented the true identity of Caesar’s friend, Gaius Matius). According to Appian, the phrase may be found in a Senate report. According to Suetonius, a plaque bearing the inscription “Veni, vidi, vici” was carried among the trophies as part of Caesar’s pontic portion of the triumph in 46 BC, while he was celebrating his quadruple triumph (over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa). Suetonius claims that “by this, Caesar was not noting the events of the war but the swiftness of its completion.”
Verdict: Yes, these are the words of the great Roman.
It was officially Caesar’s reign over Rome from 45 BC forward. His dictatorial powers provided him with a legitimate foundation for ruling. In the autumn of 49 BC, Caesar assumed dictatorship for the first time; however, he lasted just 11 days. During that period, he oversaw elections, celebrations, and the introduction of many bills, including legislation to provide free food to the poor and partially forgive debts. Caesar was granted dictatorial powers permanently following the Battle of Pharsalus at the end of 48 BC, similar to those granted to dictator Sulla.
The Senate also bestowed upon Caesar, the victor, a variety of unprecedented honors, including the authority to unilaterally declare war and negotiate peace, to run for consular office for five years, and to preside over the Senate for the rest of his life. In ancient Rome, the tribunes of the people had the power of veto, meaning they could block any law or decree from taking effect. Only commoners could hold such a job. Moreover, Caesar was born into a wealthy family.
Then, the Roman dictator benefited from a new trick: the division of powers. The dictator was granted censorship powers after the battle of Thapsus in 46 BC, which meant that he was responsible for selecting senators. As Senate princeps, he had the honor of speaking and voting first in all Senate proceedings; his curule chair was positioned between the consuls, the two highest Roman judges. The Senate, a bottomless pit of adulation, bestowed the titles of Liberator, Father of the Fatherland, and Emperor upon the winner after the Battle of Munda.
Around the turn of the year 44 BC, Caesar’s cult of personality reached its pinnacle. His person was made sacred (sacro sanctus), games were held in his honor, and his statue was worshiped alongside that of the gods. In February 44 BC, Caesar’s rule became absolute. The dictator’s authority began to seem more and more like that of a monarch, but it was mixed with the Senate, the magistracy, and the people’s assembly, all of which had republican roots. Caesar didn’t want to wipe them out entirely; he just put them under his thumb.
The tyrant did more than just shore up his own power; he also instituted reforms that brought stability to Roman society. He reinstated the sculptures of Sulla and Pompey in the Senate as part of his stated philosophy of generosity. There were new restrictions on living lavishly. There was a lot of building done. Using his expertise in astronomy, Egyptian astronomer Sosigenes oversaw a reform of the calendar. Approximately 80,000 Caesarite soldiers, including many Pompeian exiles, were granted land. Citizenship was awarded to residents of several towns and provinces, and the Romanization of the conquered peoples proceeded quickly as a result.
Verdict: It’s true.
8- Caesar Was Treacherously Murdered by His Best Friend, and Before He Died He Said: “And you, Brutus? (Et tu, Brute?)”
The assassination of Julius Caesar. Artist: William Holmes Sullivan, c. 1888.
At the start of the year 44 BC, Caesar was getting ready to launch a major offensive against the Parthian kingdom in the East. It was during this time that a plot was hatched against the dictator by a group that comprised several pardoned Pompeians, such as the commanders Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Although many Caesarians, like Decimus Brutus and Trebonius, opposed the dictator, there were also numerous Caesarians who owed their careers and fortunes to the dictator. Some people joined the conspirators for their own selfish purposes, but the vast majority did so out of a genuine concern that Caesar’s rule might devolve into a dictatorship.
During the Lupercalia celebration on February 15, 44, an occurrence took place that was very upsetting to certain segments of Roman society. Marc Antony, a Caesar ally and general, made an embarrassing effort to publicly present the dictator with a laurel wreath. Plutarch says, “Liquid acclaim surged throughout the populace, as had been arranged in preparation.” As one man put it, “When Caesar rejected the crown, all the people applauded.” This occurred again when Antony attempted the tactic a second time. As Caesar saw the crowd’s response, he gave the order for the crown to be transported to the Capitol’s Jupiter Temple. They inscribed “If only you were alive!” and “Oh, if only you were with us today” on a statue of Marcus Junius Brutus’ semi-legendary ancestor, Lucius Junius Brutus, one of the founders of the Roman Republic and a subverter of the last king, Tarquinius the Proud.
When Mark Junius Brutus was praetor (in 44), he got messages asking him something to the effect of, “Are you sleeping, Brutus?” “You’re not the genuine Brutus,” he said. Now, a word or two about Brutus, the man who came to symbolize the plot. Perhaps it was because his mother, Servilia, had been the dictator’s lover in the past, but Caesar had a warm place for him from the beginning. An even more improbable theory is that Brutus was really Caesar’s son, as suggested by certain ancient writers. In 85 BC, Brutus entered the world. Caesar was about 16 at the time, so he and Servilia didn’t really start dating until much later. Brutus initially sided with Pompey, but when the Pompeians were defeated at Pharsalus, he surrendered to Caesar and was recognized as one of his “closest allies.”
Brutus had a fruitful political career in the new era, rising to the positions of governor of Cisalpine Gaul (46 BC), praetor of Rome (44 BC), and consul (41 BC). However, this did not prevent Brutus from writing a eulogy for Caesar’s opponent, Cato, in 45 or from liking Cato himself. After divorcing Claudia Pulchera, Brutus married Cato’s daughter, Portia.
According to Plutarch, the other conspirators asked Cassius to recruit Brutus because they wanted a symbolic (because of his name) figure on their side.
On March 15, 44, the Ides of March, the conspirators met in the Senate one more time to plot Caesar’s assassination before launching an invasion of the Parthian Empire. Calpurnia, the dictator’s wife, had a nightmare in which she saw her dead husband, but Caesar nevertheless went to the Senate the day thereafter, despite the dire warnings and predictions being circulated about him. When the dictator ran across the fortune teller Spurinna, who had previously warned him of the peril that awaited him on the Ides of March, he joked that the Ides had already arrived. His reply was, “Yes, they have arrived, but they have not yet gone.”
Caesar was given a scroll by a bystander that revealed the murder plot and strategy, but the dictator didn’t have time to read it before he entered the Curia of Pompey, where the Senate was holding a conference. A number of senators encircled the dictator’s chair, their daggers glinting in the air. Senators who were unaware of the plot were so terrified that they were unable to take any defensive action or even raise their voices. It was decided that all the conspirators would take part in the murder and taste the sacrifice blood, so they all encircled him while brandishing bare daggers. Whenever he opened his eyes, he was struck with the strokes of swords aimed at his face and eyes. Caesar, who was badly injured, propped himself up against the base of Pompey’s statue, leaving a bloody mark.
The ancient authors who described this sad event all underlined Caesar’s emotional reaction to seeing Brutus among the killers. Seeing Brutus with a bare sword, Caesar flung his toga over his head and exposed himself to the blows, as Plutarch recounts, citing “some authors” who have not lived. Immediately before he struck, Dion Cassius claims the tyrant said in Greek, “And you, child!” Suetonius, citing some sources, states that Julius Caesar, upon being stabbed by Brutus, said in Greek, “And you, my child!” (καὶ σὺ τέκvον). However, “And you, Brute” (Et tu, Brute) is not cited anywhere. This line was first used by Shakespeare in his play Julius Caesar, where it was spoken by the dying tyrant.
According to doctor Antistius, the dictator had twenty-three stab wounds, but only one in the chest proved fatal. Whoever did it remains a mystery.
Brutus and Cassius, who were in charge of the plot, killed themselves two years after Antony and Octavian beat them at the Battle of Philippi.
Verdict: This is only partly true; Caesar considered Brutus his friend, but he did not utter these words.
Caesar was more than just a great leader; he was also a gifted writer and orator. In his youth, Caesar produced The Praise of Hercules, the play Oedipus, and the Collected Sayings, but Emperor Augustus forbade their publication, despite Suetonius’ claims that he had a passion for literature from a young age. As an adult, Caesar wrote his treatise on grammar, On Analogy, which was highly praised by Aulus Gellius, the author of the Attic Nights (2nd century). This academic work has not been passed on to us.
It is well known that Caesar took part in the debate between the analogists, who were close to him in spirit and emphasized that rules are more important than exceptions, and the anomalists, who paid a lot of attention to irregularities and deviations from the norm based on Latin linguistic norms. Sadly, none of his other writings, notably the poem The Way, have been preserved. The Way is an astronomical book written with Sosigenes and a political tract. “The Way,” a poetry collection, and “Anticato,” a political book, are both polemical responses to Cicero’s panegyric Cato.
Thankfully, both Caesar’s Notes on the Gallic War and his Notes on the Civil War have made it through the ages intact. The events of 52 BC, with Vercingetorix’s capitulation, mark the conclusion of the first seven volumes of Notes on the Gallic War, which detail the conquest of Gaul and the two forays into Britain. Caesar’s companion and comrade in arms, Aulus Hirtius, resumed his description of the wars in 51 and 50. Caesar was unable to complete “Notes on the Civil War,” since the third volume is broken up by the narrative of his arrival in Egypt and the Roman conquest of the city’s most significant landmarks. No one knows for sure who penned the sequel that concluded the Civil War narrative. Since ancient times, people have argued about who wrote these works. Some say it was Gaius Oppius, while others say it was Aulus Hirtius.
Intriguingly, Caesar never refers to himself in the first person, preferring instead to talk about himself in the third person to seem more objective and convincing. Nevertheless, despite his Notes’ bias, they are a valuable historical resource, and in certain areas (the history, religion, and culture of pre-Roman Gaul), they are the only available information at all. Plus, it’s really good Latin; Caesar uses straightforward language that manages to be both eloquent and moving. Every graduate of a classical gymnasium remembers the first phrase of Caesar’s Notes on the Gallic War with its charming rhythm and euphony, which unfortunately disappear in translation: Gallia est omnis divisa in partses tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur…
Verdict: Undeniable.
10- Caesar Wore a Laurel Wreath to Hide His Bald Head
Julius Caesar. Artist: Peter Paul Rubens, ca. 1625/26.
Suetonius describes Caesar as follows: “He was tall, fair-skinned, and well built; his face was a little full, and his eyes were black and lively.” Until the end of his life, when he began to have unexpected fainting episodes and night terrors and twice had fits of hysteria in the middle of courses, his health was outstanding. Caesar was meticulous about his personal grooming and took good care of his physique, even going so far as to remove his hair despite criticism from moralists of the day. The historian Suetonius reports that Caesar hated his bald head because of its ugliness. This is why he would always proudly wear the laurel wreath despite his thinning hair by combing it from the crown to the forehead.
Verdict: It’s true.
11- Caesar Could Do Three Things at the Same Time
Julius Caesar on horseback, writing and dictating simultaneously to his Scribes. Artist: Jacob de Gheyn I, between circa 1618 and circa 1622.
A number of ancient sources attest to Caesar’s problem-solving prowess and claim that he could handle any crisis with a single swift stroke of his sword. During the Gallic Wars, Caesar’s companions and soldiers saw him seated on a horse while he dictated letters to many scribes at once, as described by Plutarch. According to Suetonius, Caesar would read letters, messages, and other papers or write replies to them while watching gladiatorial duels. Pliny the Elder said that Caesar had “most excellent in strength of mind”(animi vigore praestantissimum). This meant that when he wasn’t busy with other things, he could dictate up to seven letters at once.
The great Roman may have simply switched from one task to another, but the impression is that he could multitask with ease.
Verdict: It’s true.
12- The Word “King” Also Comes from Caesar
In addition to the “Tsar” of Russia, there was also the “Kaiser” of Germany. Imperial Rome added “Caesar” to the emperor’s titulature alongside “Augustus.” Emperor Diocletian’s tetrarchy, which split the Roman Empire into four pieces at the close of the fourth century, included two senior rulers named “Augustus” and their subordinates named “Caesar.”
Both the Latin name Caesar and the Greek name Kαῖσαρ were widely adopted by the many nations and cultures in the area, including those who would eventually destroy the Roman Empire. Many Slavic peoples, according to Max Pasmer’s “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” got the title “Káisar” from the leaders of the Germanic tribe of Goths. Hence Old Russian and Old Slavonic cesar, Serbo-Croatian cesar, Slovenian césar, Czech císař, Slovak cisár, and Polish cesarz. Then Old Russian tsesar was abbreviated to tsesar, and then became tsar.
Tsars were commonly used to refer to the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire and Byzantium (hence Tsargrad, as Rus called Constantinople), biblical rulers, and Mongol khans in Old Russian and later in medieval tradition; unofficially, this title was tried on and Old Russian princes, and then the rulers of Moscow. Ivan IV was formally anointed Tsar of “all Russia” in 1547, at which time the term became widely used.
Verdict: It is true.
13- Caesar Came up With the Salad of the Same Name
There is very little direct connection between the salad and the Roman tyrant. The Italian-American chef Caesar Cardini, who in the 1920s and 1940s maintained a string of successful restaurants in Tijuana and San Diego (Baja California), is credited with creating the salad. Cesare Cardini, who immigrated to the United States from Italy in 1913 and bore the name of the Roman emperor, was the creator of one of America’s most beloved meals.
Rosa Cardini recalls that her father created this salad on July 4, 1924, when the kitchen ran out of food during the Independence Day celebration at the Caesar’s Place restaurant in the hotel of the same name in Tijuana.
Wallis Simpson, the Duchess of Windsor, made Caesar salad popular in Europe thanks to her frequent orders of the dish at the continent’s finest establishments during her many trips with the Duke of Windsor, the former king of Great Britain, Edward VIII, from whom she was divorced after their mesalliance led to his abdication. There is, however, another theory that Italian chef Giacomo Junia created the salad in Chicago in 1903 and named it after the great Roman since he was a fan of the guy.
Plutarch. Comparative Biographies. Caesar, Pompey, Cicero, Mark Antony, Brutus. Ed. С. S. Averintsev, M. L. Gasparov, S. P. Markish.
Gaius Julius Caesar. Notes of Julius Caesar and his successors. The Gallic War. Civil War. The war of Alexandria. The African War. Translated from Latin by M. M. Pokrovsky.
Egorov A. B. Antony and Cleopatra. Rome and Egypt: the Encounter of Civilizations. SPb., 2012.
Egorov A.B. Julius Caesar. Political Biography. SPb., 2014.
Mommsen T. History of Rome. Т. 2-3. SPb., 1994.
Utchenko S. L. Julius Caesar. М., 1976.
Fasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language.
Lurie S. The Changing Motives of Cesarean Section: From the Ancient World to the Twenty-First Century. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. Vol. 271. 2005.
The Roman Empire, or Imperium Romanum in Latin, refers to the political and military entity that existed on ancient Roman territory from 27 BC to 476 AD. Wars, power struggles, and acts of treachery shaped the history of the Roman Empire and were inextricably related to the list of Roman emperors. There were a number of Roman emperors that came one after the other, and some of them left more of an imprint on history than others throughout this time.
JULIO-CLAUDIAN DYNASTY
Augustus: The First Roman Emperor
Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Grand-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar
Reign: 27 to 14 BC
Augustus, formerly known as Octavian, was born in Rome in 63 BC and became the first emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty because of his thirst for revenge over Caesar’s assassination (he was the grand-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar). In order to achieve this, Augustus created the Second Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus. The Principate of Augustus was soon founded when Augustus turned against his erstwhile friends (during the Battle of Actium). On January 16, 27 BC, he was proclaimed Emperor and served in that capacity until 14 AD.
Tiberius: The Emperor Exiled to Capri
Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Son-in-law and adopted son of Augustus
Reign: 14 to 37 AD
Tiberius, the adopted son and son-in-law of Augustus, ascended the throne of the Roman Empire in 14 AD and ruled until his death in 37 AD. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Tiberius made a name for himself in the military field. For most of the decade Tiberius was in charge of crucial campaigns, mostly in Germania. His reign was interspersed with political and economic changes. Upon the death of his son Drusus II, Tiberius voluntarily went into exile on Capri Island. On this island he dismissed and later killed a governor who had previously tried to overthrow him.
Caligula: A Tyrannical Emperor
Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Great grandson of Augustus and son of Germanicus
Reign: 37 to 41 AD
The Roman emperor Caligula was the son of Germanicus and a great-grandson of Augustus. He was the third ruler of the Roman Empire and a member of the powerful Julio-Claudian family. Caligula ruled Rome and its empire from 37 to 41. His reputation as a cruel ruler was cemented over those four years. Throughout his reign, Caligula would not hesitate to have his closest associates murdered, and he had a deep-seated animosity against the Senate. Caligula was killed at Rome in 41 by a gang of praetorians, who believed he was either ill or mad.
Claudius: Who Became Emperor by Chance
Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Nephew of Tiberius and uncle of Caligula
Reign: 41 to 54 AD
Claudius was the only person who could have been emperor after Caligula. He took power at 41 and stayed in charge until 54. He was the first emperor to be born somewhere other than Italy, but he was also part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Claudius was Tiberius’ nephew and Caligula’s uncle. Claudius was able to get some political projects done (like expanding the Empire and taking over Brittany), but it was harder for him to find love. Before he died in 54, he had his third wife, Messalina, killed. His death was blamed on his fourth wife, Agrippina the Younger, who then put her son, Nero, on the throne.
Nero: An Emperor Turned Despot
Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Grand-nephew and adopted son of Claudius
Reign: 54 to 68 AD
As the final member of the Julio-Claudian line to claim the title of Roman emperor, Nero became a totalitarian ruler. Claudius adopted him as a son, making him his grandnephew. During his reign from 54 to 68 AD, numerous significant events occurred, including the murder of his mother Agrippina (and the suspicion of the assassination of his brother Britannicus), persecutions of Christians, and the rebuilding of the Domus Aurea after the destruction of Rome in 64 AD. Poppaea Sabina’s husband of ten years, Nero, killed himself in 68 AD after being removed from power.
Following Nero’s death in 68 CE, four new emperors ruled the Roman Empire that year (hence the name, “Year of the Four Emperors“). Successors Galba, Otto, and Vitellius ruled the Roman Empire in turn until Vespasian arrived to put an end to the civil wars. War and conflict among the many armies do occur during the Year of the Four Emperors.
FLAVIAN DYNASTY
Vespasian: A Reforming Emperor
Flavian Dynasty
Originated from the plebs
Reign: 69 to 79 AD
In 69, Vespasian restored order to the Roman Empire and became the first Emperor of the Flavian Dynasty. Originally from the plebs, Vespasian enjoyed the image of a reforming emperor, with a whole series of fiscal and legislative reforms undertaken. We owe him, among other things, the introduction of a tax on urine, Pecunia non olet. Vespasian was also responsible for the construction of the Colosseum, which was completed in 80 during the reign of his son Titus. Vespasian died in 79, having been ill for a decade.
Titus: The Emperor Who Conquered Jerusalem
Flavian Dynasty
Son of Vespasian
Reign: 79 to 81 AD
Titus, the son of Vespasian and a member of the Flavian dynasty, succeeded to the throne following his father’s death in 79. Titus, unlike his father, reigned as Roman Emperor for just two years. In the span of two years, the Romans conquered Jerusalem and massacred the Jews (Titus, on the other hand, had plans for the Jewish Princess Berenice) and Mount Vesuvius erupted, destroying the city of Pompeii. We don’t know what killed Titus in 81, although it was either disease or poison.
Domitian: The Last of the Flavians
Flavian Dynasty
Son of Vespasian
Reign: 81 to 96 AD
Brother of the emperor Titus, Domitian was the last ruler of the Roman Empire from the Flavian dynasty. Domitian, like his father Vespasian, extended the average length of a Roman emperor’s rule to over 10 years (from 81 to 96 AD). Domitian was typically seen as a dictator who did not hesitate to remove the opponents of the state from Rome, while being at the origin of many political choices (the growth of the Roman economy, the wars of Agricola, etc.).
NERVA–ANTONINE DYNASTY
Nerva: An Advisor Who Became Emperor
Dynasty of the Antonine
Advisor to Nero and Flavian
Reign: 96 to 98 AD
Nerva, who had served as Nero’s adviser and later that of the other members of the Flavian dynasty, ascended to the throne in 96 and ruled until 98. He established his own dynasty, the Antonine. In the face of financial woes and a lack of support from the Roman military, Nerva was soon pressured into naming a successor. Following his adoption of Trajan, he died a few months later of natural causes. Historians emphasize Nerva’s ability to facilitate a peaceful transfer of power.
Trajan: The Best of the Roman Emperors
Antonine Dynasty
Adopted son of Nerva
Reign: 98 to 117 AD
The Roman historian Tacitus called Trajan “the greatest of the Roman emperors” since his name was synonymous with the empire’s greatest victories and its greatest growth. Trajan was a member of the Antonine dynasty and Nerva’s adoptive son. During his reign from 98 to 117, Trajan fought many battles against the Dacians in Armenia and Mesopotamia with the help of the Roman Army. With the money he amassed in these campaigns, he helped build several structures, including Trajan’s Forum, home to the world-famous Trajan column.
Hadrian: A Scholarly Emperor
Antonine Dynasty
Adopted son of Trajan
Reign: 117 to 138 AD
The Roman emperor Hadrian, a member of the Antonine dynasty and the adoptive son of Trajan, ruled from AD 117 to 138. The philosophical and literary Hadrian ended the imperial expansion strategy of his predecessor, Trajan. He was remembered as a peaceful ruler who oversaw the construction of several structures, including the wall that bears his name (Hadrian’s Wall). Hadrian faced the Jewish uprising known as the Bar Kokhba revolt during his reign.
Antoninus Pius: An Emperor of Consolidation
Antonine Dynasty
Adopted son of Hadrian
Reign: 138 to 161 AD
Antoninus Pius, the adoptive son of Hadrian, served as a magistrate for a very long time. He held the offices of quaestor, praetor, consul, and proconsul of Asia before he was finally elevated to the throne as Emperor. The second-longest reigning Roman emperor after Augustus, he took pride in his Nîmes heritage (Antoninus Pius reigned from 138 until his death in 161). Antoninus Pius, a member of the Antonine dynasty, like his predecessor, left a mark of his passing by having a wall built in his honor (The Antonine Wall).
Marcus Aurelius: Philosopher Emperor
Antonine Dynasty
Son-in-law and adopted son of Antoninus
Reign: 161 to 180 AD
The concept of a philosopher emperor is often used when referring to Marcus Aurelius, the final emperor of the Pax Romana. The founder of Stoicism and author of “Meditations,” Marcus Aurelius, was faced with the horrors of battle. Along with being Antoninus’ son-in-law, Aurelius was also Antoninus’ adoptive son. Wars with the Parthian Empire and the Marcomannic Wars occurred during his reign (161–180). Emperor Aurelius, a member of the Antonine dynasty, made the unprecedented choice not to adopt an heir before his death in 180.
Lucius Verus: Co-emperor
Antonine Dynasty
Adopted son of Antoninus and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius
Reign: 161 to 169 AD
It was possible for the Roman Empire to have two emperors at once at various points throughout its history. This occurred between the years 161 and 169, when Lucius Aurelius Verus (whose father was also named Lucius Aelius) served as co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius. Lucius Verus, a major player in the Parthian conflict, fought the Germanic Marcomanni on the Danube River a few months before his own demise. As the adoptive son of Antoninus and the son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius, Verus was also a member of the Antonine dynasty.
Commodus: A Bloodthirsty Emperor
Antonine Dynasty
Son of Marcus Aurelius
Reign: 180 to 192 AD
Commodus (born Lucius Aurelius Commodus) was a brutal, dictatorial, and bloodthirsty Roman Emperor. He was the son of Marcus Aurelius and a member of the Antonine dynasty. Avidius Cassius prevented him from becoming dictator. In “Gladiator,” Commodus was the target of many assassination attempts after he was falsely accused of killing his own father. After Lucilla’s scheme was foiled, it was Commodus’ slave, Narcissus, who killed the emperor in the context of a new conspiracy.
Year of the Five Emperors
Five emperors: Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus, and Septimius Severus
Year 193 AD
Soon after Commodus’ death, the Roman Empire entered a fresh era of turmoil known as the Year of the Five Emperors. Pertinax was deposed shortly after being proclaimed emperor on January 1, 193, and his position was taken by Didius Julianus. He was removed from his position as emperor due to widespread disapproval among Roman citizens, the Senate, and the Army. Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, and Clodius Albinus were imposed by the Roman troops into a civil war. The victor, Severus, took the throne as the 21st Roman Emperor after defeating all other challengers.
SEVERAN DYNASTY
Septimius Severus: Founder of the Severan Dynasty
Severan Dynasty
Libyan origins, Rome’s first African Emperor
Reign: 193 to 211 AD
After prevailing in the civil war that erupted during the Year of the Five Emperors, Septimius Severus established the Severan dynasty as a continuation of the Antonine and was declared Emperor by his troops (r. 193 to 211). Even though Severus set up a hereditary monarchy, the Libyan emperor nevertheless had to deal with succession disputes at the end of his life. Rome’s first African Emperor, Septimius Severus died in 211, perhaps from poisoning by his own son Caracalla, who replaced him alongside another son, Geta.
Caracalla: A Military Tyrant
Severan Dynasty
Son of Septimius Severus
Reign: from 211 to 217 AD
Beginning in the year 211, Caracalla, the younger brother of Geta and the son of Septimius Severus, ruled the Roman Empire with an iron fist. Caracalla, inspired by Alexander the Great, had his brother killed and then led an army against the Germans and the Parthians. His atrocities in Alexandria bolstered his reputation as a military despot. Caracalla, before his death in 217, made the decision to issue the Edict of Caracalla, which declared all free males in the Roman Empire to be citizens.
Macrinus: Unpopular Usurper
Severan Dynasty
Native of Mauretania (Africa), overthrew Caracalla
Reign: from 217 to 218 AD
After plotting Caracalla’s murder, Macrinus took over as Caracalla’s successor as prefect of the Praetorium. Macrinus, the first emperor to be from the equestrian aristocracy and a native of African Mauritania, was not a very successful ruler (217–218). After the monetary changes caused him to lose favor with the Roman soldiers, Macrinus attempted to leave the city of Antioch to join the Roman soldiers. He and his son co-emperor Diadumenian were both taken prisoner at the same time. Macrinus was put to death for trying to escape in the year 218.
Elagabalus: The Child of Many Vices
The Severan Dynasty
Nephew of Caracalla
Reign: 218 to 222 AD
Elagabalus (also known as Heliogabalus) was just 14 years old when he replaced Macrinus as ruler of the Severan in 218. He was the nephew of Caracalla. He gave some authority to his grandmother and mother, who influenced him. Elagabalus’ promotion of sun worship (hence the name Heliogabalus) and his role in the decision to transport the famed black stone of Emesa (a piece of meteorite) to Rome left an indelible mark on the empire’s history. He was killed by the mob and thrown into the Tiber River in the year 222 at the age of 18 years old.
Severus Alexander: The Emperor Murdered by His Troops
Severan Dynasty
Cousin of Elagabalus
Reign: 222 to 225 AD
Severus Alexander, Elagabalus’ cousin and the final emperor of the Severan dynasty, ruled over a dull empire from 222 to 225. He tried to return the black stone to Emesa in an effort to impress his mother, Julia Mamaea, and so win over the favor of certain Romans. He was not a military expert and therefore, despite his reforms helping the poor, he became unpopular. After just three years in power, Emperor Severus Alexander died. He was likely assassinated by his own troops, who had criticized his pacifism. It was with his death that the military chaos began.
CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY
Which Emperors Succeeded During the Crisis of the Third Century?
The Crisis of the Third Century: from 235 to 268 AD.
Maximinus Thrax: declared by his soldiers, reigned from 235 to 238 AD.
Gordian I: appointed by his soldiers, reigned from March to April 238 AD.
Gordian II: son of Gordian I, from March to April 238 AD.
Pupienus and Balbinus: appointed by the Senate, reigned from April to July 238 AD.
Gordian III: nephew of Gordian II, reigned from 238 to 244 AD.
Philip the Arab: named by his soldiers, reigned from 244 to 249 AD.
Decius: named by his soldiers, reigned from 249 to 251 AD.
Trebonianus Gallus: appointed by his soldiers, reigned from 251 to 253 AD.
Valerian: appointed by his soldiers, reigned from 253 to 260 AD.
Gallienus: son of Valerian, from 253 to 268 AD.
The death of Severus Alexander was often seen as the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century (also known as the “Military Anarchy”) a period that lasted for 33 years. Between the years 235 and 268, a slew of Roman emperors came and went, with the military often intervening and attempting to seize power. The Army was responsible for the deaths of several emperors. Maximinus Thrax (reign of 235–238), Gordian I (reign of March to April 238), Philip the Arab (reign of 244–249), Decius (reign of 249–251), Valerian (reign of 253–260), or Gallienus (reign of 253–263) all ruled during this time, coinciding with the list of the Thirty Tyrants (reign of 253–268).
The Illyrian Emperors Who Tried to Put an End to the Crisis of the Third Century
Illyrian emperors: from 268 to 285
Claudius II (Claudius Gothicus): named by Gallien, reigned from 268 to 270
Quintillus: Brother of Claudius II, reigned from August to October 270
Aurelian: declared by his soldiers, reigned from 270 to 275
Marcus Claudius Tacitus: appointed by the Senate, reigned from 275 to 276
Florianus: half-brother of Marcus Claudius Tacitus, reigned from June to September 276
Probus: appointed by his soldiers, reigned from 276 to 282
Carus: appointed by his soldiers, reigned from 282 to 283
Numerian: son of Carus and brother of Carinus, reigned from 283 to 284
Carinus: son of Carus and brother of Numerian, reigned from 284 to 285
Between the years 268 and 285, many Illyrian emperors tried to put a stop to the Crisis of the Third Century. From Illyria, Claudius II the Goth (268–270), Quintillus (August–October 270), Aurelian (270–275), Probus (276–282), and even Carinus (284–285) all tried to resolve the problem of the late third century. Within a few months of taking control, the Roman military killed numerous civilians. But the dilemma of the Third Century was not resolved until Diocletian took power in 284.
TETRARCHY
Diocletian: The Founder of the Tetrarchy
Tetrarchy Period
Defeat of Carinus at the Battle of the Margus
Reign: 285 to 305
Diocletian, who became Emperor in 284, oversaw the conclusion of the crises that plagued the early third century and inaugurated the First Tetrarchy (a mode of government that allowed the emperor to delegate the governance of the Empire to counter invasions). After defeating Carinus at the Battle of the Margus, Diocletian quickly instituted a new government based on shared authority. Diocletian issued the Edict of Maximum Prices in 301, one of the numerous fruitless efforts he made to stabilize the Roman currency. The Great Persecution and the persecution of Christians also occurred during this time.
Maximian Herculius: The Fighting Emperor
Tetrarchy Period
Appointed by Diocletian
Reign: 285 to 305
Maximian Herculius, who was the second emperor of the First Tetrarchy, was one of those emperors who led a lot of military campaigns. During his reign, which started in 285 AD, he worked to stop the Germanic invasion and get rid of the Bagaudae rebel threat in Gaul. Maximian Herculius, the father of Maxentius, put on a usurper’s costume the year after Diocletian asked him to step down in 305. He tried several times to obtain power again before being forced to commit suicide in 310.
Galerius: The Guarantor of Diocletian’s Legacy
Tetrarchy Period
Appointed by Diocletian
Reign: 293 to 311 AD
Galerius, who came from a military family, was a staunch supporter of the Tetrarchy and a direct successor to Diocletian. Beginning in 293, Galerius made use of the established protocol to rule as Roman Emperor in the East. Galerius swiftly surpassed Severus and Maximinus Daza as the most important figures in the Roman Empire. Sadly, he only had time to issue the Edict of Serdica before his death in 311. His passing marked the end of the Tetrarchy.
Constantius Chlorus: The Father of Constantine I
Tetrarchy Period
Appointed by Diocletian
Reign: 293 to 306 AD
On May 1, 305, Constantius Chlorus replaced Maximian Herculius as Emperor, becoming the second emperor to benefit from the Tetrarchy desired and established by Diocletian. Diocletian appointed him to his position. Before that, in the year 293, he was named Julius Caesar of the Western Empire and took part in the administration of the Roman state with the other tetrarchs. Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine I, died of natural causes in 306. He had helped rebuild the ancient city of Autun.
Tetrarchs of Maximinus Daza, Severus and Maxentius
Tetrarchy Period
Maximinus Daza: nephew of Galerius, reigned from 305 to 313
Severus: general of Galerius, reigned from 305 to 307
Maxentius: son of Maximian Herculius, reigned from 306 to 312
Different tetrarchs succeeded each other for brief periods of time throughout the Tetrarchy period of the Roman Empire. In addition to the aforementioned figures, others including Maximinus Daza, Licinius, Severus, and Maxentius helped protect the Roman Empire before Constantine I came to power. Maxentius, the son of Constantius Chlorus, eliminated the previous tetrarchs before beginning his own 31-year rule (by defeating Maxentius, for example, in 312 at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge).
Licinius: The Rival of Constantine I
Tetrarchy Period
Close to Galerius
Reign: from 308 to 324 AD
Co-emperor and personal friend of Galerius, Licinius was a powerful figure in the Tetrarchy. In 308, he was asked to oversee the eastern section of the Roman Empire. Licinius, a close friend of Constantine I, took part in a fratricidal battle between tetrarchs that resulted in the death of Maximinus Daza. He was also on Constantius I’s side when the Edict of Milan was issued in 313. After starting a civil war with a colleague, Constantine I eventually conquered and killed him at the Battle of Adrianople in 324.
CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY
Constantine I: The First Christian Emperor
Constantinian Dynasty
Son of Constantius Chlorus
Reign: 306 to 337 AD
In 306, Constantine I, son of Constantius Chlorus and a member of the Constantinian dynasty, was named Emperor. He was the final member of the Tetrarchy. He established the Constantinian dynasty after eliminating his rivals for the throne (at the battles of the Milvian Bridge and Andrinople). Through the Edict of Milan in 313, Constantine I ended the persecution of Christians throughout his rule, which lasted until 337. In order to unite the many Christian churches, he called for the First Council at Nicaea in 325, in the midst of his efforts to protect Christianity.
Constantine II and Constans I: Unfortunate Heirs of Constantine
Constantinian Dynasty
Constantine II: son of Constantine I, reigned from 337 to 340
Constans I: son of Constantine I, reigned from 337 to 350
After Constantine I’s unexpected death in 337, there was a precarious time of transition. Members of the Constantinian dynasty, including the emperor’s three sons, fought among themselves and killed family members. After the Empire was split in two, the first emperors to go to war with them were Constantine II (337–340) and Constantine I. In the year 340, the second one killed the first one. Magnentius, one of Constantine I’s generals, killed the emperor and thereafter usurped power after Constantine I’s death in 350.
Constantius II: A Worthy Heir of Constantine
Constantinian Dynasty
Son of Constantine I
Reign: 337 to 361 AD
After the deaths of his two brothers, Constantius II became the only successor to the throne of the Roman Empire and ruled from 337 to 361. His efforts to fortify the Christian Church were similar to those of his predecessor, Constantine I. To bring the bishops together, he called a council in 353 and held it at Arles. Constantius II picked his opponent Julian as his successor after fending off many usurpation attempts (by Magnentius, Nepotian, Sylvain, etc.) before he died of sickness in 361.
Julian: The Emperor Who Wished to Restore Paganism
Constantinian Dynasty
Nephew of Constantine I
Reign: 361 to 363 AD
Constantius II died in 361 and Julian the Apostate, also known as Julian, who served as Caesar from 355 to 361 was named emperor. The Constantinian emperor declared his intention to revive polytheism inside the Roman Empire in 361, despite having been raised as a Christian. The nephew of Constantine I supported paganism as well. In addition, we owe Julian the satirical essay on philosophers named Misopogon (or “Beard-Hater”), written in 363 just before the end of his rule.
Jovian: A Christian General
Constantinian Dynasty
General of Julian
Reign: 363 to 364 AD
Constantinian Jovian, who was relatively unknown when he ascended to the throne in 363, was crowned emperor and led the military war against the Sasanian while dressed as a commander. Jovian’s willingness to make peace with Emperor Shapur II was a defining characteristic of his new role. Jovian, a devout Christian and commander under Julian, used his time in power to issue an edict of tolerance similar to that of his predecessor. He died very abruptly in 364 at the young age of 33, only eight short months after becoming Emperor.
VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY
Valentinians: The Emperors With a Tragic Fate
Valentinianic Dynasty
Valentinian I: elected on the death of Jovian, reigned from 364 to 375 AD.
Valens: the younger brother of Valentinian I, reigned from 364 to 378 AD.
Gratian: eldest son of Valentinian I, reigned from 367 to 383 AD.
Valentinian II: the younger son of Valentinian I, reigned from 375 to 392 AD.
The terrible Valentinianic era begins with Jovian’s demise. The Valentinianic dynasty saw four rulers rule between the years 364 and 392. He ruled from 364 until his death from a stroke in 375. His brother Valens co-ruled with him until his death in 378 at the Battle of Adrianople, and then Gratian governed from 367 until he was defeated and murdered in 383. After his father, Valentinian I, was assassinated while Valentinian II was just four years old, he ruled under the supervision of his mother until his own death by hanging in 392.
THEODOSIAN DYNASTY
Magnus Maximus: A Usurper Turned Emperor
Theodosian Dynasty
The cousin of Theodosius I
Reign: 384 to 388 AD
Magnus Maximus, a cousin of Theodosius I and a member of the Theodosian family, usurped the Roman throne. In 383, as a usurper, he was victorious against Emperor Gratian at the Battle of Lutetia. He was a legendary king of Brittany who Theodosius I recognized as Eastern Emperor in 384 and held that title until 388. Maximus, Theodosius I, and Valentinian II were the three emperors of the Roman Empire during that time. Maximus faced Valentinian II to seize Rome in 387 but was defeated by the coalition of Theodosius I and Valentinian II .
Theodosius I: The Last Emperor to Rule a Unified Roman Empire
Theodosian Dynasty.
Magnus Maximus’ cousin.
Reign: 379 to 395 AD.
From 379 to 395, Theodosius I served as Roman Emperor under the name Augustus, which Gratian gave him. Additionally, he was a cousin of Magnus Maximus. It was during his reign that Christianity became the state religion, thanks to his involvement in the Edict of Thessalonica. He ended pagan practices and, in this case, forbade the ancient Olympic Games from being held. It was generally agreed that Theodosius I was the final emperor of the reunified Roman Empire before the Honorius brothers took power.
After a long period of various Western Roman emperors, a barbarian from Germany named Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus (reigned 475–476 AD), the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, and grabbed the throne of Italy, which marked the fall of the Western Roman Empire on September 4, 476 AD.
