The fall of the Western Roman Empire has multiple causes, but the primary one remains the decline of the emperors who succeeded each other in the last years of the empire in a society considered decadent and idle, based on slavery. Despite the barbarian threat, intrigues continued to unfold in the palace of Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire.
In 425, after the death of Honorius, Valentinian III, son of Placidia, sister of Honorius and Arcadius, became the Roman Emperor of the West. It was his mother who ruled in his name. Valentinian was but a puppet, and despite the qualities of his mother and the military talent of Aetius, the greatest general of the Empire, his reign was disastrous. In 454, for obscure reasons, he had Aetius killed, the only person capable of protecting the Empire from barbarian invasions. Two of Aetius’s former guards murdered him on March 16 of the following year.
From then on, a barbarian, the Sueve Ricimer, played the role of patrician and would make and unmake the emperors until he died in 472. First, it was Avitus, a Gallo-Roman nobleman, who ascended the throne. But he was soon lost due to his friendship with the king of the Visigoths, Theodoric II. The Roman Majorian succeeded him in 456. But the vigorous fight of the latter against the Barbarians of Gaul and Spain worried Ricimer, who had him assassinated in 461.
Then it was Severus who ascended to the throne. Upon his death in 465, Ricimer renewed ties with the Eastern Roman Empire, accepting as his father-in-law and emperor the Greek Anthemius. He soon regretted this choice and, in 472, had Anthemius executed and called to power a certain Olybrius, son-in-law of Valentinian III. But both the patrician and the Emperor died in the same year, of natural causes. Gondebaud, the Burgundian prince and new patrician, then put Glycerius on the throne, who reigned for one year. Indeed, Julius Nepos, governor of Dalmatia, supported by the Eastern Emperor Zeno I, marched on Ravenna and proclaimed himself Emperor in June 474.
In 475, the commander of the Roman army, Flavius Orestes, expelled Julius Nepos from Dalmatia. Orestes could not or did not want to assume the perilous imperial title. He therefore proclaimed his son, Romulus Augustulus, emperor. The latter was but a child, and it was his father who exercised the reality of power. But Orestes was quickly overwhelmed. Odoacer, the Herules’ leader, executed him after a conflict with the latter. His son, a puppet emperor, was in turn captured; he was not executed but abdicated. Odoacer, who, due to his barbarian origins, could not be emperor, sent the insignia of power of the Western Emperor to the Eastern Emperor to signify the disappearance of the Western Empire. In September 476, the Western Roman Empire was no more.
Barbarian Invasions in the Roman Empire
There was not an “invasion” but rather an “installation” of the Barbarians. Nevertheless, in the 4th and 5th centuries, the advance took the form of attacks that intensified over time. After the death of Theodosius in 395, the Roman Empire was divided between his two sons, Honorius and Arcadius, and left under the regency of the barbarian generals Stilicho and Rufinus. At the same time, the Visigoths of Alaric waged a personal war against the Eastern Roman Empire.
He managed to obtain command of Illyria (the present-day Balkans) in 397. As a true warlord, he collected taxes from Roman territory for his own benefit. In 401, he decided to attack the West, particularly Italy. Stilicho contained his assaults, but after the generalissimo’s assassination in 408, Alaric had a clear path. In 410, on his third siege attempt, he sacked Rome, an event that had not occurred since the Gallic invasion of 390 BC. The sack of the “Eternal City” had a tremendous impact.
These wars on the Italian peninsula forced the Empire to deplete its Rhine frontier to obtain reinforcements. Consequently, in December 406, the Rhine was crossed by bands of Vandals, Suebi, and Alans, who devastated Gaul before occupying Spain. Behind them, the Franks and Burgundians invaded Gaul. Around 412, Athaulf, Alaric’s successor, reconciled with the Western Emperor Honorius, whom he married after taking her hostage, and declared himself protector of the Romans.
Settled in Narbonne, Gaul, and then Aquitaine, he founded a Visigothic kingdom in the heart of the Roman Empire. After his death in 415, the Roman imperial government chose to integrate the Barbarians into its own troops. Against external aggression, the Empire used Hunnic cavalry and installed new federates, the Salian Franks as well as the Burgundians, in Gaul.
When, in 451, Attila, king of the Huns, invaded Gaul, the generalissimo Aetius united the barbarian communities and settled in Gaul with the remaining regular troops. After the victory against Attila, the federates pursued an independent policy from the Empire. The lands they received under protection became barbarian principalities. The Western Empire disintegrated from within. The Franks confirmed their settlement in the territory of present-day Belgium and the Netherlands, then expanded as far as the Somme. As for the Burgundians, long confined around Lake Geneva, they extended their territory to Lyon and Langres as early as 457.
Finally, the Visigoths secured dominance over the entire Western Mediterranean. Rome was pillaged twice more within 20 years. The emperor soon became nothing more than a puppet in the hands of the barbarian kings. In 476, the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, who ironically bore the name of the mythical founder of Rome, was deposed in Ravenna by Odoacer, a barbarian and leader of the northern Italian army. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist, giving way to a mosaic of Romano-Barbarian kingdoms.
The Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity
During the first three centuries of its existence, Christianity had to develop in secrecy. Christians, primarily seen as a Jewish sect harmful to the Empire, were accused of all evils, and suspected of cannibalism and incest (do they not feed on the flesh and blood of the Son of God?). They rejected the sacred nature of the city and the emperor.
They quickly became the preferred target of persecution. Nero, in 64 AD, accused them of the great fire of Rome, while his successors, notably Diocletian, endeavored to annihilate those they considered harmful heretics. Everything changed under Constantine the Great. Attributing his victory at the Milvian Bridge to the intervention of Christ, Constantine became the defender of Christianity. Thus, in 313 AD, he promulgated the Edict of Milan, which officially tolerated Christians in the Empire.
The Empire soon enters into a crisis of conscience, affecting both pagan and Christian circles. The short reign of Julian (362–363) encouraged a “pagan reaction” among the intellectual elite, aiming to promote a pagan mystique that incorporates the rites and symbols of various Eastern religions in response to the dominance of Christianity. However, this period is brief. Since the reign of Constantine, Christians have occupied the most sensitive positions in the service of the state, including the most prestigious military ranks.
Gradually, the Emperor, initially indifferent, aligns with the Church. Monasteries are established in Italy and Gaul, mirroring developments in the East. Christians undergo a progressive transformation, with the real struggle being against themselves and their sins, striving for eternal salvation rather than focusing solely on worldly matters. This shift in focus diminishes the population’s sensitivity to immediate concerns. Consequently, without a strong moral force, the Empire lacks the resilience to withstand external threats from the Barbarians.
A Roman Empire In Crisis And In Revolt
From the Strait of Gibraltar to Constantinople, the Mediterranean constituted the primary axis of the Roman world in the 4th century. This great “central lake” served as the hub for all cultural and commercial exchanges within the Empire. However, despite appearing unified and coherent, it was actually fragmented. Administrative organization divided the provinces into multiple dioceses, a reality evident not only in the west with Gaul but also in the east with the Black Sea and the final three dioceses of the East, Asia, Pontus, and Thrace.
Additionally, unforeseen challenges arose, including national awakenings and the establishment of alternative capitals such as Trier, Milan, and Constantinople, reshaping power dynamics within the Empire. Rome’s dominance waned, risking fragmentation against external threats from Barbarians.
The Roman economy struggled to generate new sources of wealth, relying on tributes from conquered territories during the expansion era and subsequently depleting its own reserves. Consequently, Rome faced the burden of sustaining an expanding bureaucracy, leading to the imposition of additional taxes and a growing tax burden on its populace.
Socially, Roman society became increasingly stratified, with distinct castes emerging among officials, magistrates, and settlers, exacerbating social inequalities. The affluent wielded influence over imperial decisions and navigated economic downturns, while the lower classes, including merchants and peasants, faced impoverishment. Rebellions erupted across the Empire, from Gaul to southern Italy and Africa, fueled by professional brigands, deserters, and marginalized individuals exploiting the vulnerabilities of several provinces.
The passing of Theodosius I in 395 marked the official split of the Western Roman Empire, ruled by Honorius, and the Eastern Roman Empire, inherited by Arcadius, the emperor’s younger son. Though not legally recognized, this division aimed to streamline administrative governance. Nonetheless, it underscored the triumph of centrifugal forces over cohesive ones. The contrast between the two halves of the Empire was stark: a prosperous, urbanized East heavily influenced by Hellenism and Christianity, and a rural, “barbarized,” weakly Christianized West. These divergent entities engaged in weakened struggles, paving the way for Barbarian incursions, notably by the Goths and the Huns.
Consequences of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire
In Rome, the Ostrogothic kingdom succeeded, extending dominion over all of Italy. Its ruler was Theodoric (455–526), regarded as the wisest among barbarian kings. Delegating governance to nobles and Latin jurists, he aspired to emulate the Roman emperors. He demonstrated astute judgment, being the sole barbarian monarch with a comprehensive political outlook. His strategy hinged on fostering unity among Germanic realms and maintaining amicable relations with the Eastern Roman Empire.
Theodoric embraced principles of tolerance within his realm, fostering harmony between Goths and Romans while embracing Christianity for most of his reign. Through the restoration of monuments and patronage of education, he anchored his rule within what historians term the “Ostrogothic Renaissance.”
By the close of the 4th century, Gaul had splintered into multiple realms. On one front were the barbarian domains: the Salian Franks, the Rhineland Franks, the Burgundians, and the Visigoths. Opposing them was the Roman realm of Syagrius. These entities perpetually vied for territorial expansion. In 481, Clovis, progeny of King Childeric I and Princess Basine, ascended to power over the Salian Frankish realm, situated in the vicinity of Tournai (modern-day Belgium).
His triumph over Syagrius, the last vestige of Roman authority, at Soissons (486), extended his realm to the Loire, preceding his victory over the Alamanni at Tolbiac, thereby asserting his sway over the Rhine. In his twilight years, after eliminating erstwhile allies, he unified all Franks under his dominion. As a pagan monarch and adept strategist, Clovis recognized the significance of garnering support from Catholic Gallo-Roman Christians against Arian Christian barbarian factions. His conversion facilitated conquests, aided by the clergy.
Following Clovis’s defeat of Clovis at Vouillé, the Visigoths retained Septimania in Gaul, contending with internal uprisings. As adherents of Arian Christianity, they encountered animosity from Catholic Christian populations. The Eastern Emperor, Justinian, seized control of the southeast peninsula by circa 554. Subsequently, they solidified their authority, adopting Catholicism in 589. This convergence, under the Gothic monarchy, enabled amalgamation between the two peoples.
FALL OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE: KEY DATES
April 21, 753: Foundation of Rome
285: First division of the Roman Empire
In 285, Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into two in order to better administer it. He took charge of the eastern part himself and entrusted the west to his faithful companion, Maximian. This division was temporary but became permanent after the death of Theodosius I in 395.
May 11, 330: Foundation of Constantinople
On the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, Emperor Constantine the Great founded Constantinople in 324. It was inaugurated in 330. Its wealth attracted people, and the city quickly surpassed its rival, Rome. It also became the official capital of the Eastern Roman Empire in 395. It remained so until its fall in 1453, when it dominated the Ottoman Empire and gave rise to present-day Istanbul.
395: The Roman Empire is divided
At the death of Theodosius the Great, the Roman Empire was irreversibly divided into two parts: the Eastern Roman Empire and the Western Roman Empire. These two entities will pursue their own policies from this time on.
December 31, 406: Barbarian Invasions
Bands of Vandals, Alans, and Suebi crossed the frozen Rhine near Mainz. The barbarians continued southwest and ravaged Gaul without significant resistance. The aging Roman Empire was unable to react. Soon, they would occupy Spain and North Africa. In their wake, other groups of barbarians would invade Western Europe: the Alamanni, the Burgundians, and the Franks. Europe became a mosaic of barbarian kingdoms.
August 24, 410: Alaric seizes Rome
Alaric I, king of the Visigoths, after invading Italy, seized Rome and sacked it before moving to settle in southern Gaul. In 476, the barbarian king Odoacer would overthrow the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus. This marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.
June 2, 455: Rome sacked by
The Vandals and their leader Genseric landed in Rome and plundered the city, without massacre or fire, according to the agreement made with Pope Leo I. But they took with them a huge booty and thousands of prisoners. The barbarian invasions would lead to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Genseric would conquer the islands of the western Mediterranean and North Africa, then establish his capital in Carthage. He would thus have found a true empire, which his descendants would fail to maintain.
September 4, 476: Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The barbarian leader Odoacer, king of the Heruli, deposed Romulus Augustulus, the teenage Western Roman Emperor. While his father Orestes had been killed, Romulus Augustulus was spared and placed in a convent with a comfortable pension. As the new master of Italy, Odoacer established himself in Ravenna while Rome declined: the city, which once had a population of up to a million, now had only tens of thousands.
December 25, 496: Clovis baptized in Reims
Clovis was baptized in Reims on December 25, 496.
December 10, 536: Justinian takes Rome
The Byzantine general Belisarius took Rome from the Ostrogoths on behalf of the Eastern Roman Emperor, Justinian. The Ostrogoth king Vitiges opposed this and sought to reconquer the city, but Belisarius defeated him in 540. Eventually, Rome would be reconquered by the Gothic king Totila in December 546.
May 29, 1453 – Constantinople falls to the Ottoman Turks
The capital of the Byzantine Empire since 395, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II after a siege of several weeks. Since the 14th century, the Ottoman Turks had seized most of the Balkan Peninsula. This victory severed the West from its Greek and Eastern roots. The city would be renamed Istanbul and reach its peak under the reign of Suleiman II the Magnificent (1520–1566).
May 29, 1453: Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaeologus killed in battle
On May 29, 1453, Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaeologus, elected in January 1449, lost his life in battle. Attacked by the troops of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, who sought to conquer the city of Constantinople, Emperor Constantine XI Palaeologus was killed during these battles, leaving Constantinople in the hands of the Turks. He would be the last Roman emperor in history.