The Vikings surged onto the shores of England, the Frankish Empire, and even the Mediterranean. Armed with a thirst for exploration, a fearless religion, and long-handled two-handed axes, these fair-haired men from the north struck terror into the hearts of European populations and rulers, who struggled to fend off the relentless waves of raids.
One particular weapon in the Viking arsenal gave them a massive advantage: the longship. Its speed, mobility, and simple design made it ideal for swift raids along coasts and riverbanks.
Here’s a look at the five greatest strengths of the longship—key to understanding the Vikings’ success.
1. VERSATILITY
The Viking ship was perfect for rivers
Helge Ask, Reconstruction of Skuldelev 5, a smaller warship from the Viking Age, ca 1040. Image: Vikingeskibsmuseet
The long, slender hull and shallow draft of Viking ships—meaning the distance from the waterline to the keel—allowed them to navigate Scandinavia’s rivers with ease.
They could even traverse the wild rapids of Russia’s rivers on their way to trading hubs in the east. If they encountered an obstacle, Viking ships were light enough for the crew to haul over land.
During an experiment with the reconstructed Viking ship Helge Ask in 1996, researchers from the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde successfully moved the two-ton vessel across a 300-meter-long land strip at Helgenæs.
The crew hauled the ship onto the shore and dragged it over land using wooden rollers greased with fat and oil.
2. SURPRISE
The keel was designed for ambush
The first recorded Viking raid occurred on June 8, 793, according to historical sources. On this day, Vikings attacked the monastery on the island of Lindisfarne off the coast of North England.
“The heathens desecrated God’s sanctuary, ravaged our house of hope, and trampled on the bodies of the saints,” a monk in York wrote about the Scandinavian raiders.
This and the following years of war and plundering were made possible by the unique construction of Viking ships. Thanks to their flat keels, the ships could sail right up to the shore and deploy warriors.
Experiments with reconstructed Viking ships in Denmark indicate that, from the moment the ships became visible from land, it typically took only an hour before the warriors stormed ashore.
3. FEAR
Decorations intimidated the enemy
The appearance of Viking ships struck fear into their enemies—a form of psychological warfare that gave the Vikings an additional advantage.
Shipbuilders achieved this fearsome effect by painting the ships and their accessories in striking colors and adorning them with carved motifs that signaled strength and ferocity.
The Saga of Håkon Håkonsson describes how the Norwegian 13th-century king had “a dragon ship with thirty rowing benches; the heads and necks were gilded, and the sails beautifully painted. In addition, King Håkon had many other large and well-equipped ships; and in the sunlight, it seemed as if fire shone from the heads.”
4. SPEED
The sail provided propulsion—even against the wind
Experiments with reconstructed Viking ships have shown that they could tack against the wind—a feature that allowed them to continue sailing even in adverse conditions.
Although Viking ships were far less efficient at windward sailing than modern sailing vessels, their capabilities were sufficient to reach their destinations, even with some delay, under unfavorable winds.
With a tailwind, longships could achieve high speeds. Experiments suggest that a Viking ship could sail at up to 14 knots (about 25 km/h). The historian Adam of Bremen (1040–1081) wrote that a journey from Ribe to England could be completed in just three days.
5. SIMPLICITY
The longship was easy to build
Despite the Viking ship’s unparalleled seafaring qualities, its construction was simple and could be carried out almost anywhere near a waterway. All that was needed were trees, an axe, and a few other tools such as a plane.
The ship was built from oak logs, which shipwrights split lengthwise into planks. These planks were fastened to the keel with iron nails and then overlapped in layers using a technique called clinker building.
Construction could be completed in a relatively short time. The Saga of Olav Tryggvason states that Ormen hin Lange—one of the most famous Viking ships, which was likely about 55 meters long—was built in a single winter.
Like a needle in a haystack. Just a few hundred meters from the Berliner Fernsehturm, in the heart of the German capital, archaeologists made a surprising discovery a few days ago.
In the attic of a building in the Molkenmarkt district, an ancient Japanese sword was resting. The sword, in an advanced state of deterioration, is believed to be about four hundred years old, manufactured during the 17th century.
A Diplomatic Gift Brought Back from Japan in the 19th Century
On August 22, the Museum of Prehistory and Early History in Berlin published a statement relaying the scientists’ observations. Despite the artifact’s deterioration, researchers studying the sword managed to identify decorative copper elements adorning the hilt, which is composed of wood, bound with leather straps and fabric.
Several delicate engravings are spread across the hilt, notably chrysanthemums and waterways, often represented in the Edo culture, which extended from 1603 to 1868. For archaeologists, there is no doubt that the weapon would indeed have been crafted during this period.
The sword, rather short, is a wakizashi. This type of weapon was mainly used by certain samurai in feudal Japan, considered a traditional sword, serving as a backup to a primary weapon. The blade could be even older according to academics, having been forged a hundred years earlier, during the 16th century.
The presence of such an object in an attic bombed during World War II raises questions. Archaeologists have determined that a diplomatic mission to Japan during the 19th century would have allowed the wakizashi to be brought back to Europe. LiveScience reports that two missions named Takenouchi and Iwakura occasioned meetings between German and Japanese officials in the 1860s. It seems that despite its insular status, Japan was already maintaining relations with allied countries nearly 200 years ago.
The great successes of Philip II’s son, Alexander the Great, are due in large part to the use of the xyston.
After Alexander the Great’s death, his cavalry were given a new name to honor their xystons.
From the middle of the fourth century BC forward, the Companion elite cavalry (hetairoi) and the prodromoi light cavalry (scouts) of the Macedonian army made extensive use of the xyston spear which was a long cavalry lance. “Xyston” or a “spiked stick” comes from the verb / xuô, which means “to shave.” The advantage of the Xyston over heavier lances was its light weight. This allowed it to be used one-handed, which was a great advantage for the mounted units.
Male cornel wood (also known as cornus mas or wild cornel).
The xyston probably descended from the Greek akon and palton spears. A thick and less brittle wood than the reed was formerly used in Greece to produce a spear. However, the male cornel wood (also known as cornus mas or wild cornel) may have been brought to Athens by the military leader Xenophon following his return from Asia according to his book Anabasis.
Then, this material made its way to Macedonia. Besides the forested highlands of Macedonia, Phthia (a city in ancient Thessaly), Aetolia, Arcadia, and Laconia were all good places to look for cornel wood to produce spears with it. In fact, the widespread usage of cornel wood in the fourth and third centuries BC led to the phrase being used poetically for the word “spear.”
The xyston was used as the standard weapon of the hoplites in ancient Greece. Before the general adoption of the sarissa, the xyston was in use among the Macedonian phalanxes after the military reforms made by Philip II in the middle of the fourth century BC. After the military reforms, the xyston and later the sarissa could be used against the enemies in the phalanx battle formation.
This order of battle and the discipline that went with it changed the way warfare was conducted at the time. The great successes of Philip II’s son, Alexander the Great, are due in large part to the use of the phalanx and, thus, of the xyston and sarissa. At the time of this army reform, the xyston was replaced by the longer sarissa, which reached a length of up to 20–21 feet.
Similar Spears
The Roman-Jewish historian Flavius Josephus from the 1st century AD calls the Roman pilum (javelin) a “xyston” in the First Jewish-Roman War (66–74 AD). A Sarmatian Roman heavy lance employed by Iranian cataphracts called kontos (which literally means “oar”) may have been inspired by the xyston. Around 200 BC, the xyston evolved into a very light spear, the dory.
Things That Made Xyston Special
An Ancient Greek rider likely with xyston spears. Rider, Attic red-figured cup, middle of 5th century BC.
Size and Material
The xyston, measuring about 11.5 to 14 feet (3.5–4.25 m) in length, was longer and more robust than the simpler dory spear used by the hoplites and hypaspists. However, it was also shorter than the sarissa spear (13–21 ft) which came into use later.
The male cornel wood from which it was constructed gave it elasticity, hardness, and durability, just like the sarissa.
There was no need to increase the wood’s thickness to accommodate the spear’s length for balance.
Cornel wood was also used for ancient bows due to its effectiveness compared to other woods.
Use
The xyston could be handled with either hand, or both, depending on the circumstances. It was also versatile enough to be held under or over the arm, depending on the user. The xyston was worn by Greek hoplites alongside the aspis shield and the kopis sword.
The xyston was used most extensively by the cavalry; however, it was also used by the foot soldiers. It was part of the armament of lightly armed Greek foot soldiers, such as the Evzones or the Psiloi.
One-handed use for frontal attacks is implied by depictions of Alexander the Great‘s xyston on the famous Alexander Mosaic (below) and the fresco from the Niausta tomb portraying a prodromoi or light cavalry.
Alexander’s xyston in Alexander Mosaic.
Design
Both ends, like the sarissa, were tipped with iron in a xyston. If the primary point breaks, the secondary one could be used as a backup or counterbalance. The iron spear tips needed the wood to be tapered at both ends. The lance’s profile was concave because its midsection was narrower than its ends.
Effectiveness
On the battlefield, effective charges could be made against the upper body and head of the enemy by using a xyston. This weapon was so functional that the ancient sources occasionally referred to the Companions as xystophoroi (“spear-bearers“) after Alexander the Great’s conquests because of their usage of the xyston.
When necessary, the Companions would also equip themselves with the sarissa, muchlike the prodromoi or sarissophoroi, since it was lighter, cheaper, and easier to handle.
Sarissa: The Macedonian phalanx spear was pivotal in Alexander’s victories.
Evolution: Its length increased as it adapted to changing combat strategies.
Decline: The Romans’ adaptability in warfare brought the sarissa’s eventual end.
The sarissa is a spear that was in use in the early third century BC and was between 180 and 300 inches in length (4.5–7.5 m). During Alexander the Great‘s conquests and the Wars of the Diadochi, this weapon, which had its origins in Macedonia during the reign of Philip II in the middle of the fourth century BC, was employed by the sarissa phalanxes (or “sarissa bearers”). Its proportions increased as it was utilized by the soldiers of the Hellenistic nations.
Sarissa’s Origin
Homer mentions long spears in his account of Hector and Ajax, while Xenophon mentions them in his account of the Chalybes.
The sarissa spear first emerged in the Macedonian phalanx in the years 338–336 BC. It’s conceivable that Philip II adopted the name from the Triballi, whom he fought in 339 BC; Demosthenes reports that the Triballi hit Philip II in the thigh with a sarissa, but this may be an anachronism. Plutarch first mentions Macedonians using sarissas during the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), although they were only carried by mounted troops. Iron sarissa points, the earliest artifacts from which precise dates can be derived, have also been linked to the Battle of Chaeronea.
In 334 BC, during the Battle of Granicus, Alexander the Great defeated the Persian army with the help of his sarissas for the first time. The length of the sarissas helped the Macedonians fend off Persian attacks while being outnumbered by their foes on higher ground.
Detail of the fresco of a tomb of Agios Athanasios showing Macedonian warriors wearing sarissa.
At one end of the sarissa is a leaf-shaped or elongated diamond-shaped iron point, while at the other end is a shorter point. Iron tips were used on Alexander’s sarissas during his war in India, as mentioned by Diodorus and seen in the Alexander mosaic. Manolis Andronikos, who discovered the tomb of Philip II in Vergina, believes that the 18-inch iron spike found there belonged to a sarissa.
However, it’s possible that this is only a ceremonial weapon and not one intended for combat. Some scholars argue that this means the focal point should be smaller (between 4 and 6 inches), with particular reference to the Alexander mosaic.
The Material Used to Make the Sarissa
The original sarissa shaft was likely made of a controversial kind of wood. The male cornel tree (also called cornus mas) is said to be the source material for the sarissa, since it is thick and flexible and was brought to Athens by Xenophon following the expedition of the Ten Thousand (a Greek mercenary unit) from Asia. Then, the material would have been widely adopted across Macedonia. Because of its widespread usage, the Greek poets of the third and fourth centuries BC often used the phrase “cornel wood” to mean “spear.” The shaft of the xyston, a long lance of the Companion cavalry, is made from cornel wood.
However, another legend has it that ash wood was used instead, which is just as malleable and durable as male cornel wood. The Latin poet Stace from the first century AD is cited as the source for this belief about the Macedonians’ use of ash spears. Even if you don’t trust Stace when it comes to military hardware, this is the only ancient source that specifically mentions the kind of wood used to make the sarissa. In antiquity, ash wood was often used, and Macedonia had a plentiful supply. Theophrastus suggests that the length of the longest sarissa is equal to the height of a male cornel, which might lead to the mistaken belief that sarissas were fashioned of cornel wood.
The sarissa was originally 15 pounds (7 kg) in weight and ranged in length from 15 to 18 feet (4.6–5.3 m) (according to Theophrastus, Arrian, and Asclepiodotus). Polybius and Livy state that in the first part of the third century BC, this spear was lengthened to 25 feet (7.6 m). When considering the sarissa’s construction, it’s unclear whether this spear is a single piece or two halves connected together. The second explanation is more feasible given the difficulty of sourcing a straight and robust shaft of such length. Instead, it is more likely that the two halves were joined by a metal ring, an example of which was discovered in Philip II’s tomb.
The sarissa spear was three times longer than the regular 7-foot Dory spear used by other Greek warriors.
Phalanx formation with long sarissa spears, marching in close formation.
When sarissa bearers were arrayed in a phalanx, the sarissas of the first five ranks protruded beyond the first rank to create a wall of pikes (out of a total of 16 ranks). In order to deflect incoming projectiles, the first five ranks held their sarissas horizontally, while the last two held theirs vertically. The sarissa’s length made it effective in stopping cavalry attacks and keeping infantry at bay by presenting the adversary with an impenetrable and virtually impregnable hedge of pikes.
Heavy armor was unnecessary while using this weapon since the phalanx’s opponents were continually driven back by the formidable mass of iron and wood. Because the sarissa fighters just required a spear and light armor, a large number of troops could be recruited at a cheaper cost. Phalanx warriors only employed the sarissa in close-quarters combat; in open fields, they relied on the customary lance, the xyston.
Fighting Using the Sarissa Spear
Phalanx warriors were able to cross great distances quickly and undetected by the adversary since their sarissas protected them from melee assaults and hostile missiles. Their efficacy in charging was further improved by their enhanced velocity. Furthermore, the masses of the sarissa carriers united during the charge, allowing them to totally break through the enemy’s formation because of how closely they were packed together. The sarissa could be fastened to the ground with the help of the short point at its base, which could also be used to replace the top point if the latter ever broke.
Advantages
It was almost hard to remove the sarissophoroi, or sarissa-bearing infantry, from their defensive positions. This was due to the fact that their sarissa wall was too thick, lengthy, and compact for the attackers to break through. When deployed, the phalanx could form two columns of five rows of lances, which was twice as dense as a unit of Roman legionnaires, for example. If an enemy soldier made it between the first rank’s two sarissas, he would be met with fierce blows from the second, third, fourth, and fifth ranks, making their mission almost impossible as they were repeatedly driven back.
By substituting sarissas for the xyston, the Macedonian cavalry (Companions or prodromoi, also known as sarissophoroi) gained an edge in frontal attacks even against hoplites. The lance was held in the center, and the attack could come from above or below, as seen on Alexander’s tomb and the Alexander mosaic.
Alexander’s xyston spear.
Weak Sides
Attacking the sarissophoroi’s weak sides was the only option to defeat them, since a head-on assault would have been disastrous against their pike-studded phalanx. It seems that no frontal attack on a Macedonian phalanx was ever successful. Its main downfalls came from being surrounded, as in the battles of Cynoscephalae (197 BC), the Nile, and Corinth, or from a lack of phalanx cohesiveness, as at Magnesia (190 BC) and Pydna (168 BC).
Polyaenus recounts a ruse used during the campaign of the Spartan general Cleonymus and the Epirus king Pyrrhus in Macedonia in the 270s BC:
2.29 – At the siege of Edessa, when a breach was made in the walls, the spear-men, whose spears were sixteen cubits long, sallied out against the assailants. Cleonymus deepened his phalanx, and ordered the front line not to use their weapons, but with both hands to seize the enemy’s spears, and hold them fast; while the next rank immediately advanced, and closed upon them. When their spears were seized in this way, the men retreated; but the second rank, pressing upon them, either took them prisoner, or killed them. By this manoeuvre of Cleonymus, the long and formidable sarissa was rendered useless, and became rather an encumbrance, than a dangerous weapon.
However, the Spartans were not dealing with the Macedonian phalanx here. The strength of the phalanx in the battle of the Romans against the Macedonian army in 168 BC is described by Plutarch:
The Macedonians in the first lines had time to thrust the points of their sarissas into the shields of the Romans and thus became unreachable for their swords. The Romans tried to sword away from the sarissa, or bend them to the ground with shields, or push them aside, grabbing them with their bare hands, and the Macedonians, clenching their spears even tighter, pierced through the attackers, – neither shields nor armor could protect from the blow of the sarissa.
The Reason Why Later Sarissas Were Made Even Longer
Following Alexander the Great’s conquests, armies from India to Sicily adopted phalanx formations modeled after those of the Macedonians. Battles between Alexander’s successors, the Diadochi, occurred in Paraitakene (317 BC), Gabiene (316 BC), Gaza (312 BC), and Ipsus (301 BC), were the scenes of the first Macedonian-style phalanx fights.
However, the phalanxes were rendered mostly ineffectual in these “fratricidal” fights, with comparable and extremely light equipment causing mutual destruction upon collision. When two soldiers with identical sarissas collided, they could no longer avoid each other’s hits, lowering the spear’s effectiveness.
The sarissas of phalanxes in various Hellenistic kingdoms became steadily longer to outdistance the enemy’s shorter pikes and counteract this trend. By 274 BC, during the early years of the reign of Antigonus II Gonatas, sarissas had grown in length from 16.5 to 25 feet (5–7.5 m). Even with extensive training, subsequent sarissas were too heavy and unwieldy to handle, despite their appearance being quite light and controllable.
Because of this, these soldiers were eventually relegated to defensive roles on the battlefield. To be more effective against other phalanxes, they gave up mobility and flexibility. In addition, shields and armor were fortified greatly to compensate for the phalangites’ vulnerability to strikes from opponents using equally long sarissas. In addition to their very long pikes, phalangites in wars like Pydna (168 BC) and even earlier at Cynoscephalae (197 BC) were almost as well armed as Roman legionnaires.
A Decrease in the Use of Sarissa
The Romans finally triumphed over these phalanxes because they had become too large and cumbersome to be effectively used (in stark contrast to Alexander’s phalanxes).
The Roman legions were far more adaptable, allowing them to surround the phalanxes and assault their flanks. Seleucid phalanxes played a crucial defensive role in both Magnesia (190 BC) and Thermopylae (191 BC), when they stood immobile behind their barrier of points. At Pydna (168 BC), the Macedonian infantry was hampered by its own disordered bulk, rendering it unable to respond as quickly as it had against the Persians and Greek hoplites.
Alexander’s phalanxes never appeared to be hampered by such challenges, as they were able to successfully traverse the East despite its harsh geographical conditions, fight in forest-covered Macedonia, cross rivers in the midst of battle (Granicus and Hydaspes), and face a much larger enemy (battles of Ipsus and Gaugamela) without experiencing cohesion problems, and were consequently undefeated for the first two centuries of their history. Despite his unreliability, Livy said that the late phalanxes were “unable to make a half-turn.”
While the Roman armies emphasized movement and adaptability, the Hellenistic rulers’ never-ending armament competition only reduced the phalangites’ durability, mobility, and the sarissa’s tenacity. The phalanxes envisioned by Philip II had died out by the end of the third century BC. Even after the Kingdom of Commagene was dissolved in 72 AD, the sarissa was still in use in certain areas. This was true even after the acquisition of the Kingdom of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC.
The sarissa had a major impact on the Swiss pikemen of the Middle Ages. Through their victories against greater European forces, they helped hasten the end of the chivalric period. Swiss pikemen, widely regarded as the best infantry of their day, broke away from the Holy Roman Empire and fought as mercenaries throughout Europe.
The Seven-Branched Sword was presented as a diplomatic gift to Japan by Baekje.
It had a ceremonial role in rituals, rather than practical combat use.
The inscriptions on the sword offer insights into ancient diplomatic ties.
The Seven-Branched Sword is an ancient iron sword that originated at Isonokami Shrine in Tenri City, Nara Prefecture, Japan. This cold weapon measures 29.5 inches (74.9 cm) in length and has six branches of blade edges, three on each side of the sword. You can think of the main blade as the “seventh” branch. There are inscriptions in gold inlay on its blade. The Seven-Branched Sword was designated as a Japanese National Treasure in 1953.
Origin and Use
The Isonokami Shrine where the Seven-Branched Sword is currently located.
The exact origin of the Seven-Branched Sword has been forgotten, and it was referred to as the “Six-Pronged Spear” in Isonokami Shrine. This sword was used as a ceremonial object in rituals, particularly during a ceremony where the first seedlings of the year were planted in the fields. Thus, the sword had more of a symbolic or ceremonial role than being a practical edged weapon.
The Seven-Branched Sword may have been presented by the Korean kingdom of Baekje (18 BC to 660 AD) to Japan, and it is associated with diplomatic exchanges between Baekje and Japan during ancient times.
Why the Seven Protrusions?
A replica of the Seven-Branched Sword, National Museum of Japan. (Photo, WaffenSS, CC BY-SA 3.0)
The Seven-Sons Mirror, or the Seven-Little-One Mirror gifted alongside the sword, is described as having seven protrusions, which aligns with the “seven sons” theme in Korean folklore. The same theme might be the reason why the Seven-Branched Sword has seven protrusions.
This bronze mirror and other artifacts were reportedly unearthed from the Daisenryo Kofun of the mid-5th century (a kofun is an “ancient grave”), and they are believed to be related to the reign of Emperor Nintoku (r. 313–399), the 16th Emperor of Japan.
Still, there is speculation that these artifacts were purchased in Kyoto by Okakura Kakuzo, a Japanese art critic, and do not precisely align with the tomb’s construction period.
There have been two separate attempts at restoring or reproducing the Seven-Branched Sword, one in 1980 and another in 2005. Due to a lack of information on the original production process, a new one has been implemented during these restorations.
Inscriptions on the Seven-Branched Sword
The sword has inscriptions on its blade, with a total of 61 characters inlaid in gold. Due to corrosion and damage, 49 characters are legible, 4 are entirely unreadable, and 8 can be partially deciphered.
The Chinese inscriptions are said to have been written by the monarch of Baekje when he presented the sword to the king of Wa (Japan) in the third century AD.
The sword is constructed of “one hundred layers of steel” and can penetrate “one hundred enemies”, according to the inscription. The first of its type, this sword was commissioned for the King of Wa by the King of Baekje. The inscription states that the sword should be handed down to the “next generations”.
Various interpretations of the year mentioned in the inscriptions suggested varying dates as the origin of the sword, such as 268 AD, 369 AD, or 468 AD in the Chinese calendar. The specific construction year of the Seven-Branched is yet to be resolved.
Significance of the Sword
The Seven-Branched Sword is a valuable artifact. It provides insights into the relationship between ancient Japan and China during the 4th century. It is one of the few surviving written historical records from that period.
According to the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan), the sword, along with a mirror called “Seven-Little-One Mirror,” was presented to Japan as a diplomatic gift from Baekje. The idea that “Tai” may be a unique Baekje-era name suggests once again that the sword may have been created in the context of Baekje’s internal politics.
Despite its large, deadly size, this sword was likely used more for symbolic purposes than practical combat.
Physical Features
A photograph of the Seven-Branched Sword from 1930 could show the original weapon.
The original Seven-Branched Sword is still in existence today, and it has been guarded in the Isonokami Shrine ever since it was introduced there. However, the sword is not visible to the general public. It has the following physical features:
Total length: 29.5 in (74.9 cm).
Blade: 25.8 in (65.5 cm), double-edged and slightly curved with a central ridge.
Tang: 3.7 in (9.4 cm), it does not have a hole for fixing the sword.
Weight: 4.03 lb (1.83 kg).
Material: Iron.
Branches: The branches are 3.9 in long (10 cm) and 1.2 in wide (3 cm).
History of the Seven-Branched Sword
Envoys from Baekje under the command of Chikuma Nagahiko traveled to Japan in the ninth month on the tenth day of the 52nd year of the Japanese empress Empress Jing’s reign, according to the Chronicles of Japan (Nihon Shoki). They presented the Seven-Branched Sword, the Seven-Little-One Mirror, and various precious items to the Japanese court.
Chikuma Nagahiko mentioned that there was a river to the west of his country, and its source was an iron mountain in Kokuna. This river was so distant that it would take seven days to reach it. He offered to provide the iron from this mountain to the Japanese court.
Therefore, the Seven-Little-One Mirror and the Seven-Branched Sword were described as treasures made using the iron from Tetsuzan (“Iron Mountain”) in Kokuna.
Chikuma also conveyed that the connection between his country and Japan, given by the heavens, was essential for the stability of Japan. He advised the Japanese court to maintain good relations, gather tribute regularly, and continue the exchange. Following this, annual tributes and exchanges between Baekje and Japan continued.
Chikuma Nagahiko later took action against the Korean Kingdom of Silla after it seized tribute from Baekje in 247 AD, according to the Japanese chronicles.
In the 49th year of Empress Jingū’s reign, Japanese forces were dispatched to Takachimura and attacked the Silla Kingdom. Baekje generals like Kira Sho and Sasha Nuguai also cooperated in defeating Silla forces, resulting in the subjugation of several regions.
There are various interpretations regarding the exchange of the Seven-Branched Sword:
Some believe it was a gift from Eastern Jin to Japan.
Others suggest that Baekje offered and gifted it to Japan.
The historical context of Baekje facing the threat of an invasion by the Korean Kingdom of Goguryeo might have led to their alliance with Japan, resulting in the creation of the Seven-Branched Sword. In this interpretation, this ornamented sword was a valuable gift exchanged between the two countries as equals.
According to the scholar Kosaku Hamada, the exchange of the Seven-Branched Sword, which was created by Eastern Jin in 369 AD, was a diplomatic move. He believes it solidified an alliance between Baekje and Japan and established a southward diplomatic line involving Japan, Baekje, the Gaya Confederacy, and the southern Chinese states, which lasted into the early 6th century.
Another scholar, Yoshitane Sakamoto, interprets the sword’s inscription and suggests that Baekje received titles and status from Eastern Jin, and out of joy and respect, they gifted the ornamented Seven-Branched Sword to Japan. The inscriptions on the sword contain historical clues related to Baekje’s military achievements and alliances.
How Old is the Seven-Branched Sword?
In the original inscription on the sword, the Seven-Branched Sword appears to be associated with the year 369 AD. There is a mention of the “Baekje King” and “Crown Prince,” who received investiture from Eastern Jin, which indicates a connection between the sword and Baekje royalty.
The negotiations between Baekje and the Eastern Jin Dynasty are initially recorded in the Book of Jin as starting in 372 AD. Therefore, the Eastern Jin may have already acknowledged the Geunchogo of Baekje as a king before this formal investiture.
The sword’s inscription includes the term “Prince King”, which is suggested to refer to the “King of Wa” mentioned on the reverse side of the sword. This is actually of higher status or significance than the King of Baekje.
Baekje established a close relationship with the Wa Kingdom in the history of early Japan to counter the threat from the Kingdom of Goguryeo. In 369 AD, Wa and Baekje allied to launch an expedition into the Korean Peninsula, with Baekje emerging victorious against Goguryeo.
When the Korean Kingdom of Baekje began to pay tribute to the Chinese Eastern Jin around 372 AD, the Seven-Branched Sword might have been presented as part of this diplomatic relationship. The bronze mirror was also presented alongside the sword, and it is currently believed to be housed in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
The name “Hwando” means “rounded sword,” and it referred to various Korean long swords.
Hwando has a smaller blade curve than the katana.
It is worn with a cord around the waist and has a painted scabbard with tassels.
The Hwando was a curved sword with a single outer edge that was popular throughout the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties in Korea. The sword was between 25 and 40 inches in length, depending on whether it was used by cavalry or infantry. The blade of this sword has a curve like that of a saber or scimitar. A Hwando appears very similar to the Japanese katana.
Origin of the Name
The name “Hwando,” which means “rounded sword,” is said to have been named after either the rounded curvature of the blade or the ring on the scabbard from which the sword was hung at the waist. Both infantry and mounted soldiers of the time utilized Hwando swords.
The term Hwando was also sometimes used during the Joseon era to refer to a wide variety of outer-edged long swords, including many distinct sorts of swords used for martial arts and combat training. That’s why the name Hwando actually referred to more than just one sort of Korean sword.
History of the Hwando Sword
The name “Hwando” first appeared in historical records during the reign of King Chungnyeol in the 3rd year of the Goryeo Dynasty (1277, April). In this record, envoys Yu Hong and Holno were sent from Yuan (Mongol) to King Chungnyeol, and King Chungnyeol ordered Lee Chang-mo to make 1,000 Hwando swords in Chungju. There are also records in the “Yuan Shi” (History of Yuan) mentioning someone offering Hwando swords to the “Great Khan” of the Mongols during the reign of King Sejo. It is presumed that the name Hwando was introduced during the late Goryeo period, possibly due to Mongol influence.
The Chinese characters for Hwando can be translated as “rounded sword,” suggesting a curved blade, as seen in existing Hwando artifacts and records. Another interpretation attributes its origin to the ring on the scabbard, where the sword is hung from the waist. There is also a theory suggesting it originated from the ring shape of the pommel.
During the Joseon period, the term “Hwando” was used generically to refer to long swords with outer edges. Various types of swords, such as Unggeom, Paedo, Baeggeom, and swords listed in the “Muyedobotongji” (Comprehensive Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts) like Yedo, Ssangsudo, Ssanggeom, and even Waeggeom, were all collectively referred to as Hwando. Even during training, everyone trained using only one type of Hwando, and not only Japanese swords and Jurchen swords, but even Western swords from the late Joseon Dynasty were all referred to as Hwando indiscriminately in the annals.
The shape of the Hwando sword is similar to the Japanese katana sword, but the curvature of the blade is smaller, and closer to a straight sword compared to the katana. The “Goryeo Dogyeong” describes the pre-Mongol invasion Korean sword as “hoengdo” (horizontal sword), which resembles the katana from the Tang Dynasty onwards. This “hoengdo” has a rounded tip and is tied horizontally under the armpit with a leather sheath.
The influence of the saber from the Central Asian steppes, which entered through Mongolia, is thought to have caused the straight hoengdo to develop a curved blade. This type of “hoengdo” was introduced to Goryeo, becoming the model for the Hwando sword.
In the early Joseon Dynasty, the Hwando was known for its significant curvature and relatively short length. The recorded specifications in the “Munjongsillok of Annals” state that the blade length of the Hwando for infantry was 14 inches and for cavalry was 13 inches.
The handle length was 10.3 inches for infantry and 6.5 inches for cavalry, which, when converted, equated to a total length of approximately 22 inches for infantry and 19.3 inches for cavalry. This length was shorter compared to the Japanese katana.
Reason for the Shorter Sword Length
It was believed that a straight and shorter blade was more effective for combat. Weight was also a consideration, as the early Joseon military standards included carrying armor, two bows, about 20 arrows, and the Hwando sword. Therefore, soldiers preferred lighter swords.
However, after the Imjin War (Japanese invasions of Korea), it was realized that the relatively shorter Hwando was inconvenient compared to Japanese swords, especially the katana. Consequently, in the later Joseon period, there was a trend towards longer Hwando swords.
Unlike the Japanese katana, the Hwando sword is worn by threading a cord through two loops attached to the scabbard and tying it around the waist. There was a separate belt made of cowhide or deer skin for wearing the Hwando sword, and the scabbard was wrapped with cloth and painted black or orange. A cord called “Hongjo Sooara” was passed through a hole in the middle of the scabbard, and two tassels adorned the hilt.
What Made Hwando a Remarkable Sword?
The Hwando sword was an example of efficiency in hand-to-hand combat at a time when conventional weaponry was being phased out in favor of modern rifles and artillery. These swords, which were generally 28 inches in length, were ideal for troops who needed to be nimble while wearing bulky armor and wielding many different weapons. During the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, the Hwando’s length suddenly increased to almost 36 inches before shrinking down to its more manageable size.
The steel was used in their construction, and they were bolstered with sharkskin or hemp fabric for extra strength. The orange swords were reserved for generals close to the monarch, and the black swords were carried by regular generals and troops. Some ornamental examples were adorned with sea turtle shells, gold, silver, or jade.
In 2017, President Putin delivered a historic Hwando sword to President Moon Jae-in.
The Hwacha weapon was an ancient Korean rocket launcher and an organ gun created at the beginning of the 15th century during the Joseon Dynasty. Called 화차 in Korean, it translates as “Fire Cart.” This rocket cart was frequently employed until around the middle of the 17th century. As an anti-personnel weapon, it may have been one of the first gunpowder-based weapons of its kind. The original design of the Hwacha dates back to the time of King Taejong of Joseon (1367–1422), but the weapon has been refined and improved upon through the years into a multiple rocket launcher.
What Was a Hwacha Weapon?
The hwacha was a platform built to unleash a barrage of flaming arrows at the enemy army. It was hitched to wagons and rolling carts. One Hwacha platform might hold anywhere from 150 to 200 fire arrows, arranged in seven or more rows of fifteen arrows. The points of the fire arrows were hollow, and the shafts were capped with pipes. Gunpowder was placed in the pipes and tips, and a fuse was attached to each.
Although it is now popularly referred to as “Hwacha,” back then the weapon was called “Hwageo,” which roughly means “fire carriage.”
Origin of the Hwacha
The Huo Che (“wasp nest”), which dates back to the Ming dynasty, was most likely the first rocket launcher in history. The Hwacha came in second in 1451.
A stationary defensive variant of the Huo Che from the 14th-century Chinese book Huolongjing.
During the Goryeo Dynasty, Choe Museon found that potassium nitrate could be mined from the ground and processed into powder. In his research, he developed the first version of the hwacha weapon in 1377. This invention went by the name “Juwha”. Korea’s very first rocket launcher.
In contrast, the “Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty” and the “Taejong Annals” document the creation of the Hwacha in the ninth year of King Taejong’s reign which is 1401.
“The fire cart is constructed with several dozen iron feathered arrows placed in copper barrels and carried on small carts. When ignited with gunpowder, it produces a fierce and powerful force capable of restraining the enemy.“
The Annals of Taejong, Volume 18.
Plans for the assembly and disassembly of a Hwacha weapon, 1474.
Gun Kisogan, Yi Do, and Choe Haesan (the son of Choe Museon) were among the creators of this multiple missile launcher. Among them, Choe Haesan was a commander who inherited his father’s weaponmaking secrets; his father had developed the first version of this Korean war machine.
More Than 100 Projectiles
A Singijeon style variant. (Photo by JoshBerglund19, CC BY, edited from original)
The inventors described a wagon filled with iron tubes used to launch numerous explosives. However, its usage in a military context at the time was limited. In 1592, Byeon Yijung drilled more than a hundred holes into the Hwacha, lit them on fire, and used them to fire the projectiles.
These modifications were specifically made during the reign of King Munjong of Joseon. Before that time, the wooden launcher saw very little usage in real conflict, but that would change soon. This invention allowed a single man to carry 100 rockets in battle, and it could hit several enemies in a single attack.
How Did a Hwacha Weapon Work?
A Chongtong style variant. (Photo by Kang Byeong Kee, CC BY, edited from original)
The fuses on the fire arrows had to first light the powder in the pipes. The arrows’ heads contained gunpowder, which would explode if the fuses burned long enough, hopefully in the vicinity of the opposing troops. However, the weapons were so evasive that the Koreans had to unleash barrages of shots in order to do any real damage.
After the 1400s, both Korea and China started producing fire arrows, which is considered to be the beginning of the Hwacha era. The 3,000-foot range of the fire arrows was extraordinary when measured against the capabilities of any other weapon.
Hwacha were notoriously inaccurate; hence, they were most effective against large groups of enemies at middle range.
The shrapnel from the fire arrows could do substantial damage even if they weren’t aimed properly at their target. Even seasoned men would break and flee at the sight of the noise and light caused by the bursting arrows. This artillery weapon was assembled on the battlefield before use, like Lego bricks.
It Changed the Course of History
Joseon dynasty army with the Hwacha weapon during the Imjin War between 1592 and 1598.
The Hwacha’s full capability emerged during the Imjin War, also known as the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598). Hwacha was most widely used during the 1592–98 Japanese invasion of Korea. The Japanese samurai usually moved in tight formations. As a result, the hwacha had no trouble hitting them. In the Battle of Haengju, 3400 Koreans and 40 hwacha defeated 30,000 Japanese.
“Singijeon Hwachas” were hwachas built for the exclusive purpose of launching Singijeon fire arrow rockets. Together with the Turtle Ship—the first armored battleship in history also made by the Koreans—this rocket launcher changed the course of the invasion.
Hwachas were not only employed as weapons but also as carts to convey supplies for the troops. Byeon Yijung helped Kwon Yul acquire 300 Hwachas, which he used with other weaponry to great effect at the Battle of Haengju in 1593. The Koreans used this weapon to fire intense arrow rockets at the Japanese. Hwachas were too heavy for a single person to move, so they were usually handled by a small team.
Panokseons and other ships under Admiral Yi Sun-sin’s fleet utilized this kind of weaponry at the Battle of Noryang in 1598. This gun was effective in striking the sails of the enemy ships.
How It Was Constructed
Five distinct Hwachas variants were developed under the Joseon dynasty (1392–1897). The foundation of a Hwacha was a two-wheeled carriage, upon which was attached a Chongtong (small barrels) or Singijeon (fire arrow rockets). They functioned as an apparatus, often resembling a rack.
Chongtong Variant
A Chongtong style variant. (Photo by Kang Byeong Kee, CC BY, edited from original)
The Chongtong (“gun tube”) version could shoot up to 200 bullets, arrows, or small projectiles in rapid succession from 50 primed barrels. In this design, each row included 4 arrows (4×50 arrows). For comparison, the Singijeon version could fire off a hundred Singijeon arrows in rapid succession.
During the Imjin War, Byeon Yijung upgraded the Hwacha by attaching 40 Chongtong barrels to the cart and wiring their fuses together so that they could be fired in rapid succession. At the Battle of Cheongju and the Battle of Haengju, as well as aboard naval boats, Byeon Yijung’s Hwachas proved invaluable all the time.
Singijeon Variant
A Singijeon style variant. (Photo by Kang Byeong Kee, CC BY, edited from original)
The size of the Singijeon fire arrows ranged from small to large. In the large version, the rocket arrows, each measuring 20 inches in length, were discharged from handguns through separate fuses. By calculating the length of the fuse, they exploded around the time they hit the target.
Larger versions of these anti-personnel weapons were developed once it was discovered that many rockets could be fired from a single cart. These bigger anti-personnel weapons were designed to be moved around with the help of trolleys or even just regular old wheelbarrows with two wheels.
The range of the large Singijeons was between 3,000 and 7,000 feet, but they were too large to be fired from a Hwacha. Thus, a smaller Singijeonarrow was designed. But it couldn’t explode like its bigger brothers since it was only an arrow with a black gunpowder bag attached to the end. It was often this small Singijeon that was shot from a Hwacha at a range of about 330 feet and was released in batches of 100.
Why Hwacha Fell Out of Favor
Because the rack placed on the Hwacha was cantilevered, rockets could be launched at an angle. The late Joseon kingdom relied heavily on the Singijeon variant to fight against Manchurian and Japanese invasions. The hwacha was a formidable weapon with great psychological effect, but it was also complicated to construct and operate.
These rocket launchers had been phased out of service in favor of cannons and arquebuses by the time the first American and Russian missions landed in Korea. When bullets and artillery shells proved more effective than fire arrows, the hwacha were rendered obsolete.
Based on a Chinese War Machine
According to various sources, the true origin of the Hwacha could be based on the Chinese invention “Tu Huo Qiang.” Translated as “fire lance,” this weapon was one of the first true guns in history. It was a single-projectile weapon made from a moso bamboo tube that was filled with gunpowder.
Due to the low explosive capacity of the gunpowder of the time, this gun produced more smoke and flames than anything else. Thus, it was primarily used for its shock effect rather than its lethality.
Therefore, it’s not out of the question that the ancient Koreans knew how to create a new version of such a weapon, given China’s cultural and military hegemony over the region.
Hwacha in Today’s Society
Video Games
Video games such as Rise of Nations (2003), Sid Meier’s Civilization IV: Warlords (2006), and Sid Meier’s Civilization V (2010) include Hwacha as a distinctive military unit for the Korean civilization.
In the video game Totally Accurate Battle Simulator (2019), this weapon fires 60 arrows in three seconds.
It is also featured in The Walking Dead: No Man’s Land (2015).
In the game Medieval II: Total War, such devices are used by the Mongols.
In the Korean MMORPG Black Desert, this artillery gun is also present at sieges.
In Ghost of Tsushima (2020), the Hwacha are used by the Mongols to attack the island of Tsushima. The player can also use this gun in battles.
TV Shows and Movies
In 2008, the TV program “MythBusters” attempted to recreate the Hwacha and investigate its veracity by conducting an experiment. The target was at 1500 feet (460 m), and they needed to see whether the weapon could hit it while firing 200 arrows at once.
They tested three factors:
Can it send arrows over a distance of 500 yards?
Would the arrows explode on impact and have fatal consequences?
Can 200 arrows be fired simultaneously in a single shot?
First, they saw that rocket arrows could actually be launched that far, and then the team saw that, with the correct amount of gunpowder, they could provide fatal power. Finally, the MythBusters were able to manufacture a working Hwacha and fire 199 out of 200 arrows at once, which all landed near the target. All three factors were confirmed, proving its historical accuracy.
The arrows’ shape allowed them to fly beyond the target, yet they all landed inside a narrow region. Had a large army been there, the attack would have been devastating. This confirmed the historical reports.
This rocket launcher is shown in the seventh episode of the eleventh season of AMC’s The Walking Dead, “Promises Broken.”
In the movie “Star Wars: Episode II: Attack of the Clones” (2002), the Battle of Geonosis used the IG-227 Hailfire-class droid tank, which slightly resembles the Hwacha.
The sica sword was an ancient Balkan weapon used by Thracians, Dacians, and Illyrians. It had a curved blade and was relatively short, falling between the categories of a long knife and a short sword. The sica sword, a curved saber-like double edged weapon, is often associated with the Thracian peoples of Roman antiquity due to its presumed links to their origin and employment of the weapon. So-called “Thraex” gladiators specifically used the sica sword.
Origin
Thracian
Type:
Saber
Period:
Roman antiquity
Users:
Thracian, Celtic, and Illyrian warriors, gladiators
Length:
Blade: 10–18 in (25–45 cm), Total: 16–24 in (40–60 cm)
Features:
The blade bends 45 degrees at the tip from the handle.
In the evolution of the Latin language, the word “sica” evolved to mean the dagger used by political plotters, assassins, and other hired murderers.
Purpose of the Sica Sword
Thraex with sica.
According to one controversial theory, the sica sword was made to circumvent an opponent’s shield and attack the enemy from behind or side. Most Italic people and other ancient Romans at the time often wielded scutum shields.
These were the large, red shields with a shield boss, known for their use by the Roman army. Murmillo gladiators also utilized the scutum shields, and they were pretty much impenetrable.
The only way for a thraex gladiator to defeat a murmillo was to circumvent his scutum, and the sharply bent blade of the sica sword was suitable for that. They often combined this short sword with the parma shield.
These large daggers were beautifully decorated to represent the spiritual and creative virtues of their wielders.
According to another theory, this shape was designed to distribute the energy of a slashing blow, similar to the kukri knife which was designed without taking into account the use of shields. The fact that the species from earlier eras had a more pronounced bending in comparison to later ones supports this.
Fighting Style
A thraex with a sica sword against a murmillo with a scutum. Artist: Vasily Golubev
The sica sword was only employed in a combat manner comparable to that of the kama weapon, with the curved, concave side facing downward. It could readily amputate limbs in the hands of a trained user.
The Roman legionaries were understandably terrified of it, which prompted improvements to their protective gear.
In the hands of a master, every strike with this sword was a fatal strike. With the curve pointing downwards, the tip could have easily snagged into the enemy’s helmet. After that, Thracian would move the blade upwards and slash across the enemy’s face, killing the person.
Origin of the Sica Sword
The sica had its origins in Illyria but was subsequently employed across the Balkans and even by the Romans.
It is believed that the Hallstatt culture was responsible for creating the sica sword. The Urnfield culture of the 12th century BC (Late Bronze Age) gave rise to the Hallstatt culture, which dominated Western and Central European archaeological sites from the 12th to the 6th centuries BC.
This culture is known for using various long daggers or short swords.
This culture is often connected with people who spoke Proto-Celtic. The etymology of this sword’s name lies in the word tsikā. From Proto-Indo-European ḱey– (‘to sharpen’), presumably through Illyrian, the word tsikā (from which Proto-Albanian thikë, ‘knife’) emerged.
History of the Sica Sword
Thrace Mosaic Medallion with a Thraex gladiator and a sica sword. (Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0, cropped from original)
The word ‘sica’ was often used in ancient Rome to refer to curved weapons like sabers and long daggers. The size of this weapon was between 16–24 in (40–60 cm) with a 1.2 in (3 cm) width. In the 2nd century AD Zliten mosaic, a Roman gladiator is seen wielding this sword.
The blade of a sica was sharpened on the inside rather than the outside, similar to the sickle and the yatagan. This short sword also featured a sharp tip. However, the Romans had more experience and skill with their gladius swords.
Many short, curved swords were common among Mediterranean cultures. But the Romans saw the sica as uniquely Illyrian and the weapon of choice for contract killers.
During the time of the Thracians
Sica sword on the belt of a Dacian warrior, Manching Museum, Germany. (Image: Wolfgang Sauber, CC BY-SA 3.0)
Horsemen of the Thracian peoples, such as the Dacians, Getae, Moesians, etc., frequently used the sica sword from the late Hellenistic period onward, but the Dacians in particular. The Thracians were notoriously agile warriors who prioritized speed above protection and possessed some of the best riders in history. This Thracian sword was a staple of their military and culture.
According to Valerius Maximus (a 1st-century Latin writer), a Thracian mercenary’s sica sword struck the consul Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus, killing him during the battle between Rome and the Kingdom of Pergamon in 130 BC.
Their sizes might be either lower or greater than 16–24 inches (40–60 cm) in these regions. Even though all sica swords look roughly the same from the end of the 3rd century on, there’s still some variety in the handle’s form and the blade’s curve and thickness.
Species from various areas.
The rhomphaia was another comparable Thracian weapon, characterized largely by its larger blade and grip, which required both hands to use.
After the Dacian monarch Decebalus was defeated in Trajan’s Dacian Wars and committed suicide with a sica sword in 106 BC, this cold weapon seems to have faded from these regions. This scene is depicted in the 113 AD Trajan’s Column located in Rome, and the weapon can be seen in this depiction.
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215 AD), writing around the start of the 3rd century, still gives the Thracians credit for creating a long, curved dagger but calls it a harpe sword instead. Nonetheless, this weapon was not ideal for thrusting but was fairly powerful for slashing and chopping.
Among the Ancient Romans
Artist: Mark Beerdom
Over time, the name ‘sica’ came to refer to any bladed weapon having a pronounced curvature. One example of this was the curved kopis knife used by the Thracians, the Celts, and the Illyrians. However, it could also refer to the sword used by the so-called Thraex gladiators.
As Cicero (106–43 BC) attests, the name also came to refer to a short dagger, which was utilized by political plotters. The sicarius (‘assassin’), a kind of ancient contract killer, and the Sicarii, a group of Jewish activists who fought against the Romans, both took their names from this weapon. Their similar-shaped weapons were called ‘Sicarii dagger.’
In Roman jurisprudence, the sica sword was considered a dishonorable weapon where strict distinctions were made in such matters.
Initially designed to pursue political murders, the Roman legislation that established homicide as a crime in 82 BC at Sulla’s insistence was also dubbed Lex Cornelia de sicariis.
Why Sica Sword Was an Effective Weapon
Even though the bend reduced its thrusting force, this weapon could still be used effectively as a thrusting weapon by swinging it with the pointed end in front.
There were several reasons why the Sica sword was so powerful as a weapon. Its distinctive curved blade enabled forceful slicing and chopping actions. Because of its curved shape, it was effective at beheading foes.
Its recurved blade made it usable as a rather big kukri or a Dacian falx and rhomphaia.
Because of the blade’s design, the sword could be used like a shotel (an African curved sword) to hook around a shield and control it. The sword’s reduced length made it more manageable and quicker to move than longer weapons.
The precision swings of this weapon allowed gladiators and other combatants to surprise their opponents in the most unexpected ways. Because of its small weight, it could be used repeatedly without wearing the user out.
All in all, this ancient, large Balkan dagger or sword was a rather effective weapon for slicing and cutting. Many of its features made the sica sword a very powerful weapon in the hands of trained soldiers.
Thraex gladiators also made use of wooden sica swords for training, along with wooden rudis and rhomphaia swords:
Similar Weapons
Kopis: A Greek sword with a forward-curving blade, designed for chopping and slashing attacks.
Falcata: A sword with a single-edged, curved blade originating from the Iberian Peninsula, known for its chopping and slashing capabilities.
Kukri: A curved Nepalese knife used as both a tool and a weapon, known for its effectiveness in chopping and slashing.
Machete: A large, heavy knife with a broad blade, often used for cutting vegetation and as a weapon in various cultures.
Scimitar: A curved sword commonly associated with the Middle East and North Africa, known for its slashing capabilities.
Khopesh: An Egyptian sword with a curved blade, used for chopping, slashing, and hooking.
The Rondache was a type of curved shield used by European cavalry in the Middle Ages and subsequently by infantry in the Renaissance. It included a lightweight wooden frame with metal nails, overlays, and a central shield boss for reinforcement. A Rondache shield was usually spherical, although it sometimes narrowed toward the base. Between the years 1100 and 1700, European countries developed a wide variety of Rondaches. This cold weapon was also known as the “roundel” shield.
Design of the Rondache
A Medieval infantryman with Rondache in a drawing by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc.
The Rondache was a lenticular shield that was held in both hands and worn on the arm with the help of straps and a handle. This was the standard shield used by children learning to fight or in actual duels. The buckler shield was thought to be the Rondache’s ancestor.
A 24-inch-long (60 cm) Italian Rondache shield was barely wide enough to cover the arm, but it was still larger than the buckler and the targe. Unlike them, it was not held in the fist but rather strapped to the forearm.
The iron blade fastened to the shield’s edge was the greatest feature of a Rondache, making this medium-sized shield a formidable weapon.
Having a defensive tool and an extra edged weapon in one hand gave fighters who used the Rondache shields a decisive edge in battle. It was not uncommon for Rondaches to come with a concealed blade that could be pulled out with the assistance of a spring.
Its planks were composed of light wood and tied together with sinews or ropes; its exterior was leather or metal; and the edges of the shield were packed with nails in a circular pattern. This shield was rarely used on horseback except in East and Eastern Europe.
Most Rondache shields usually measured 20–24 in (50–60 cm) across. However, there were smaller variants, and they were largely utilized for foot combat. At one point, their diameter was cut even further to roughly 12 in (30 cm).
Rondache Shield’s History
Infantryman of the Spanish army with a Rondache shield and short sword, c. 1500s. (CC0, Wikimedia)
Round shields have always been in use, from the period of the Ancient Romans (see Parma Shield) and their contemporaries until modern times in the 17th century.
During the Carolingian Empire (800–888), most shields were typically rounded and constructed of light wood covered with parchment and metal blades on the orle (a metal reinforcement protecting the edge of a wooden shield) and on the domed outer face, with an umbo (a point, cone, or cap jutting from the center of a shield) in the center.
The legs and rivets on this umbo were typically iron, and the facings and orle were both crafted from extremely thin sheets of brass that were delicately embossed and hammered.
Buckler shields were so much more effective than conventional shields that, by the end of the 10th century, Italians and Spaniards had developed a comparable but larger shield for use in battle, the Rondache.
It is believed that the Spanish conquerors of Peru utilized this iron-and-leather shield in the 16th century. National Archaeological Museum (Madrid). (Image: Angel M. Felicísimo, CC BY-SA 4.0)
The Saracens under Saladin (1137–1193) used it often throughout the Crusades and the holy wars, as did the Persians, because it was easier to handle this shield with a bow, particularly when mounted.
By the late 11th and early 12th centuries, it was common for round shields like Rondache, with or without an umbo, to be ornamented with a lavish orle.
In the 15th century, the Rondache shield was common among infantrymen in northern Italy. This type of Rondache was both a composite weapon and a shield made out of many other components.
In the 16th century, the fashion returned to larger and highly decorated shields, like the armor of the time, but they were mostly decorative.
Advantages of the Rondache
As weapons became more lethal throughout history, shields became heavier and more durable. At one point, a shield was never deemed complete without passing a test where it could withstand a shot from an arquebus at one hundred paces. Some shields were as heavy as 22 lb (10 kg) at this time.
However, the Rondache’s quality as a fighting weapon stemmed from the fact that it was compact, lightweight, and required little room to launch a strike.
It was built with wood that was 0.2 in (0.5 cm) thick, ribbed steel that was 0.04 in (1 mm) thick, and 0.06 in (1.5 mm) thick iron reinforcements. The shield probably weighed 2.2 lb (1 kg) at most.
Anecdotally, in the 17th century, manufacturers produced bulletproof shields (weighing 11 lb; 5 kg) and gun shields (shields with embedded handguns).
Disadvantages
The 1536 fencing manual “Opera Nova” includes a depiction of a Rondache and a sword against spears. (CC0)
The Rondache shield was less dynamic in battle since it was not held in the traditional fist grip but rather tied to the forearm using a shield harness.
However, strikes to the weapon arm and other forms of active shield action still happened. During an assault, larger shields like this were often held at an angle on the left side of the torso, protecting the sword hand.
The primary strategy with this shield was to try to block the enemy’s weapon with the front edge of the shield without blocking one’s own vision. Troops equipped themselves with such round shields when participating in close combat against polearms or while facing enemy shooters.
As a result of the shield’s widespread popularity in Italy, early conquistadors frequently used the rodela, the Spanish and Portuguese namesake for the Rondache.
The greater thickness and more prominent curvature distinguished the later variants of this Renaissance shield. The bullets from early weapons were better deflected by the later models, and they were in fact bulletproof under certain conditions.
Rondache with an Iron Gauntlet
A Rondache was always used with a short sword or side-sword. And it was worn on the arm with straps and a handle. The round Rondache was sometimes fastened to an iron gauntlet. The shield’s circumference was additionally notched to trap the enemy’s swords.
The boiled leather or iron construction and optional blade attachment on this shield were both meant to catch and break the enemy’s sword. This variant never exceeded 12 in (30 cm) in diameter.
When a blade was attached to this gauntlet, it protruded 20 inches (50 cm) from the edge of the shield. It was common practice to attach additional blades and spears to the Rondache shield and its gauntlet (similar to a Russian “tarch”). And many of these blades were serrated, like the flamberge sword.
The Lantern Rondache Shield
The lantern Rondache shield of Archduke Ernest of Austria, before 1571, inv. no. A 384.
The idea of attacking their enemies at night had always fascinated the Italians and the Spaniards, so they created shields with a circular aperture on top for hiding lanterns. This type of shield was known as the lantern shield.
The aperture, which could be opened or closed with a circular latch, would let the lantern’s light through in a flash, like a tactical light.
In the 16th century, the lantern shield emerged, a hybrid of the earlier Rondache shield, the vambrace(forearm guard), and the knight’s gauntlet. Special notches lined the perimeter of this Rondache to absorb some of the force of a strike.
Attachments for a sword and a lantern could be found on the inside of these shields. The lantern had a slit that could be opened with a cable to let light out. The left hand was the traditional location for the lantern Rondache shield.
According to German-origin historian Pavel Pavlovich von Winkler (1866–c. 1937), the lantern shield was still seen in the trenches during the 19th century:
“In the trenches, fighters still use the Rondache, which has a unique design and forms a kind of bracer. A gauntlet for the left hand is attached to the disk, and beneath the gauntlet, a rapier is fixed to the shield, protruding 50 cm [20 in] beyond its edge. The shield’s circumference is notched to deflect blows. On the inner side of the disk, near the edge, a lantern is attached, and its light passes through a hole; the latter can be opened and closed at will using a round latch. This Rondache undoubtedly dates back to the early years of the 17th century.”
In Popular Culture
The Rondache shield is a sort of medium-sized shield that appears in many games in the Dark Souls series.
Rondache is a paladin shield in the famous video game series Diablo.
This shield is also featured in the Pathfinder (2018) video game.
Chigiriki (契木) is a kind of martial arts weapon characterized by a hardwood stick (oak, for example) with an iron chain and weight attached to its tip. Chigiriki-jutsu refers to the subset of Japanese budo (“martial way”) utilizing this weapon. In chigirikis, there are chains that are simply attached to the end of the stick, and other chains are housed in a cavity within the stick. In this version, the chain swings out, and the weapon works like a flail. This design is also known as a swinging cane. Weights can be used to strike an opponent or wrapped around an object to block motion.
What is Chigiriki?
An Edo period (1603–1867) long chigiriki with a long chain.
The chigiriki is one of the brandishing-stick (furi-zue) weapons in martial arts that has chained sticks. Also known as a shinobi-zue weapon, this cane is designed for stealth (shinobi means “ninja” in Chinese). You can use them as a blow gun, a breathing tube, or to conceal other weapons like shuriken.
The chigiriki was a weapon used in feudal Japan (1185–1603). It was similar to a jitte with a chain attached to a metal or wooden ball or weight. At one time, there was little distinction between police officers and ninjas, and both groups employed the chigiriki.
The weapon is also known as the “Japanese flail.”
In all likelihood, the chigiriki was designed to take the place of either the sai or the jitte. Because of their limited effectiveness, these weapons were often used in pairs. Even if the opponent’s weapon became stuck in the chigiriki’s chains (“claws”), combat could still go on because the chain was so flexible.
The Size of a Chigiriki
A chigiriki’s size changes depending on its user. This weapon typically measures about 2 feet (60 cm) in length, but it can also reach 4 feet (120 cm).
When it is 4 feet (4 shaku) in length, the weapon stands nearly chest-high. Hence the moniker, “Chikiriki,” which means something like “chest-cutting wood.”
When the weapon has a wooden handle that’s around 2 ft (60 cm) long, the metal chain is also 2–2.3 ft (60–70 cm) in length, and there is a spiked ball at the end of the chain.
Chigiriki was historically a typical weapon for fighting in rural communities alongside regular staff. This can be understood by the Japanese idiomatic expression “a chigiriki at the end of a fight.”
The chain can also be whatever length the user likes. Some are as long as the user’s forearm.
Origin of the Chigiriki Weapon
A water vendor with a carrying pole by Harunobu Suzuki.
However, before the use of chigiriki as a fighting weapon, it was actually used for much more subtle purposes. In everyday life, the chigiriki with a chain weight attached was used to measure the weight of a carrying pole worn on the shoulder while transporting heavy objects. It was also used as a weighing scale to measure the weight of goods.
At some point, the tool was adapted for use in martial arts. This was probably a result of the lack of weapons available to the locals at the time. In cases of civil war, the Japanese people often improvised their daily tools into weapons.
This is actually the origin of many Japanese martial art weapons, which initially began as tools for everyday life, such as the bo staff or the tonfa.
Its Past is Murky
An Edo period (1603–1867) long chigiriki with a long chain.
The chigiriki is a weapon used in a specific style of martial arts, although its roots in history are not certainly known. However, there is evidence to suggest that the weapon was first used in China around the 8th century.
The Heian period (794-1185) in Japan is when it was first recorded. The term “chigiriki-jutsu” was first used to describe its application in the 16th century.
Similar to the kusarigama (a chained kama weapon), this flail weapon never developed into its own separate school but rather became integrated into broader forms of martial arts. Its length varied depending on the practitioner, just like the jo staff.
In Combat
The use of chigiriki in battle allows for the following:
Attacking or entangling an opponent (even from a distance of 10 ft, 3 m).
Parrying blows.
Capture or immobilize the opponent’s weapon.
When this weapon struck the target, it could kill or deafen the person.
The Chigiriki 契木 or “Japanese Flail” by Sengoku Studies戦国研究, YouTube.
What Does Chigiriki Mean?
Even though the word “chigiriki” is Japanese, its exact meaning is obscure today. The term may be a combination of two different Japanese words or have some other meaning in Japanese culture. Its literal meaning was probably lost at some point in history, suggesting that it was a tool of ancient times.
A Typical Chigiriki in Kiraku-ryu
Rod length
5 shaku 7 sun 2 bu
5’7.7″ (1.72 m)
Chain length
2 shaku 5 sun 4 bu
2’5.9″ (76 cm)
Thickness
1.3 bu
1.57″ (4 cm)
Overall weight
360 monme
3 lb (1.35 kg)
Schools of the Chigiriki Weapon
Numerous schools adopted the chigiriki weapon, including Araki-ryu, Kiraku-ryu, Sasako-ryu, Mubyoshi-ryu, Hatada-ryu, Tsutsumi Hōzan-ryu, Kagami Shinmeichi-ryu, Toda-ryu, and Hatsumi Kenrikata Ichi-ryu, to name a few. The weapon seems to have been especially common in the Nen-ryu and Chujo-ryu schools.
Araki-ryu (荒木流) koryu (古流) (ko – old, ryu – school) is an ancient martial art developed in the early 1570s by Araki Mujinsai Minamoto. Chigiriki-jutsu contains most of the techniques often used with this weapon.
The tonfa, originating in China or Indonesia, is a versatile martial arts weapon.
Modern police forces in the US and Europe use tonfa batons for crowd control.
Originally adapted from millstone handles, tonfas are balanced for striking efficiency.
It is part of Okinawan kobudo and its origins in agricultural tools reflect Okinawan resourcefulness in self-defense.
The tonfa is a striking, cold weapon used in martial arts and by the police. It is typically made of wood for martial arts but may also be made of polymer to be used by the police. The tonfa weapon is a 20- to 24-inch (50–60 cm) long stick or truncheon with a handle (tsuka) that is perpendicular to the shaft (yoka). The vertical handle is attached to the shaft around the quarter mark of its length. This ancient martial arts weapon is also body armor in the way it covers the forearm.
Tonfa
Type:
Blunt object, farm weapon
Origin:
Chinese, Ryukyuan, or Indonesian
Utilization:
Mostly civilian, seldom military
Length:
20 to 24 inches (50 to 60 cm)
Weight:
1 to 2.2 lb (0.45 to 1 kg).
This weapon is known as a Tonfa (トンファー), Tuifa (トゥイファー), or Tunkuwa (トンクワァ) in Okinawan Kobudo.
Origin of the Tonfa Weapon
Although there is some debate among experts, most assume that tonfa originated in either China or Indonesia. A hooked sword dating back to the Qin and Han dynasties is credited by certain Chinese authors as the inspiration for this weapon.
Jwing-Ming Yang claims it is only an iteration of a crutch (it is called Kuai, 枴 or 拐, in Chinese which means hanger, crutch, or walking stick).
But two of the most prominent hypotheses propose that the tonfa weapon was either adapted from a Chinese martial technique called sai that was taken to the Ryukyu Islands (“Southwest Islands”) and shrunk into a new weapon or that it was developed from a millstone.
But in the eyes of the Chinese, the origin of the tonfa can also be traced to the crutch. Both of these theories base themselves on a ban on weapons in Okinawa instituted by Shō Hashi (d. 1439) after the island’s civil war inspired the construction of this weapon.
Daoist immortal Li Tieguai with a cane or crutch under a Pine, Ming dynasty, 1499.
However, it is speculated that these limitations encouraged people to resort to the unusual use of agricultural equipment as weapons. And it is more frequently claimed that the wooden handle of a millstone, a well-liked agricultural tool, served as inspiration for the tonfa.
Numerous variants, tonfa-inspired weapons, and characters that wield tonfas can be found in works of fiction like manga and anime today.
How Do You Use the Tonfa Weapon?
In a tonfa, a small vertical handle is affixed to one end of the about 18 to 20 in (45–50 cm) long pole to serve as a grip. These weapons often come in pairs and are held individually. Each weapon weighed from 1 to 2.2 lb (450 to 1 kg).
This weapon’s delicacy lies in the way it balances flexibility with strength, allowing its user to gauge the force of both incoming and outgoing blows. Pairing two tonfas together has proven to be the most effective way to use them. The weapon calls for excellent hand-eye coordination and a steady center of gravity.
Cover your arms and elbows while holding the grip portion (honte-mochi style), block the strikes like in karate, stand your ground, thrust forward, or utilize your free hand or kick.
If you turn the long end of the shaft toward your adversary, you can also use this weapon like a club (gyakute style).
Half-rotating the weapon by turning the wrist allows for rapid switching, and you can also strike your opponent by using the momentum of this rotation.
Furthermore, the grip can also be turned towards the opponent and used in a kamajutsu fashion by handling the shaft (tokushu-mochi style). It’s an attacking and defensive weapon designed specifically for use against sword-wielding foes.
To stop a fleeing person, the “baton throwing” method teaches students to hurl the tonfa in a boomerang fashion toward their legs. This method is highlighted in the 1982 drama series “T. J. Hooker.” Karate was especially responsible for spreading this weapon across the American martial arts community.
History of the Tonfa Weapon
Tonfa (also known as tuifa or tongwa in martial arts) has a long and storied history in Japan, but its modern development is inextricably tied to Okinawa Island, located south of the Japanese main islands.
Tonfa is also one of the Eighteen Arms of Wushu and is widely practiced in southern China and Southeast Asia. This weapon has become well-known outside of Japan because of its innovative design, unconventional method of usage, and exceptional effectiveness in close combat.
King Shō Hashi united the three Okinawan kingdoms under the Ryukyu Kingdom in 1409 and banned peasants and other residents from owning or using weapons out of fear of an uprising. After two centuries, in 1609, the regime once again took the weapons away from the people.
It’s Time to be Imaginative
The ban forced the locals to develop a system of warfare that would enable them to defend themselves against intruders using only their bare hands. Okinawa-te (“Okinawan hand”) was born in this way, and it is the progenitor of karate (kara-te, “empty hand”).
Farmers, however, were also resourceful enough to repurpose common agricultural implements into lethal weapons. Kobudo tradition holds that the tonfa, like most of the weapons it employs, has agricultural origins. The tonfa was originally the handle (crank) of a millstone that was used to grind grains, and the farmers turned it into a fighting tool.
Ryukyu islanders fought Japanese samurai with tonfas, similar to the jo or bo staffs.
It was simple to remove this crank from the millstone and wield it as a weapon, protecting one’s forearm by grasping it with the yoka (the long portion of the weapon). Lunging with the shorter portion of the shaft, striking with the other end (yoko nage), or rotating the weapon with a quick wrist movement were all common methods of attack.
Tonfa and sai.
The tonfa is considered a weapon in Okinawan kobudō (i.e., Ryukyu kobujustu), along with the sai (a weapon with the metal head of a fork) and the nunchaku (a flail weapon).
The territory of the former Ryukyu Kingdom continued to be the main area for the use of the tonfa weapon even after Japan annexed the Ryukyu Kingdom in 1879 and turned it into the Okinawa Prefecture.
Design of the Tonfa Weapon
In modern kobudo dôjô, the tonfa weapon has a red wood handle and a circular or square cross-section. It’s 20 in (50 cm) long and has a side handle that’s about a third of the way up.
Different people have different ideal sizes, but once gripped, the weapon should stick out around 1.2 in (3 cm) over the elbow. The cross-section of the weapon is often round, square, or trapezoidal.
When handled improperly or with improvised tactics, the tonfa may cause severe harm or broken bones; hence, it must be treated as a weapon at all times by the law.
Because of the tonfa’s adaptability, law enforcement currently uses it in a number of nations, including Italy, the United States of America, Canada, Finland, Germany, and Switzerland.
Western Tonfa is Different
As can be seen in the above image, the weapon’s original form is more like a square pillar. However, the weapon’s adaptability led to a cylindrical form in places like the United States and Europe, creating the variant called the “tonfa baton.” When it is used as a baton, it is called a “side-handle baton” or “T-baton.”
Practicing the tonfa necessitates a high level of finger, wrist, elbow, and arm flexibility, strength, and agility in order to achieve a high level of technical proficiency and a certain degree of dexterity.
Tonfa in Popular Culture
Movies and TV Shows
In Spiritual Kung Fu (1978), Jackie Chan fights a group of monks using more than 6.5 feet (2 m) long staffs, representing the Sixteen Arhats, while wielding a pair of tonfas.
Diaz – Don’t Clean Up This Blood, a 2012 Italian-French-Romanian historical drama film features the tonfa weapon.
In the Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation TV series, Michelangelo uses this weapon instead of the nunchakus he used in previous versions.
Raphael uses this exact weapon in the TV series Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, and it was his boyhood weapon in the comics.
Video Games
Players of the Left 4 Dead 2 video game get access to the tonfa as a melee weapon option.
The tone phase is a technique used by Talim in Soulcalibur.
In Mega Man Zero 3, Zero wields a pair of tonfas with energy blades. By pushing adversaries, breaking certain blocks, and bouncing on the ground, he can go to locations he couldn’t before.
Weapons Similar to the Tonfa
These weapons below share at least a few characteristics with the tonfa weapon:
Police baton: A police officer’s baton is a cylindrical weapon used for self-defense and to subdue offenders. It has a side handle, designed like a tonfa for improved grip and control. A typical kind of baton used by law enforcement is the PR-24, which is longer and has a side handle.
Yawara stick: A short, portable weapon used for striking and joint locking, the yawara stick is often constructed of wood or metal.
Nunchaku: Two sticks are linked together with a chain or rope to form this ancient Okinawan weapon known as nunchaku.
Sansetsukon: A sansetsukon is a three-section staff that looks like a tonfa but has two extra prongs. It’s a common component in many forms of martial arts.
Martial Art Schools That Use the Tonfa
China: Shaolin Temple, Sun Bin Quan, Pak Mei Pai, etc.
Japan and Ryukyu: Karate (especially early Karate known as “Tang Soo Do”), Ninjutsu schools.
Thailand: Traditional Muay Thai style
Philippines: Arnis, the traditional martial arts of the Philippines.
Tonfa as Police Equipment
Many martial arts professionals from Okinawa have come to the United States as part of the various waves of immigration from Asia. They were especially Japanese karate practitioners. The American police utilized a cylindrical stick called a tanbo (a type of jo or bo staff) of 25 in (65 cm) in length, 1.2 in (3 cm) in diameter, and 1.1 lb (500 g) in weight until the 1970s.
Some police officers modified their standard-issue baton by adding a side handle to the middle third of the baton using a hexagonal screw, drawing inspiration from the tonfa used in Okinawan kobudo training.
Thus, the first police tonfa baton was created, but its whole construction had to be rethought to reveal its full potential. And unlike the original version used in kobudo, the baton was not intended to be employed in pairs.
Police tonfa designers responded by mandating a new covering made of lightweight, shock-absorbing materials. The United States police agency settled on a polycarbonate alloy covering a 24 in (60 cm) long pole that was injected in a single piece and weighed about 1.5 lb (700 g) after extensive testing and trial and error.
The United States’ police forces emphasize defensive tonfa skills against bladed weapons, with a concentration on disarming the opponent. For those without martial arts training, the technique of temporarily releasing the hold and spinning the weapon to attack is commonly overlooked.
In the United States and Europe, the tonfa baton is an offensive and defensive weapon used to quell riots and incapacitate attackers. Striking, thrusting, sweeping, and grappling are just some of the many methods that can be mastered with this device, which leads many to feel it is very practical and efficient.
Laws and Enforcement
In the United States, carrying a tonfa or any other weapon on duty requires training from a law enforcement organization. For instance, the Monadnock Baton PR-24 STS is listed as the standard baton in the New York City Police Department’s Patrol Guide section “204-09 16 ‘Baton (Side Handle),” and only properly trained personnel who have graduated from the police school are permitted to carry them.
The material also specifies the following details:
Police officers employed after December 1988 may only carry PR-24 STS.
Police officers employed by December 1988 and not trained in tonfa are permitted to carry straight batons no longer than 24~26 inches and 1.5 inches in diameter.
The straight baton may be made out of either false acacia, hickory, American holly, or rosewood.
Even for those qualified to carry a straight baton, individuals who have received tonfa training at the police academy must carry a tonfa.
The tonfa is a category D weapon in France. Without proper paperwork and a valid reason, you can’t carry this weapon there, just like in Germany. Since the ordinance of 2000 did not permit the concealed carry of firearms by municipal police, telescopic batons remained illegal until 2013. When on duty, French police officers must get special permission to use this weapon instead of the more common truncheon. Because the weapon is considered dangerous, particularly for the head.
Due to its association with shock-crushing cold weapons, the use of tonfa in combat or self-defense is also illegal in Russia. The German Bundeswehr (armed forces) and police have long used this martial arts weapon in the baton role.
A Shift from Tonfas to Batons
Police officers still frequently use tonfas today. However, there has been a shift in recent years toward telescopic batons, which are both easier to hide and more convenient to carry. The aim is to strike fear into the hearts of its potential victims with the mere sight of the weapon.
Another factor is the public’s growing mistrust of law enforcement as a result of high-profile episodes of police brutality, such as the “Rodney King beating” that prompted the Los Angeles riots and similar occurrences around the United States.
Since 2007, the Los Angeles Police Department and other agencies have begun using the Pelican Light 7060 Tactical Flashlight, a handheld, small, high-intensity illumination device measuring only around 8 in (20 cm) in length, instead of the flashlight formerly used for nighttime patrols.
The preceding “Streamlight” and “Maglite” tactical weapon lights were also strong blunt weapons, inspiring the same mistrust as the tonfa, and thus they were phased out. The current generation of flashlights is not designed to be used as a blunt weapon, but their bright beams of light may briefly incapacitate targets like would-be attackers.
The martial arts tonfa is often crafted from red oak and other similarly thick and durable woods. However, law enforcement personnel frequently use batons made of synthetic materials, such as polycarbonate and particular metals, that offer exceptional impact resistance.
