In late May, shaken by the Blitzkrieg, the British army and a portion of the French troops retreated northward. The imperative is to save the soldiers trapped on the beaches at all costs. The operation’s name is Dynamo. In ten questions, let’s delve into one of the most spectacular and controversial turning points of World War II.
Initially, it was a hastily organized evacuation operation aimed at saving what could be saved, with the organizers themselves not counting on success. From May 27 to June 4, 1940, tens of thousands of soldiers, mostly British and French, would be evacuated from Dunkirk, surrounded by the German army, to continue the fight on the other side of the English Channel.
Firstly, contrary to a persistent myth, it was not the strategy of the French army (the sacred Maginot Line) that led to its downfall during the dreadful days of May and June 1940, but rather the reverse. The strategic plan Dyle-Bréda (developed in early May) envisaged, in the event of a German attack, moving reserves and mobile troops to Belgium to confront the bulk of the enemy.
Unfortunately, the enemy chose to advance through the Ardennes and breakthrough around Sedan. This advance, to which the French high command seemed incapable of responding, had disastrous consequences for the Allies. The bulk of their maneuvering force, notably the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), found itself soon encircled and cut off from the rest of the French army to the south.
What was to be done? Not much, as British Prime Minister Winston Churchill bitterly acknowledged on May 17, 1940, when discussing the situation with French President Paul Reynaud and General Gamelin, the commander-in-chief of the Allied armies.
Gamelin informs him that he has no reserves. Churchill is dismayed. Two days earlier, Reynaud had told him over the phone, “We are defeated,” and he had initially thought it was a moment of his counterpart’s confusion. He realizes it is not. The situation is catastrophic. Nevertheless, on June 4, 85% of the troops, comprising 338,226 men, including 120,000 French and Belgian soldiers, were safely transferred to the United Kingdom. Never has a forced evacuation tasted so much like victory. However, the operation was far less smooth and “miraculous” than it may seem.
Did the British Decide to Evacuate on Their Own?
As the troops wait on the beaches, General Ironside, the commander of the Imperial General Staff, visits General Gort, who leads the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), on May 19. Upon arrival at the headquarters in Laon, Ironside realizes that the situation is worse than he imagined: Gort is essentially left on his own, without instructions from his direct superior, General Billotte, for several days.
He understands the necessity of evacuation as quickly as possible. Unlike some other nations, Britain has a professional army, constituting the majority of BEF troops. If captured, it would be a catastrophe for the United Kingdom. Therefore, on May 22, the Churchill government decided to withdraw the BEF and retreat to the other side of the English Channel without disclosing this plan to allies, notably President Reynaud.
Why Did Certain Generals Accuse Churchill of Abandoning France?
Following the declaration of war against Germany in September 1939, the British and the French established an agreement stating that neither side could seek a separate peace (although Marshal Pétain would sign the armistice at Compiègne on May 22). On May 19, Gort agreed to the concept of a joint attack in the Arras sector, involving two infantry divisions and a British tank brigade, along with elements of the French 3rd Mechanized Light Division. This counter-attack, directly impacting the advance of General Rommel’s 7th Armored Division, caught the Germans off guard, causing initial panic before the German air force restored the situation.
This Franco-British offensive allowed the besieged troops to gain valuable time but also provided an opportunity for some, like General Weygand (who succeeded Gamelin), to assert that the British did not attack with the expected vigor. Evacuation now seemed like the only alternative to total capture. A persistent rumor circulated, suggesting that the British had prioritized their own interests and abandoned the French.
How Many Soldiers Did Churchill Hope to Save?
On May 23rd, the British disengaged and moved towards the coast, heading for Dunkirk. This campaign in Belgium, like the subsequent ones, was far from a military stroll for the Germans. French, British, and Belgian soldiers often fought with the energy of despair. However, it became increasingly clear that the Belgians would capitulate (which they did on May 28th). At this point, Churchill believed that the defense of Dunkirk would collapse and that he would only be able to save 45,000 men.
On the first day of Operation Dynamo (Dunkirk evacuation), barely 7,500 men could be evacuated. The next day, about 25,000 more men managed to embark. Fortunately for them, on May 24th, German tanks made a two-day pause, less than 15 kilometers from Dunkirk. This halt order allowed the British to continue the evacuation until June 4th, which was unexpected.
Why Did Hitler Stop the German Army?
The decision to halt the Panzer divisions advancing towards the English Channel during World War II is one of the most discussed topics. Various explanations have been put forth. One suggests that Marshal Goering, through his influence on the Führer, secured the honor of crushing the Dunkirk pocket from the air to showcase the overwhelming superiority of the Luftwaffe. Indeed, German bombers pounded the city, causing the deaths of over a thousand civilians and damaging ships. Another notion is that Adolf Hitler, seeking a separate peace with Churchill against the advice of his generals, aimed to avoid severe humiliation for the British, enabling focus on the upcoming war in the East against the USSR.
But why not deprive the British of the bulk of their troops and use them as bargaining chips? The truth is more prosaic: the German tanks had gone much too far, according to part of the Nazi general staff. Isolated from infantry, ammunition, and fuel, tanks were in danger of finding themselves surrounded (the Arras counter-attack had seemed like a dangerous prelude to such a catastrophe). Therefore, the so-called “recolonization order” was issued on May 23 to reorganize the Reich army. It came into force the next day but was lifted two days later.
Were There Tensions Between Allied Soldiers?
From May 30 onwards, Churchill also approved the evacuation of French soldiers. Until then, Operation Dynamo’s stated goal was solely the evacuation of British troops. The consolidation order enabled the Allies to regroup and prepare for the defense of the Dunkirk city perimeter. Initially, almost exclusively British soldiers boarded the vessels. There are reports of instances where French soldiers may have been repelled or killed by British officers who refused to let them board.
If such episodes occurred, they were extremely rare and not ordered by higher authorities. On May 30, 54,000 men left the Dunkirk pocket, including several thousand French soldiers. The final transfers took place from the night of June 2 to 3—including the last 4,000 British soldiers—and from June 3 to 4. Daytime evacuations became impossible due to the proximity of German troops.
Did French Soldiers Sacrifice Themselves to Defend the Beaches?
Approximately 350,000 men managed to evacuate from Dunkirk, but another 35,000 were forced to surrender on June 4th. Since divisions caught in the encirclement were responsible for their defense during the evacuation, the majority of these were French. Despite being relegated to secondary roles in British newspapers of the time (and in Nolan’s Dunkirk), they were the ones who steadfastly defended the evacuation of boats to Dover.
These individuals played heroic and essential roles in a “miracle” that would cost them their lives or several years in captivity. The French navy also provided assistance, losing several warships in the process.
At the end of the battle, the surviving French soldiers, largely on the beach of Malo-les-Bains, who were not killed, were captured. They marched to the German border and were subsequently distributed to various prisoner camps. After a period in England, those who successfully crossed the English Channel returned to France, primarily to Brittany and Normandy, to continue the fight. Operation Dynamo marked the initial momentum for Free France.
What Was the Human and Material Toll for the British?
The English forces left behind 2,500 cannons, over 60,000 various vehicles, and 450 tanks. From a material perspective, it is a catastrophe. Militarily, too, with nearly 48,000 soldiers dead in the battle, mostly aboard sunken ships. On May 29 alone, the Luftwaffe sent 200 vessels to the bottom.
On June 4th, in his renowned speech where he pledged to fight the Germans “on the beaches” and everywhere else, vowing never to surrender, Churchill urged his compatriots not to romanticize this episode, emphasizing it as a disaster. He cautioned against associating attributes of victory with this deliverance, stating, “We must be very careful not to assign to this deliverance the attributes of a victory. Wars are not won by evacuations.” This sentiment served to diminish the perceived glory of the Operation Dynamo “myth.”
Did the RAF Dominate the Skies Over Dunkirk?
For decades, the legend suggested that the RAF, through the selflessness and dedication of its pilots, maintained aerial superiority over Dunkirk for ten days, inflicting severe losses on the Luftwaffe and protecting the unarmed infantry. However, it was later accused of being completely absent from the sky. The truth is more nuanced. It is crucial to keep in mind that only single-engine fighters with a limited degree of autonomy could provide aerial protection for the city. Rotations were therefore brief but sometimes massive. For instance, on May 28, twelve patrols succeeded each other over Dunkirk, each time with around twenty aircraft.
The RAF faced a dilemma: in addition to covering the port, it had to protect the ships crossing the English Channel, a mission for which it was not well-suited. In total, the Germans launched five major air raids on Dunkirk between May 28 and June 4, and the RAF could only oppose two of them. It lost about a hundred aircraft, which would have been missed during the Battle of Britain, compared to 150 for the Germans. A mixed outcome, especially when considering the number of ships sunk, many of which fell victim to German aviation.
Was the Arrival of the “Little Ships” Crucial?
For decades, legend has portrayed the RAF as demonstrating selflessness and sacrifice in one of the most famous episodes of the operation and a striking sequence in the film Dunkirk. Two days after the evacuation began on May 28, civilian boats reached the French shores: yachts, fishing boats, and pleasure craft, known as “little ships.” Crossing the English Channel to rescue soldiers gathered on the beaches, they became a symbol of the collective British participation in the war effort. Due to their size, they couldn’t dock at the piers, anchoring off the beaches instead, awaiting soldiers who often waded through the water, sometimes up to their shoulders.
During these crossings, dozens of civilians perished as their ships were attacked and occasionally sunk. Ironically, their impact was comparable to the Marne taxis in 1914—virtually negligible. Yet, their symbolic power held significant value for British morale.
How Much of the Movie Was True?
In 2017, Dunkirk, directed by Christopher Nolan, achieved immense popularity and garnered three Oscars. This historical spectacle presented a particular version of events, heavily focused on British soldiers. The French were nearly absent, despite their significant presence within the defensive perimeter and on the beaches.
One could argue for narrative choices to explain this, but such a bias in a film presenting itself as a historical epic sparked heated debates, including in Britain, amidst the Brexit crisis. Some “Brexiteers” recommended the film as they believed it showcased that the British could stand alone.
Conversely, British historians and journalists lamented the omission of the French from the narrative, urging viewers to revisit Henri Verneuil’s “Weekend at Dunkirk” from 1964. In that film, the director explored the fate of the French waiting for possible evacuation to England, struggling alongside the English to secure their departure. Starring Jean-Paul Belmondo, the film focused on the destiny of a handful of men and did not claim to be a reconstruction.
Nolan’s and Verneuil’s films are markedly different, making direct comparisons challenging. However, both share a conspicuous flaw: neither depicts a large number of colonial soldiers trapped in the pocket—Indians on the British side and Africans and North Africans on the French side, the majority of whom fell into German hands.