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Category: History

Witness the transformation across time and interpret the past of human societies while shedding light on the most prominent events.

  • 8 Most Unusual and Absurd Deaths in History

    8 Most Unusual and Absurd Deaths in History

    Human history is marked by a multitude of unusual and absurd deaths and tragic events that often defy any rational explanation. These stories, though at times shocking or disturbing, bear witness to the unpredictable nature of life and death. Here is a general overview of some of the strangest deaths in history.

    Aeschylus: Killed by a Tortoise

    A bust of Aeschylus at the North Carolina Museum of Art
    A bust of Aeschylus at the North Carolina Museum of Art. Image: Alexisrael., CC BY-SA 3.0

    In 456 BC, the renowned Athenian tragedian Aeschylus visited Sicily at the king of Syracuse’s invitation. The authors of “The Persians” and “The Oresteia” took advantage of the visit to engage in long walks in the countryside. One day, as he strolled near the city of Gela and sat to contemplate the landscape, a raptor flew above him, searching for a suitable spot to drop its prey from a great height: a tortoise, whose shell needed to be shattered to feast on its contents.

    Indeed, a substantial stone lay before him, round and bare. The raptor released its talons, and like a projectile, the tortoise crashed onto the bald skull of Aeschylus, instantly killing him.

    Segway Owner Jimi Heselden Kills Himself with His Segway

    Segway firm, Jimi Heselden
     Segway firm, Jimi Heselden. Image: NBC News

    When he acquired the American company Segway in 2009, the British millionaire Jimi Heselden, aged 62, did not exercise caution. The Segway, a platform with two wheels and a handlebar, appeared quite harmless. Many cities use it for guided tours, after all.

    On the morning of September 26, 2010, confidently perched on his Segway, he embarked on a tour of his extensive Yorkshire estate. However, Sean Christie also chose this time to take his dog for a walk. In attempting to avoid the walker, our businessman lost control of his spirited contraption. It propelled him straight towards the cliffs that, at that particular spot, overlooked the River Wharfe. The 13-meter (42-feet) fall left no chance for Jimi Heselden.

    Louis, Count of Soissons: Killed by His Own Gun

    Contemporary portrait of Louis de Bourbon
    Contemporary portrait of Louis de Bourbon.

    Louis, Count of Soissons, had one goal in mind: getting rid of Richelieu. This distant cousin of King Louis XIII harbored a persistent hatred for the influential figure in the state. Teaming up with Gaston, Duke of Orléans, the king’s younger brother, Louis de Bourbon, Comte de Soissons, assembled a formidable army in Sedan. In response, Richelieu dispatched the royal army to reclaim the city.

    The clash between the two forces took place on the plateau of La Marfée, near Sedan, on July 6, 1641. Contrary to expectations, the battle turned in favor of the conspirators. The king’s army was in disarray. Louis de Bourbon, Comte de Soissons, could finally breathe; he lifted the visor of his helmet using the barrel of his pistol, as was his custom. However, firearms are unpredictable. The shot fired unexpectedly, taking away half of his face. Deprived of their leader, the insurgents surrendered. Richelieu emerged victorious.

    Tycho Brahe: Death From Bladder Occlusion

    Tycho Brahe
    Tycho Brahe.

    Tycho Brahe’s name may not be as widely recognized as Nicolaus Copernicus or Galileo Galilei, but this Danish astronomer revolutionized his field in the 16th century. Relying on precise sky observations, he challenged centuries of dogma and traditions. His death, however, does not match the magnitude of his discoveries. He was the special guest at a lavish dinner on October 13, 1601, in Prague. The meal persisted, and Tycho Brahe felt an urgent need to urinate.

    Nevertheless, leaving for the facilities during such an event was deemed unacceptable. The astronomer endured for hours. When the dinner eventually concluded and Brahe rushed to relieve himself, nothing happened—a bladder obstruction. He succumbed after five days of excruciating agony. His death appeared so improbable that analyses of his remains were conducted in 1901, 1992, 1996, and, finally, in 2010. Unfortunately, none yielded conclusive results.

    Émile Verhaeren: Accidentally Pushed Under a Train

    Émile Verhaeren in 1910
    Émile Verhaeren in 1910.

    Admired by intellectuals of the Belle Époque, including André Gide and Stefan Zweig, the Belgian poet Émile Verhaeren was a vocal advocate for peace. However, with the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Verhaeren’s stance shifted, and he began denouncing German atrocities.

    On November 27, 1916, following a conference in Rouen, he was carried in triumph to the train station. Accompanied by his admirers on the platform, a sudden crowd movement caused him to fall onto the tracks, leading to his tragic death with his legs severed by a moving train.

    Keith Relf Dies of Electrocution

    On May 12, 1976, Keith Relf, the lead singer and harmonica player of The Yardbirds, known for hosting guitar legends Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, and Jimmy Page, tragically met his demise at the age of 33. Returning home to London, he intended to care for his two sons before heading to his music studio in the basement.

    In a relaxed setting, barefoot, he powered up his amplifier and grasped his electric guitar, only to be fatally struck by an electric shock. Did he realize that his amplifier lacked proper grounding? That one of the wires was exposed? His 8-year-old son discovered him lifeless the following morning.

    David Carradine Dies During Sex Game

    David Carradine
    David Carradine. Image: lukeford.net, CC BY-SA 2.5.

    David Carradine, renowned for his portrayal of the Shaolin monk “Little Grasshopper” in the cult 1970s series Kung Fu and, more recently, as the ruthless Bill in Quentin Tarantino’s Kill Bill diptych, also featured in numerous B-movies.

    In June 2009, the American actor was in Thailand for the filming of Stretch, a French film that quickly faded into obscurity upon its release. On the evening of June 3, the team awaited him for dinner in vain as David Carradine remained confined to his hotel room. The next morning, a maid discovered him in a scandalous position—strangled. He was found entirely nude, seated in the closet of his room, with a bedsheet rope wrapped around his neck and… his genitals. All of it was tied to the wardrobe. Although suicide was initially considered, the investigation eventually concluded it to be an “autoerotic fatality.”

    Isadora Duncan Dies Ejected From a Car

    Portrait of Isadora Duncan.
    Portrait of Isadora Duncan.

    During the Belle Époque and the Roaring Twenties, Isadora Duncan was an iconic figure who made the veil her trademark. She preferred to dance in the most uncomplicated attire, barely shielded from onlookers by delicate fabrics. It’s an understatement to say that she achieved success. The American artist captivated sculptors Rodin and Bourdelle, as well as numerous women and men, including the aviator Roland Garros.

    In September 1927, during a gala in Nice, she caught the attention of a young mechanic thirty years her junior. On September 14, he took her for a ride in his convertible Amilcar. There, on a winding road in the hinterland, the long shawl tied around the dancer’s neck got entangled in the spokes of one of the rear wheels. Isadora Duncan was thrown out of the car and died instantly, her neck broken.

  • Christmas Gift-Bringers Around the World

    Christmas Gift-Bringers Around the World

    Around the globe, there is a wide variety of people who bring Christmas gifts. Baba Chaghaloo brings presents to Afghanistan. Babadimri performs this function in Albania. Armenians celebrate Father Christmas and Father New Year as Gaghant Baba or Kaghand Papa. There is a small angel-like figure in Austria called Christkind. In honor of Grandfather Frost, Azerbaijan celebrates with Őaxta Baba. In Belgium, Flemish speakers celebrate Sinterklaas or Saint Nicholas, whereas French speakers celebrate Père Noël. These are just a few of the many culturally specific instances of Christmas gift-givers from throughout the globe.

    Santa Claus and His Counterparts in Other Countries Around the World

    Winter folklore characters are figures from folk art in countries that are most active during the winter period. Santa Claus was originally a personification of the cold. In other countries, there are their own New Year and Christmas characters—the counterparts of Santa Claus and Saint Nicholas:

    • In Azerbaijan — “Şaxta Baba” (Shakhta Baba, literally “Grandfather Frost,” the same Santa Claus but in blue) and “Qarqız” (Gargyz, Snow Maiden).
    • In Albania — “Babadimri.”
    • In Armenia — “Kaghand papi,” more often “Dzmer Papi” (literally “Grandfather Winter”) and “Dzyunanushik” (literally “Snow Anush”).
    • In Afghanistan — “Baba Chaghaloo.”
    • In Belarus — “Svyaty Mikalay,” “Zyuzya,” “Dzed Maroz.”
    • In Bulgaria — “Dyado Koleda” or “Dyado Mraz.”
    • In Brazil — “Papai Noel.”
    • In the United Kingdom — “Father Christmas.”
    • In Hungary — “Mikulás” or “Télapó.”
    • In Vietnam — “Ông già Nô-en.”
    • In Germany — “Weihnachtsmann” or “Nikolaus.”
    • In Greece — “Agios Vasilis” (St. Basil).
    • In Georgia — “Tovlis papa,” “Tovlis babua.”
    • In Denmark — “Julemanden” (literally Christmas Man) or “Yulenisse” (Swedish Julenissen).
    • In Egypt — “Papa Noël.”
    • In Israel — “Baba Noel” (for Arab Christians).
    • In Indonesia — “Sinterklas.”
    • In Iraq and South Africa — “Goosaleh.”
    • In Iran — “Baba Noel.”
    • In Ireland — “Daidí na Nollaig.”
    • In Spain and Latin America — “Papá Noel.”
      • In the Basque Country, Santa Claus is called “Olentzero.” He wears national woven clothing, a black beret, carries a flask of good Spanish wine, and smokes a pipe.
    • In Iceland — “Jólasveinarnir” or “Jólasveinar.”
    • In Italy — “Babbo Natale” and “Befana,” who, on Christmas Eve, fly into homes through the chimney and bring gifts to good children, while the naughty ones get only ashes.
    • In Kyrgyzstan — “Ayaz Ata,” literally “Grandfather Frost,” “Ayaz Kyz” (Snow Maiden).
    • In Kazakhstan — “Ayaz Ata,” literally “Grandfather Frost,” “Aqshaqar” (Snow White).
    • In Catalonia — “Pare Nadal.”
    • In China — “Shen Dan Laozhen.”
    • In Latvia — “Ziemassvētku vecītis” or “Salavecis.”
    • In Lithuania — “Kalėdų senelis” (Christmas Grandfather) or “Senelis Šaltis” (Grandfather Frost).
    • In Mongolia — Uvlin Uvgun is dressed in a furry coat and a large fox hat, resembling a shepherd. On his side, he has a tobacco pouch, flint, and steel, and in his hands, a long whip.
    • In the Netherlands and Belgium — “Sinterklaas” and “Kerstman.”
    • In Norway — “Yulebukk” or “Yulenisse.”
    • In Poland — “Święty Mikołaj,” “Dziadek Mróz,” or “Gwiazdor.”
    • In Portugal — “Pai Natal.”
    • In Romania and Moldova — “Moș Crăciun,” very similar to the Russian Santa Claus.
    • In Serbia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina — “Deda Mraz.”
    • In the USA and Canada — “Santa Claus.”
    • In Tajikistan — “Boboi Barfi.”
    • In Taiwan — “Sèng-tàn Ló-jîn.”
    • In Turkey — “Noel Baba.”
    • In Uzbekistan — “Qor bobo” (Snow Grandfather) or “Ayoz bobo” (Grandfather Frost).
    • In Ukraine — “Svyaty Mikolay” and “Did Moroz.”
    • In Finland — “Joulupukki.” He wears a tall cone-shaped hat, long hair, and red clothing. He is surrounded by gnomes in pointed hats and capes, trimmed with white fur.
    • In France and French-speaking Canada — Père Noël, is literally “Father Christmas.” His antagonist is Père Fouettard, a bearded old man wearing a fur hat and a warm traveling cloak. In his basket are hidden switches for disobedient, stubborn, and capricious children.
    • In the Czech Republic and Slovakia — “Ježíšek” (Little Jesus), and “Mikuláš.”
    • In Chile — “Viejito Pascuero.”
    • In Sweden — a hunched grandfather with a knobby nose “Jultomten” and a dwarf “Yulenisse” leave gifts on windowsills.
    • In Scotland — “Daidain na Nollaig.”
    • In Estonia — Jõuluvana, is similar to the Finnish “Joulupukki.”

    Saint Nicholas

    Derived from the Germanic-Scandinavian tradition, the name refers to Saint Nicholas of Myra. He served as a bishop in the city of Myra in Asia Minor (modern-day Demre, Turkey) during the first half of the 3rd century. Numerous legends are associated with Nicholas, including stories of him redirecting a shipment of grain intended for Rome to Myra and rescuing the children of Myra from sea robbers.

    Since the 17th century, Saint Nicholas has been regarded as the patron saint of children. On his feast day, December 6th (or December 19th in some traditions), children receive gifts. They place their shoes outside the door for Nicholas to place his gifts. However, only obedient children receive gifts, while mischievous ones face punishment with a switch. Saint Nicholas has assistants in this challenging task, such as Knecht Ruprecht in Germany, Schmutzli in Switzerland, and Krampus in Austria and Bavaria.

    Christkind

    Originally known as “Christkindel” in German, meaning “Infant Jesus,” this figure often appears as a girl or a female angel who brings gifts to children on Christmas. The concept of the Infant Jesus is credited to Martin Luther, who, being a Protestant, did not recognize Catholic saints. Wanting to maintain the tradition of giving gifts to children, Luther replaced Saint Nicholas with Christkind. Instead of December 6th, gifts are distributed on Christmas Day, December 25th.

    Until 1900, Catholics celebrated Saint Nicholas on December 6th, and Protestants had Christkind on December 25th. In the 20th century, Christkind became accepted among Catholics, just like Christmas trees and wreaths.

    However, Protestants gradually replaced Christkind with the secularized figure of “Weihnachtsmann” (“Christmas Man” or Santa Claus). Today, Christkind is predominantly present in Catholic families. Christkind bestows gifts only upon obedient children, while mischievous and capricious ones are left empty-handed. Unlike Saint Nicholas’s helpers, Christkind does not punish such children.

    Santa Claus

    Weihnachtsmann, “Christmas Man,” or Santa Claus, is a modern symbolic figure who brings gifts to children on Christmas. It is based on the legends of Saint Nicholas. Santa Claus is portrayed as a friendly old man with a long white beard, a red coat with white fur, a sack of gifts, and a switch. On Christmas night, he rewards “good” children and punishes the “bad,” combining the roles of Saint Nicholas and his punishing assistants.

    European immigrants brought legends of Saint Nicholas to America, where “Christmas Man” is known as Santa Claus. The contemporary image of Santa Claus riding a sleigh pulled by reindeer and secretly entering homes through chimneys to leave gifts traces back to the poem “The Night Before Christmas” by American writer Clement Moore, anonymously published in 1823. Starting in 1862, the German-born cartoonist Thomas Nast illustrated images of Santa Claus for “Harper’s Weekly.” In these illustrations, Christmas Man already had a beard and a switch.

    The red-and-white attire and standardized appearance of Christmas Man or Santa Claus were established in the 1920s. In 1931, this portrayal became the basis for a Coca-Cola advertising campaign when Haddon Sundblom drew Santa Claus with the face of a retired company employee. Sundblom continued to create new Santa Claus illustrations annually until 1966, solidifying this modern image in the public consciousness. The advertising campaign was so successful that the appearance of Santa Claus is often inaccurately attributed to Coca-Cola.

  • Christmas in Berlin: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

    Christmas in Berlin: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

    Berlin undergoes a seasonal transformation into a snowy landscape during Christmas. The city is adorned with lights and hosts various festive events. Across the city, the well-known German Christmas markets (Christkindlmarkt) offer handmade goods, traditional German cuisine, and festive drinks, a tradition rooted in the Middle Ages. The city’s nightlife experiences increased activity during Christmas. You can engage in the Christmas (Erster Feiertag in German) mood by enjoying traditional German meals and beverages.

    Christmas Traditions in Berlin

    Christmas tree and Hanukkah chandelier on Pariser Platz in Berlin.
    Christmas tree and Hanukkah chandelier on Pariser Platz in Berlin.

    Potato Salad with Sausages on Christmas Eve

    The traditional Christmas Eve supper menu in Berlin features potato salad and sausages, a custom observed on December 24th. This tradition has historical roots dating back to the post-war era, when the availability of food, even for Christmas dinner, was limited.

    Christkindlmarkt (Christmas Markets)

    A visit to one of Berlin’s Christmas markets during the holiday season is a solid choice. Germans have been organizing these markets since the Middle Ages. The diverse array of merchants offering traditional Berliner cuisine and festive drinks might enhance your experience. Nuremberg Christkindlesmarkt, often known as “the little city of wood and cloth,” is one of the world’s most renowned and long-running Christmas markets. It takes place annually on Nuremberg’s Main Market Square.

    Christmas market at Breitscheidplatz Berlin
    Christmas market at Breitscheidplatz, Berlin. (Arild Libra, cc by sa 3.0)

    Krampus Nacht (Krampus Night)

    In certain regions of Germany, individuals wear masks and costumes on Krampus Night as a protective measure against malevolent spirits. While this tradition is not widely observed in Berlin, it is still a part of several local festivals. This occasion is sometimes known as “Krampus Parade Berlin,” and it’s attended by hundreds of people.

    Sankt Nikolaus Tag (St. Nicholas Day)

    For many Berliner children, the favorite holiday is St. Nicholas Day, observed on December 6th. On the evening of December 5th, the children prepared their boots for St. Nicholas instead of Santa Claus, hoping to find them filled with sweets and gifts. After preparing, they polish their boots and place them outside.

    Christmas, Unter den Linden, Berlin.
    Christmas, Unter den Linden, Berlin.

    Adventskalender (Advent Calendar)

    Germans have a fondness for advent calendars, featuring 24 windows that reveal small gifts or activities for each day leading up to Christmas. As the holiday season approaches, numerous families in Berlin anticipate and enjoy this traditional ritual. Many calendars made of wood or paper start on December 1, as the First Sunday of Advent may be any day between November 27 and December 3.

    Kurfürstendamm’s Christmas Lights

    From late November to early January, fairy lights decorate the tree-lined avenue known as Ku’damm (or Kurfürstendamm). The broad expanse of pavement in the middle of the road becomes a focal point during the winter months, featuring giant snowmen, Christmas trees, Santa, and illuminated reindeer, all part of the festive display. Kurfürstendamm Avenue once twinkled with 140,000 LED lights strung across 600 trees.

    Christmas tree on the Potsdamer Platz (Sony Center) in Berlin.
    Christmas tree on the Potsdamer Platz (Sony Center) in Berlin.

    Ice Skating

    Engaging in ice skating to Christmas tunes on an ice rink is a popular activity for a winter vacation in Berlin. Skating provides an opportunity to showcase your skills with friends or a special someone in a lighthearted setting. One popular destination in Berlin is the Eisschnelllaufhalle im Sportforum.

    “Holy Eve” on December 24

    In contrast to Christmas celebrations in the United States, Germany’s most significant holiday is Holy Eve, which occurs on December 24. German parents decorate their Christmas trees discreetly (some even use Christmas pickles), ensuring that the children do not get a glimpse of the lit decorations until this evening. Numerous people participate in a Christmas liturgy, and the exchange of gifts is a customary practice.

    Places to Visit in Berlin at Christmas

    As the holiday season approaches, Berlin undergoes a transformation, offering festive attractions and festivities. When visiting Berlin during Christmas, consider seeing:

    1. Brandenburg Gate: During the winter holidays, visitors flock to see the Brandenburg Gate—an iconic landmark—decked up in festive décor and decorated with a massive Christmas tree placed in front of it.
    2. Berlin Cathedral: At Christmastime, the old Berlin Cathedral becomes a sight worth seeing with its elaborate lights and ornaments.
    3. Museum Island: Museum Island is a popular spot for both Berliners. Christmas lights and other decorations decorate the island and its cultural significance stems from its historical role in the formation of a certain architectural style. Pergamon and the Old National Gallery are two of the five museums that make up Museum Island.
    4. Potsdamer Platz: Boasting various traditional crafts, foods, and beverages, this lively area houses one of Berlin’s biggest Christmas markets. The old buildings in the area are another attraction, especially during the holiday season when they are decorated with twinkling lights.
    5. KaDeWe: The legendary KaDeWe department store in Berlin is among the biggest in all of Europe. The sixth story is devoted to a food hall that will wow you.
    6. The Mall of Berlin: It is a popular spot for Christmas shopping because of its festive decorations and bargains. It was first opened in September 2014.
    7. Berlin Christmas Garden: In the midst of Christmas, many go to Berlin’s Christmas Garden for a leisurely walk, a festive supper, or both.
    8. Christmas at the Zoo: Tierpark Zoo, located in Berlin’s eastern district, is turned into a magical spot for one special Christmas event.

    Traditional Christmas Foods in Berlin

    During the Christmas season, it’s mostly these delicacies that symbolize Berlin’s rich culinary legacy.

    • Kartoffelsalat mit Würstchen: Often known as “German potato salad with sausage”, it is the most beloved Berliner Christmas meal, according to a recent study. For the best results, make the potato salad the day before, on the 23rd, and serve it that evening. Just cook the sausage up that night.
    • Fish Dishes: On the 24th, most Germans would rather not eat meat since they are Catholics and go to midnight mass. As a result, seafood dishes end up in the middle of the table. You may usually find fish like carp, herring, salmon, or hake on a Berliner’s table.
    • Poultry: It’s not uncommon for Berliners to enjoy sausage at a Christmas celebration, and eating fowl like turkey or geese has also grown in popularity.
    • Cheese Fondue or Raclette: A more sedate dining experience with cheese fondue or raclette, served with an assortment of breads, meats, and vegetables, is also making its way into certain regions of Berlin.
    • Side Dishes: As a side dish, you could find Kartoffelpuffer in Berlin, a kind of potato fritter, or special German dumplings called Serviettenknödel. You may also add sauerkraut, red cabbage, or kale to the mix.

    History of Christmas in Berlin

    Similar to the rest of Germany, Christmas in Berlin is a huge celebration. When Christianity was brought to the country about 300 AD by the Roman Empire, the celebration of Christmas in Germany began. It wasn’t until the 19th century that many of the so-called “traditional” Christmas customs emerged. Germans began decorating Christmas trees in the 19th century when widespread access to large-scale fir and spruce plantations made the practice more affordable. This is one unique German custom that has become popular all across the globe.

  • Battle of Clontarf: Brian Boru’s Last Stand

    Battle of Clontarf: Brian Boru’s Last Stand

    On April 23, 1014, the Battle of Clontarf, near Dublin, pitted the armies of the Irish king Brian Boru against the forces of Leinster allied with the Vikings. It is commonly asserted that Brian Boru’s victory elevated him to national hero status, having expelled the Vikings from Ireland.

    However, is this truly what transpired? Distinguishing between myth and reality is imperative. Over a millennium since this pivotal event in Irish history, it is prudent to revisit the circumstances surrounding the battle.

    —>The Battle of Clontarf occurred near Dublin, specifically at Clontarf, which is now a suburb on the north side of the city.

    Background to the Arrival of the Vikings

    The Vikings, warriors from Scandinavia, initiated sporadic raids in Ireland from 795 to 835. They targeted monasteries, including the one in Iona, demanding payment for livestock. This led to the construction of round towers near monasteries to conceal relics.

    Gradually, they established a presence in Ireland, founding a colony in 841 in what is now Dublin. They played a significant role in the creation of coastal cities such as Wexford, Cork, Limerick, and Waterford in 914. The Vikings’ mobility on their longships allowed them to navigate shallow waters.

    In the second half of the 11th century, the raids decreased, marking what is referred to in the annals as the “forty years’ respite.” While recognized for their brutality, it must be acknowledged that the Vikings were excellent traders.

    The coastal cities they established flourished due to successful craftsmanship and expanding trade, reaching not only inland but also the Insular Brittany and the continent. In the 9th and 10th centuries, livestock, initially used as a medium of exchange, was gradually replaced by silver ounces and then currency. The Vikings also served as missionaries to Irish kings, including Brian Boru.

    Brian Boru’s Rise to High King of Ireland

    Brian Boru, King of Munster
    Brian Boru, King of Munster.

    Brian Boru was born in 941 and was one of the 12 sons of Cennétig mac Lorcáin, the king of Tuadmumu in northern Munster. It’s important to note that Ireland was and still is divided into four provinces: Munster in the southwest, Leinster in the east, ruled by the O’Neill dynasty, Connacht in the west, and Ulster in the north.

    Brian Boru gradually attempted to seize the surrounding regions. In 951, he proclaimed himself king of North Munster, and by 978, he became the king of the entire province after defeating the king of Cashel. Other significant dates leading to his ascent are noteworthy.

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    In 997, he shared Ireland with Mael Sechnaill II (O’Neill’s dynasty) and defeated the men of Leinster at Glenn Mama in 999, establishing himself as the high king of Ireland in 1002, recognized by Mael Sechnaill II. This marked the end of the six-century rule of the O’Neill dynasty.

    Brian Boru’s strategy rested on several pillars. Male members of his family were tasked with administering sub-kingdoms and churches, while women were married to form alliances. Viking camps were also raided to amass wealth for hiring mercenaries (Vikings).

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    Despite obtaining the title of high king, Brian Boru continued to assert his authority to secure the allegiance of provincial kings. In 1006, he raised an army to subdue the North King, Flaithbertach Ua Néill, who subsequently married one of his daughters. Then, in 1011, he made the King of Cenél Conaill in Donegal his vassal. The year 1011 marked his zenith. Rebellions in Dublin and Leinster drew Brian’s attention in 1013 and culminated in the decisive Battle of Clontarf on April 23, 1014.

    Battle of Clontarf: Separating Myth from Reality

    The highly bloody battle took place on April 23, 1014, in old Clontarf. It is more likely to have lasted one day rather than several. Geologist Samuel Haughton, who studied the event, concluded that it occurred betweean 5:30 AM and 5:55 PM based on high tide schedules.

    The battle is said to have involved a total of 5000 individuals: Brian Boru’s forces against the armies led by the King of Leinster, Maél Mordha, the Viking King Sitric Silkenbeard of Dublin, and Vikings from the Orkney Islands. The victory went to Boru’s men, who drove their enemies away before the tide receded.

    Conflict Between Vikings and Irish or Internal Rebellion?

    The popular belief of a straightforward conflict between Vikings and the Irish needs to be nuanced, as there was a mixture of Vikings and Irish on both sides. Contrary to the perception of Vikings as adversaries, they were often employed as mercenaries by the Irish kings in their quest for power.

    In Ireland, with its numerous kings, Brian Boru held the high title during that era. In April 1014, warriors fighting for Brian Boru reportedly included Scandinavians from Limerick and Waterford. The Vikings of Waterford helped Brian Boru conquer the kingdom of Osraige in 980, so this wasn’t the first time he had asked for their assistance.

    Brian Boru, as explained by the Irish specialist Pierre Joannon in his work “Histoire de l’Irlande et des Irlandais,” is not the nationalist hero often depicted. Joannon states, “He had nothing of the saint in stained glass that nationalist historians wanted to see in him,” adding that Brian was not attempting to cast the Vikings into the sea; his goal was to attain supreme power.

    Some Irish historians argue that the Battle of Clontarf had nothing to do with “Brian sacrificing himself to defend Ireland against a Scandinavian assault” or with the “liberation of Ireland.” These perspectives were put forth by John Ryan in his 1938 essay “The Battle of Clontarf” and Jack Burtchaell, a historian and guide in Waterford. They contend that Brian’s objective was to quell a rebellion.

    However, in his 2014 publication “Brian Boru and the Battle of Clontarf,” the Irish historian Seán Duffy provides a different viewpoint. Duffy emphasizes that the conflict arose from the ambition of the Scandinavian king of Dublin, Sitriuc Silkenbeard, who, after his defeat in 999, was determined to reclaim the city. According to Duffy, Brian’s primary adversaries were the Vikings.

    Is Brian Boru the National Hero Who Died Banishing the Vikings from Ireland?

    It is highly likely that Boru did not engage in the battle. Two reasons could explain this: he was 73 years old and preferred to contemplate Good Friday, April 23, 1014. It is said that he was killed after the battle in his tent by the Viking Bródir while he was in prayer.

    His other Viking rival, Sitriuc, did not partake in the combat either. He remained within the city of Dublin to prevent its capture. After the battle, he continued to rule Dublin until 1036. In general, the Vikings persisted in living in Ireland, engaging in trade, and intermarrying with the Irish.

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    Consequences and Aftermath of the Battle of Clontarf

    The descendants of Brian Boru, the O’Briens, never managed to replicate the same pattern of centralization of power in the face of regional dynasties that regained their strength. Upon Brian Boru’s death, Mael Sechnaill reclaimed the throne he had lost in 1002 and became the High King of Ireland once again until 1022.

    —>While the Battle of Clontarf weakened Viking influence in Ireland, it did not mark the immediate end of their presence. Vikings continued to have a presence in Ireland for some time, but the battle is often seen as a turning point in the gradual decline of their power in the region.

    The last Viking king was expelled from Dublin in 1052 by the King of Leinster. Perhaps it is this date that should be emphasized more in terms of the weakening of Scandinavian power, as explained by Pierre Joannon: “Anyone aspiring to become the king of all Ireland must control Dublin.”

  • Battle of Strasbourg (357)

    Battle of Strasbourg (357)

    The Battle of Strasbourg (Argentoratum, 357) pitted the Roman army led by Emperor Julian the Apostate against a coalition of Alamanni barbarian tribes attempting to invade Gaul. During the 4th century CE, the Romans experienced a period of relative tranquility on their borders, primarily due to successful military campaigns that restored the Roman army to its former glory. The Battle of Strasbourg, where Emperor Julian distinguished himself, temporarily halted major barbarian incursions across the Rhine, earning its victor immense prestige.

    —>The Roman forces in the Battle of Strasbourg were led by Emperor Julian the Apostate. Julian later became known for his military prowess during his short reign as Roman Emperor.

    Background to the Battle of Strasbourg

    Julian in a solidus minted at Antioch. Legend: Fl Cl Iulianus p f aug.
    Julian in a solidus minted at Antioch. Legend: Fl Cl Iulianus p f aug. Image: CngCoins.com, CC BY-SA 2.5

    In 357, the young Julian, appointed as Caesar in Gaul by his cousin Constantius II for two years, fought against the Alamanni on the Rhine border to restore tranquility to the lands of the Empire. The Alamanni had occupied several cities and fortified elements in imperial territory because Constantius, in his struggle against the usurper Magnentius, had incited a barbarian attack on his rival’s rear to weaken him.

    Despite achieving victory (the Battle of Mursa Major in 351), the emperor had not resolved the situation on the borders, where the Alamanni still held firm. He assigned his cousin the task of eradicating the barbarian threat along the Rhine in response to Sassanian Persian movements.

    However, Constantius, wary of potential dissent, had surrounded the new emperor with a group of his own men to exert control. Despite this, Julian operated with audacity and foresight, managing to rectify the situation in a few years. However, the Alamannic threat persisted despite Julian’s efforts. The army under the command of General Barbatio suffered a severe setback, surprised and routed by the barbarians.

    Julian the Apostate Faced with an Outbreak of Violence

    Northeastern Gaul and the Rhine frontier of the Roman Empire in the time of Julian Battle of Strasbourg
    Northeastern Gaul and the Rhine frontier of the Roman Empire in the time of Julian. Image: Andrei Nacu, CC BY-SA 3.0.

    Upon receiving this news, several Alamannic kings gathered their forces to reconquer the territory they had taken from the Empire. Among them were Chnodomar, Vestralp, Urius, Urcisin, Serapion, Suomar, and Hortar. A significant event had united the barbarians under a common banner: King Gundomadus, a loyal supporter of the Romans and true to his word, as stated by the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, had been killed in an ambush. This event further fueled the rebellion against Rome.

    Informed of the relatively small size of Julian’s troops (around thirteen thousand men) by a defector from the Scutarii of the defeated army of Barbatio, the barbarians anticipated an easy operation, considering their probable number to be around thirty thousand. Nevertheless, Caesar resolved to engage in battle. Leading his army out of the camp, he marched towards the barbarian fortification.

    Upon reaching the vicinity of the enemy, he gathered his troops and delivered a vigorous speech. Motivated by his words and proud of having an emperor among them, the soldiers began a tumultuous display of shouts and the clashing of weapons against shields.

    This behavior mirrors that of Roman fighters of the time, who, in a manner similar to the barbarians, expressed their warrior spirit through a demonstration of brutal violence. The almost miraculous role of the victorious emperor as their protective leader significantly heightened their combativeness. In response, the senior officers of the army also favored engagement. Once the enemy was dispersed into numerous marauding units, operations became a nightmare, both tactically and logistically, and instilled terror among civilian populations.

    Julian’s successful operations outside the Rhine on the very frontiers of the barbarians further increased Roman confidence. There, they encountered no opposition, as the enemies withdrew without a fight. From their perspective, they were about to face cowards who had refused to defend their own lands.

    Setting Up An Army

    Reconstructed initial order of battle at Strasbourg.
    Reconstructed initial order of battle at Strasbourg. On the Roman side, legions hold the centre, auxilia the wings. Image: Public Domain.

    The Roman army established itself on a gently sloping hill, very close to the Rhine. An Alamanni scout fell into the hands of the soldiers, revealing that the barbarians had crossed the river for three days and nights and were approaching their position.

    Shortly after, the troops witnessed the barbarian warriors spreading across the plain and forming a wedge—an attack formation with a narrow front aimed at breaking through the enemy lines in a vigorous charge. The Roman response was swift, and the soldiers formed an “indestructible wall” (Ammianus Marcellinus, XVI, 12, 20). The shields of that Roman era were primarily circular, offering protection often likened to Greek shields.

    Facing the Roman cavalry on the right wing, the barbarians positioned their own cavalry on the left, mixed with light troops, employing an ancient Germanic tactic. They advanced with thousands of fighters to ambush the Romans on their right, behind a wood. The kings, leading their troops, were ready to set an example.

    Ammianus described Chnodomarius, the soul of this coalition, as a fearsome warrior with strong muscles. Serapion commanded the right wing; his name, derived from his father, signified his status as a hostage in Gaul, initiating the mysteries of Eastern religions.

    Severus ordered the left wing of the Roman army to halt its advance when it became aware of the barbarian ambush. Julian, with his two hundred elite cavalry, moved through the ranks, encouraging his men while trying, as mentioned by Ammianus, not to appear overly eager for honor, as Constantius had placed him under close scrutiny. He organized his men effectively and shouted powerful declarations, appealing to their pride as warriors.

    He thus established his battle line in two rows, keeping the Primani legion and Palatine auxiliaries in reserve and the elite troops heavily equipped, similar to the units on the front line. The legions of that time were of a smaller size, probably around a thousand men, as they formed more mobile groups than the ancient legions of 5000 men.

    For the ‘small war’ operations usually carried out by the barbarians, these units were much more effective. Similarly, palatine auxiliary units were composed of 500 men but typically operated in pairs, such as the Cornuti and the Bracchiates, positioned on the right of the first line.

    These troops were largely recruited from the barbarian world, but their combative zeal and loyalty to the Roman Empire were noteworthy. They were highly reliable units found in various theaters of operation. At times, their enthusiasm reaches such levels that it becomes challenging to control.

    In any case, soldiers of the Roman era should not be envisioned as always displaying impeccable discipline. The Romans granted significant freedom to their men for heroic actions, as long as they benefited the collective. Honorary rewards were also stipulated for such endeavors.

    The Shock of the Battle of Strasbourg

    A modern reconstruction of the probable appearance of a Roman army infantryman.
    A modern reconstruction of the probable appearance of a Roman army infantryman. Note the Spangenhelm-type helmet with a nose guard, as depicted on the Arch of Constantine; the lorica hamata (chainmail armor) and the oval or circular shield, typical defensive weapons of the auxilia in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries; on the left, the hasta, the infantry spear, and the spiculum, a javelin similar to a long pilum. Image Wikimedia,: CC BY-SA 3.0

    As Julien fortified his position, cries of indignation arose from the barbarian army. The troops feared that the leaders, mounted on horses, might take advantage of this position to abandon them in case of defeat. Therefore, the kings dismounted to stand alongside their men, fortifying their courage.

    The trumpets then signaled the start of the battle. The violent clash of the armies ensued in extreme cacophony. The Roman line stubbornly resisted, opposing its coherence to the barbarian frenzy. However, on the right, Roman cavalry broke off the fight against barbarian horsemen and skirmishers.

    Julien then moved forward to address this retreat and rallied the men who had regained their positions in the formation. The Cornuti and Bracchiates also demonstrated their great valor, impressing the enemy with their courage and indomitable bravery. At the climax of the battle, the Alamans managed to break the Roman line in the center.

    However, the second Roman line intervened; the Primani Reges legion and the Batavi moved in support and repelled the danger. Ammianus, describing the battle, portrays the Alamans as equals to the Romans in war, perhaps to magnify Julien’s feat but also likely out of respect for the combative valor of the barbarians.

    It is crucial to remember that a considerable proportion of the Roman army was populated by these barbarians, without exaggerating to the point of considering the entire army barbarized, which is untrue.

    The Rout of the Barbarians

    The violent battle continued in a quasi-stalemate, where, nevertheless, the barbarians were dying in greater numbers. Better protected and more professional, the Romans effectively contained the assaults of their enemies to the extent that they eventually dispersed and fled, pursued by Roman light units.

    The carnage was significant, and the terrified barbarians fled in large numbers, swimming in the Rhine, where many drowned. Meanwhile, escaping the disaster, Chnodomarius had withdrawn from the battle with a few warriors, attempting to conceal himself on a wooded hill, when he was intercepted by a Roman cohort. Surrounded, he surrendered.

    The losses in the battle were highly disproportionate and reflected the superior training and protection of the Romans. They left 243 troops and 4 officers on the field, while the Alamanni lost 6,000 on the field and an unknown number drowned in the Rhine. Ammianus is entirely reliable in the count, and his text leaves no doubt about the actual tally of losses.

    The figures here closely resemble those of another famous battle, Marathon, where the Athenians also meticulously counted the dead, intending to perform a sacrifice for each fallen Persian. In that battle, 192 Greeks fell against nearly 6,400 Persians.

    Battle of Strasbourg Epilogue

    Following this battle, Chnodomarius is sent as a hostage to Rome, where he remains until his death. Julian, on the other hand, does not let his advantage slip away and takes the opportunity to launch bloody offensives on the territory of the barbarians, stabilizing the border permanently.

    The Battle of Strasbourg is, in any case, a factor allowing us to gauge the tactical prowess of young Julian and his ability to transcend men. His saga is indeed significant, and he is never defeated in an open battle. His men will follow him even into the scorching sands of Persia, refusing to join Constantius II.

    Adorned with the prestige of victory, Julian had become a victorious emperor, blessed by fortune, destined to break free from oppressive tutelage now that his men were entirely devoted to him.

  • Christmas in Paris: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

    Christmas in Paris: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

  • 5 Key Dates in the Hundred Years’ War

    5 Key Dates in the Hundred Years’ War

  • Christmas Pickle: The Origin of a Long-Lasting Tradition

    Christmas Pickle: The Origin of a Long-Lasting Tradition

    The Christmas Pickle (in German Weihnachtsgurke) is a Christmas ornament shaped like a pickle. It is associated with an American tradition, supposedly of German origin, involving hiding this decoration in a Christmas tree. Whoever finds the pickle first on Christmas morning will be rewarded or blessed for the next year. The custom is believed to have originated in the late 19th century among German-Americans, although it is less recognized in Germany itself.

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    A Civil War soldier and St. Nicholas rescuing children from a pickle barrel are two of the main origin myths. Particularly in the United States, the Christmas pickle is still widely practiced today.

    The Christmas Pickle Tradition

    In the United States

    christmas pickle
    Christmas pickle. (Mira Mechtley, cc by sa 2.0)

    The tradition of the Christmas pickle is most prevalent in the American Midwest, where a significant number of residents have German origins. This decoration is always the last one placed on a decorated tree on Christmas Eve, so it’s hidden among the branches. Due to its green color, the pickle is not quite so easy to spot.

    The first child to find it receives an additional gift, gets to unwrap presents first, and/or is believed to have good luck for the coming year. The glassblowers offer three different sizes to adapt the level of difficulty to the age of the children and the size of the tree.

    You may get Christmas decorations in all sorts of strange forms, such as a fried egg, a beer mug, a pine cone, a ball, or a star, among many others. The city of Berrien Springs in Michigan self-proclaims as the “world capital of the Christmas pickle.” They hold a festival in early December, including a parade where fresh pickles are distributed.

    In Germany

    Contrary to popular belief in the United States, this tradition is not widespread in Germany. In a survey conducted by the international polling company YouGov, out of more than 2050 Germans surveyed, around 90% were not familiar with this tradition. Only 2 percent stated that they practice the tradition themselves.

    The catalog of the Lyra Bicycle Works (Lyra-Fahrrad-Werke) from Prenzlau, Brandenburg, in 1909 includes a Christmas pickle in its range of Christmas decorations.

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    Whether the sporadic appearance of Christmas pickles in recent times in the German-speaking region is rooted in a nearly forgotten local tradition or an adoption from the United States remains unclear.
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    Excerpt from the catalog of the German Lyra Fahrrad-Werke from 1909 with a picture of a Christmas pickle.
    Excerpt from the catalog of the German Lyra Fahrrad-Werke from 1909 with a picture of a Christmas pickle.

    However, since the mid-2010s, the sale of pickle-shaped decorations has grown in Germany under the influence of the United States.

    Supposed Origins of the Christmas Pickle

    A Civil War Origin

    Several hypotheses, more or less plausible, attempt to explain the origin of this supposedly German tradition. One popular explanation links the tradition to the story of a Bavarian-born soldier, John Lower (originally Hans Lauer), who fought for the Union during the American Civil War (1861–1865). Captured and imprisoned in 1864 in the Confederate camp of Andersonville, Georgia, he fell ill and, starving, begged his captors for food.

    On Christmas Eve, while Lower faced starvation, he was saved by a guard who gave him a single pickle, as told in the narrative, to help him survive.

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    At the end of the war, liberated, he established the Christmas pickle tradition to remember this ordeal. He went back to his family and started a tradition of hanging a cucumber on the Christmas tree to honor his rescue. However, this version could not be authenticated.

    Christmas pickle ornaments.
    Christmas pickle ornaments. (Steven Miller, cc by 2.0)

    A Holy Legend

    Three young Spaniards made a pit stop at an inn in a folktale from the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, the unscrupulous innkeeper pilfered their possessions and shoved the three of them inside a barrel of pickles. Also that night, St. Nicholas slept at this inn and noticed the lads in the pickle barrel and struck it with his lance to save them; however, the boys were dead. After that, he revived them, and ever since then, a pickled cucumber has been a traditional Christmas tree ornament to honor St. Nicholas.

    A Marketing Ploy

    Still another, and perhaps the most reasonable, explanation is that the whole Christmas pickle is an elaborate marketing hoax. German glassmakers from Thuringia supposedly started making cucumber and other fruit and nut decorations in the 1840s, as long as they were glass (Glasschmuck). They were exported to Europe and the United States, and some could have been shaped like pickles.

    Frank Winfield Woolworth, founder of the American department store chain Woolworth, allegedly intended to bring this glass Christmas ornament to America and sell it in his shops beginning in 1880 after being impressed by it during a visit to Germany. He came up with an exciting tale of the German tradition of hanging pickles, and it was the ideal marketing move to boost sales of the freshly made Christmas pickle ornament.

    This is a plausible explanation since Americans tend to associate any type of Christmas decoration with Germany. Until the late 19th century, Christmas celebrations and tree decorations were mainly reserved for wealthy English and German immigrants before being adopted more widely by the American population.

    Poor People’s Tree Decoration

    Dieter Dressler, a glass artist from Weimar, Germany, has an entirely new concept. Christmas pickles, he said in an interview with the “New York Times,” may have originated from a time when people in the Spreet Forest—a region known for its traditional cucumber cultivation and pickling—could not have afforded any other ornaments for their trees. And so it was that emigrants brought these memories with them to the United States.

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    As a Cheap Tree Decoration

    Poor people are also the subject of another origin theory for Christmas pickle: Many early 20th-century families simply could not afford to buy a Christmas gift for every one of their children. According to legend, this is how the custom of hiding pickles in tree branches came to be: as a token of appreciation for the youngster who found them. For what reason was it a cucumber and not, say, a potato? This could be due to the fact that cucumbers were inexpensive and easy to pickle, resulting in their extended shelf life.

  • Council of Chalcedon: How the Council Shaped Early Christian Beliefs

    Council of Chalcedon: How the Council Shaped Early Christian Beliefs

    The Byzantine Emperor Marcian decided to convene a council to address various theological questions. The Council of Chalcedon took place at the Church of Saint Euphemia in Chalcedon from October 8 to November 1, 451. It brought together over 300 bishops, who deliberated on the nature of Christ, the Son of God. A creed was formulated, leading to divisions within the Church, with some rejecting the decisions made during the council. In a divided East with heightened political and religious tensions, the Chalcedonian Churches then opposed the Miaphysite Churches.

    When and Where Did the Council of Chalcedon Take Place?

    The council is an assembly of bishops and theologians who pronounce the doctrine of the Church. The fourth ecumenical council of Christianity, also known as the Chalcedonian Creed, took place at the Church of Saint Euphemia in Chalcedon (opposite Byzantium or present-day Istanbul in Turkey). This council, held from October 8 to November 1, 451, was convened by the Byzantine Emperor Marcian.

    It became a decisive milestone in the development of Christian doctrine and is recognized by the Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church, and the Protestant Church. The Chalcedonian Churches were in opposition to the so-called Monophysite religions.

    Who Took Part in the Council of Chalcedon?

    Fresco in Ferapontov Monstery - Council of Chalcedon, Ferapontovo, Vologda Oblast, Russia
    Fresco in Ferapontov Monstery – Council of Chalcedon, Ferapontovo, Vologda Oblast, Russia.

    The Council of Chalcedon was convened by the Byzantine Emperor Marcian. He attended the meeting accompanied by his wife, Empress Pulcheria. Marcian intended for Leo, the Bishop of Rome, to preside over this council and had arranged for the meeting to take place at the Church of Saint Euphemia. However, Leo was unable to make the journey as the Huns had invaded the West.

    Consequently, Anatolius of Constantinople assumed leadership of the council. It brought together 343 bishops, primarily from the Eastern regions, with only four attending from the West. The Chalcedonian Creed was endorsed and ratified by 630 conciliar fathers.

    What Topics Did It Cover?

    The Council of Chalcedon addressed various theological subjects, with the primary focus leading to subsequent tensions among churches revolving around the nature of Christ. Rejecting the monophysitism advocated by Eutyches, the council bishops also opposed the duality of Christ. In their view, the Son of God is both divine and human, the son of Mary, the mother of the Lord. He is one with two natures: perfect in divinity and perfect in humanity.

    The Council of Chalcedon established the dual nature of Christ, both human and celestial, in a unified existence. This assertion took time to gain widespread acceptance and eventually led to the division of the East and its various churches.

    The Council of Chalcedon addressed jurisdictional issues among the sees of Tyre and Beirut, Nicomedia and Nicaea, and Antioch and Jerusalem. It granted privileges and a position of power to Constantinople, positioning it just behind Rome—a decision vehemently contested by Roman legates. The council also condemned Dioscorus the Great, who opposed both the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople.

    In addition to political matters, the Council of Chalcedon delved into the organization of the church. Henceforth, priestly ordinations for monetary gain were nullified, and bishops found accepting a fee could be punished and deposed.

    These issues were thoroughly debated during the council, and participants ultimately reached an agreement. A creed was formulated and ratified on October 22, 451, proving pivotal in shaping Christian doctrine but also causing divisions within the religious sphere.

    What Were the Consequences?

    The Fourth Ecumenical Council (painting of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra)
    The Fourth Ecumenical Council (painting of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra). Image: N-dl.com, CC BY-SA 3.0.

    After the council, divisions emerged among the churches.


    The formulation of “the profession of faith” was contested by Patriarch Dioscorus of Alexandria, who was eventually sent into exile. The Church of Alexandria fragmented, with some rejecting the decisions made during the Council of Chalcedon.

    Simultaneously, a faction of the Church of Antioch separated, favoring the Miaphysite doctrine that defines the nature of Christ as singular, uniting his humanity with his divinity. The monophysite churches thus rejected the Council of Chalcedon. As for the Church of Armenia, it distanced itself from the council without outright opposition.

    —>The Chalcedonian Definition, a key outcome of the council, affirmed the dual nature of Christ: fully divine and fully human. It asserted the “hypostatic union,” the unity of the two natures in the person of Christ without confusion, change, division, or separation.

    The three major contemporary religions—Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and Protestantism—have incorporated the declarations of the Council of Chalcedon into their beliefs. However, a schism occurred during that time. Miaphysite Christians decided to form the Oriental Orthodox Churches. They chose to recognize only the three early ecumenical councils—those of Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus—rejecting the Council of Chalcedon. Non-Chalcedonian Christianity now number over 60 million believers.


  • Christmas in America: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

    Christmas in America: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

    People from many different cultures come together around Christmas in the United States of America. Thanksgiving is on November 4th, and the festivities continue all the way into the new year. On December 25th, we celebrate Christmas Day with a large family meal that consists of roast turkey, mashed potatoes, and meat pies. Houses are lit up with lights, stockings are hung by the fireplace, and Christmas trees are decorated. Ham, tamales, roast goose, and seafood salad are possibilities for the traditional Christmas dinner in America, which differs from one location to another. On Christmas Eve, many Americans also go to church, and some even partake in strange traditions like the Christmas Pickle or the Feast of the Seven Fishes.

    Christmas Traditions in America

    christmas decoration usa

    Today, around 63 percent of the entire United States’ population (332 million) is Christian (210 million). Presently, 55 percent of individuals in the US report that Christmas is observed as a religious holiday.

    Picking Out a Christmas Tree

    One aspect of American Christmas is the practice of choosing a Christmas tree. The first step is taking a trip to a tree lot or a Christmas tree farm as a family to pick out the ideal tree. German immigrants first introduced the habit of adorning fir trees with candles and decorations to the United States. Today, homes begin their Christmas festivities with this ritual. Lights, tinsel, decorations, and a star or angel atop the tree are added after it is in the house. Festive decorations adorn houses, and more importantly, this ritual brings families together, making memories that will last a lifetime.

    Tree Lighting Ceremony

    In 1923, President Calvin Coolidge presided over the first National Tree Lighting Ceremony to mark the beginning of a beloved American tradition. As the formal beginning of the Christmas season, this event is hosted by the National Park Service and the National Park Foundation. It includes musical performances and the lighting of the National Christmas Tree. Not only does the White House now have tree lighting events, but so do towns and communities. The annual Rockefeller Center tree lighting is among the most famous.

    Christmas Lights Everywhere

    Christmas lights

    Yard decorations including Santa’s sleigh, illuminated reindeer, and inflatable snowmen have been immensely popular in American homes and yards this holiday season. It may be anything from understated, elegant displays to extravagant light shows, but either way, it’s a great way to share the holiday mood in America. Because of their extended lifespan and little effect on the environment, energy-efficient LEDs are often chosen. Some examples of decorations are pre-lit trees positioned in a way that casts a warm, welcoming light, lighting garlands wrapped over entrances, and big, warm lights scattered along rooflines.

    Christmas Lights in Florida
    Christmas Lights in Florida. (Chad Sparkes, cc by sa 2.0)

    Secret Santa

    In the United States, people enjoy Christmas by participating in the Secret Santa. Members of a community or group are assigned a gift-giver at random under this practice. People do not divulge to identify the kind gift-giver. To decide on a present recipient, it is common practice to have people pull names from a hat. Many people take pleasure in trying to identify the identity of their Secret Santa only once they have opened their presents. It is believed that philanthropist Larry Dean Stewart (1948–2007) began this custom but it has roots in Scandinavia.

    Black Friday

    In the United States, the Christmas season is generally considered to begin the day after Thanksgiving (November 23). Since Black Friday is on November 24, it is considered to be the earliest “holy feast” of the Christmas season. The United States begins its Christmas shopping season on Black Friday.

    Elfapalooza Gathering

    In Mobile, Alabama, hundreds of people wear elf costumes for Elfapalooza, a one-of-a-kind Christmas festival. This event originally sought to surpass the record from 2014 in Bangkok, when 1,762 elves gathered for the Guinness World Record for the greatest assembly of Santa’s elves. Over a thousand elves still congregate every December in Mobile’s heritage Bienville Square. Local artists, arts groups, and businesses provide live programming, offer prizes, and more during the city’s Artwalk after the official count.

    Russian Orthodox Christmas in Alaska

    The observance of Russian Orthodox Christmas, which falls on January 7th, has significance in Alaskan Christmas, especially in towns that have a Russian heritage. There is a ritual called “starring,” in which vocal ensembles go house to house, singing folk and religious songs and spinning big, glittering stars that look like pinwheels. It is said that a homesick priest from Ukraine brought this practice to the towns of Alaska. An enormous Russian Orthodox Christmas celebration takes place every year at the Alaska Native Medical Center in Anchorage. This custom is strong in Alaska, and it helps keep the Christmas spirit alive even while American society is becoming more secular. Observing Christmas on the “new” Gregorian calendar is a tradition among Orthodox Christians in Alaska that is a tribute to their background.

    Tumbleweed Christmas Tree

    Tumbleweed Christmas Tree in Chandler, Arizona.
    Tumbleweed Christmas Tree in Chandler, Arizona.

    The Tumbleweed Christmas Tree in Chandler, Arizona, is a unique Christmas tradition that has been celebrated since 1957. Constructed from a 35-foot-tall, 20-foot-wide frame made from chicken wire, the tree is filled with about 1,000 tumbleweeds collected by Chandler’s Park Operations Division each year. These tumbleweeds are painted white, adorned with about 80 pounds of glitter, and sprayed with flame retardant before being strung with more than 1,200 LED lights. The tree, which stands over 50 feet tall, is lit the first Saturday evening in December, drawing Christmas visitors from far and wide. This only-in-Arizona display actually represents the Grand Canyon State.

    Lights of the Ozarks in Arkansas

    Fayetteville, Arkansas, hosts the beloved Lights of the Ozarks every year during the holidays. Lighting Night, which usually falls around November 17th, is the beginning of this light festival. From then until January 1, the Historic Downtown Square in Fayetteville is illuminated nightly from 5:00 p.m. to 1:00 a.m. Every year since 1994, employees of Fayetteville Parks and Recreation have spent more than 3,300 hours putting up more than 400,000 sparkling lights for the event. This turns the area into a winter paradise, drawing in guests from all around.

    Boat Parades in California

    From San Diego all the way up to the northern part of the state, seaside communities celebrate the holidays with boat parades in the evening. A variety of boats, including yachts, sailboats, rowboats, and even canoes, decorated with lights and vibrant displays, participate in these parades. Viewing locations along the shoreline are prime locations for spectators, who may be joined by merchants selling hot chocolate, musicians, and even Santa himself on occasion. Some communities provide opportunities to go on a boat and cruise around while taking in the festively lit boats and waterfront mansions. These parades, which take place all through December, give Christmas a California flair.

    Places to Visit at Christmas in America

    Here are a few of the top American destinations to visit over Christmas:

    1. Solvang, California: This quaint Danish-style village hosts annual celebrations like Julefest and other holiday-themed activities.
    2. North Pole, Alaska: Visit North Pole, Alaska, sometimes nicknamed “America’s Christmas Hometown,” for a Christmas-themed fireworks show and Santa Claus Land of Lights, a drive-through light experience.
    3. Vail Colorado: Beautiful mountain beauty, exciting activities, and the Vail Christmas Adventure—a progressive dinner party on Christmas Eve—make Vail, Colorado, a popular ski destination.
    4. New York City: Famous landmarks in New York City include the Rockefeller Christmas Tree, the Christmas Spectacular, Macy’s Santaland, and the Saks Fifth Avenue light display.
    5. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania: In Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, a place that has earned the nickname “Christmas City USA,” visitors enjoy Christmas markets, a unique history, and the Live Advent Calendar.
    6. Frankenmuth, Michigan: This town is magical during the holiday season, thanks to its Old World Christmas Market and horse-drawn wagon excursions.
    7. Washington, DC: National Christmas Tree and the World War II Memorial Ice Rink are two of the holiday attractions in the nation’s capital.
    8. Chicago, Illinois: Maggie Daley Park in Chicago, Illinois is the site of a Christkindlmarket and other Christmas celebrations that provide visitors with a taste of German Christmas customs.
    9. Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota: The Minnesota Twin Cities are the site of several annual events, including SantaCon and Holidazzle, and the Governor’s Residence hosts holiday tours.
    10. New Orleans, Louisiana: Holiday customs like the Christmas Pickle and the Feast of the Seven Fishes are part of New Orleans, Louisiana’s cultural history.

    The Economic Significance of Christmas

    Christmas on the Isthmus - Keppler. 1903.
    Christmas on the Isthmus – Keppler. 1903.

    Various industries in the US feel the effects of Christmas. Sales skyrocketed across the board during this period, making it the biggest economic boost for many countries (the US included). Forecasts indicated that overall holiday retail sales in 2023 hit a record high of 957 billion USD. American shoppers were projected to spend over $1 trillion for Christmas, with about $150 billion going to internet shops. The “Christmas shopping season” begins as early as October.

    Every family spent close to $1,500 on party supplies, including food and drink. More people are able to find work in retail as a result of this expenditure, as sales grow to fulfill the increased demand. Even though many stores are doing well this Christmas season, some may be struggling financially because they can’t meet customer demand.

    The History of Christmas in America

    Christmas wasn’t even a recognized holiday in the early part of the nineteenth century, and there wasn’t a common practice for enjoying the season. Some celebrated Christmas as a serious religious holiday, remembering the birth of Jesus; others had parties, listened to music, drank, and feasted. But in the early 1800s, Americans started to reimagine Christmas.

    Washington Irving, a well-known American writer, had a major impact on how Americans celebrate Christmas. In 1819, he penned a collection of articles chronicling the story of a rich British landowner who hosts a Christmas party for his hired hands. The concept of people from all walks of life gathering together to celebrate a joyous holiday was something Irving lauded, as was the return to more traditional practices.

    Christians started celebrating Christmas in unique ways by the middle of the century, putting aside their theological disagreements over the holiday’s significance. The importance of spending Christmas Eve and Day together at home grew throughout time.

    Following the European custom of decorating Christmas trees and exchanging presents, an increasing number of Christian Americans also started to do the same. Immigrants from Germany carried with them the custom of decorating evergreen trees with lights, candy, and toys. Putting up a Christmas tree became a common practice for American households.

    On June 26, 1870, Christmas was officially declared a federal holiday in the US. Christians celebrate the birth of Jesus, whom they believe to be the divine son and global savior, around this time. On December 25, people throughout the globe celebrate Christmas, a religious and cultural phenomenon as well as a commercial one. It is characterized by religious and secular customs and traditions.

    Distinct American Christmas Decorations

    Gingerbread House, White House Christmas.
    Gingerbread House, White House Christmas.

    American Christmas decorations that are unusual include:

    • State Ornaments: Old World Christmas has a variety of decorations that honor the 50 states with their own special traditions.
    • Made in the USA Decorations: homespun soy candles, handmade ceramic stockings, or winter gnome brothers and Christmas truck glass ornaments are kinds of handmade American ornaments distinct to America.
    • Gingerbread Houses: During the Christmas season, American families enjoy the age-old custom of making and decorating gingerbread homes. These constructions made of food first appeared in Germany in the 1500s and 1700s. During the nineteenth century, the craze for gingerbread homes surely made its way to Britain.
    • Chile Wreaths: Wreaths constructed of dried chiles are a traditional Christmas ornament in New Mexico and make for a one-of-a-kind centerpiece.
    • Light Shows: Spectacular light displays illuminate the streets and waterfronts of many American towns and cities. One such event is the Louisiana holiday light show.

    Traditional Christmas Foods in America

    Various regions and cultures in the United States have different traditional Christmas dishes. Eggnog, roasted goose, mince pies, and Christmas pudding made in the British way are among New England‘s most beloved holiday traditions. Crab cakes, oysters, and ham are popular in the Mid-Atlantic states, but country ham, mac & cheese, and cornbread are more popular in the South. Mexican flavors, such as tamales, are prevalent throughout the Southwest. American Christmas meal staples include mashed potatoes, stuffing, gravy, cranberry sauce, and turkey. Popular sweets include fruitcake, pumpkin and pecan pies, cookies, and fruitcake.

  • Christmas in Ireland: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

    Christmas in Ireland: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

    The Irish Christmas celebration, or “Nollaig,” is a mash-up of Christian and pagan traditions. Traditional Christmas markets, joyful shoppers, and carolers set the tone for the celebrations. The most important part is Christmas Day, which is on December 25th. On that day, people usually start by exchanging gifts and then go to Mass. The next step for families is to visit with loved ones before having Christmas dinner together, either at home or at someone else’s. “Wren Day” and the cold Christmas morning dip at Dublin’s Forty Foot bathing location are two unique Christmas traditions in Ireland. St. Stephen’s Day, the day after Christmas, is observed as a day of repose and a public holiday. On January 6th, the season comes to a close with “Women’s Christmas” or “Little Christmas” (Nollaig na mBan).

    The Irish Christmas Foods

    Irish Christmas pudding.
    Irish Christmas pudding. 1887.

    A wide range of delectable delicacies that are a staple of the holiday season are included in traditional Irish Christmas cuisine. Among the most well-liked Irish Christmas delicacies are:

    1. Christmas Breakfast: A “full-Irish” Christmas breakfast includes bacon, eggs, toast, sausages, and black and white pudding.
    2. Typical Irish Christmas Dinner: Served with a variety of side dishes such as roast potatoes, mashed potatoes, Brussels sprouts, and other vegetables, the main course of an Irish Christmas dinner consists of roast turkey, roast beef, boiled ham, or goose.
    3. Mince Pies: They are a popular Christmas dessert in Ireland and are often served on Christmas Eve after midnight mass. It’s believed to be of English origin, traceable to the 13th century.
    4. Christmas Cake: A customary Irish Christmas cake, offered as a sweet treat after the main entrée. It is a fruitcake served only at Christmas time.
    5. Irish Trifle: A dessert consisting of chocolate sprinkles, cream, and jelly; brandy may also be added for taste. It’s also of English origin.
    6. Guinness Porter Cake: A delicious after-dinner Irish treat, this cake is a substantial dessert created with Guinness.
    7. Christmas crackers: They are a playful custom that consist of tubes encased in festive paper, containing a toy and a paper crown.

    Christmas Traditions in Ireland

    Belfast City Hall at Christmas
    Belfast City Hall. (Ardfern, cc by sa 3.0)

    In England and Ireland, twelve Christmas Day begins on Christmas Day, and feasts are carried out for the duration until Little Christmas or Women’s Christmas as it is also known. Among the many distinctive Irish Christmas customs are:

    Extravagant House Decoration

    Irish families decorate their homes inside and out at Christmas and some individuals go beyond with their extremely bright and lavish décor, fit for a king or queen.

    Christmas Eve Midnight Mass

    Midnight Mass is a big social event (especially among Roman Catholics) when Irish people assemble to enjoy Christmas with their friends, family, and neighbors. In Ireland, prayers are also said during Mass in remembrance of the departed during this period.

    Horse Races on St. Stephen Day

    On December 26th (St. Stephen’s Day), it is customary to have horse racing activities in Ireland which is a unique Christmas custom in this country.

    Christmas Day Swim

    Some communities, especially in South Dublin, have Christmas Day swims, with the proceeds going to charity. Swimming in the water on Christmas morning became a custom in the late 20th century. At the Forty Foot in Sandycove, Dublin, and Blackrock in Salthill, Galway, which are popular locations for this, hundreds of people dare to leap into the frigid waters.

    Airtricity Christmas Festival, Ireland.
    Airtricity Christmas Festival, Dublin, Ireland. (Miguel Mendez, cc by 2.0)

    Daidí na Nollag (Santa Claus)

    Irish shops provide a mystical experience for children when they see Santa Claus, who is known as Santy in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. In Irish, he is called Daidí na Nollag, which translates to “father of Christmas.”

    A Light in the Window

    Some Irish households have an ancient custom of placing a tall, thick candle on the sill of the biggest window after Christmas Eve sunset as a symbol of the coming light. Mary and Joseph leave the candle burning all night as a symbol of the light that will guide them.

    Christmas Decorations in Ireland

    Traditional Irish Christmas decorations use natural elements and Irish motifs since Ireland has several unique Christmas decorations:

    • Irish Decorations: Popular options for adorning Christmas trees and houses are Irish decorations like leprechauns, Celtic crosses, and shamrocks.
    • Guinness: Adding an Irish flair to Christmas decorations may be distinctive with Guinness-themed Irish decorations like ornaments and pint glass-shaped lights.
    • Belleek: With a variety of ornaments (and nativity) sets available, Belleek pottery is an option for Christmas decorations in Ireland.
    • Holly Wreaths: Traditionally placed on the front entrance of a home, holly wreaths are also an Irish Christmas ornament.
    • Dublin Doors: With a personalized Dublin door design, these ornaments are actually a special way to add a personal touch to Christmas in Ireland.
    • Jumping Frogs: The ornaments with a leaping frog pattern are also a unique Irish decoration at Christmas.
    ireland christmas

    History of Christmas in Ireland

    “Nollaig,” the Irish term for Christmas celebration, has a long history that stretches back to the early Christian period. Christmas has its roots in ancient cultures, when it was customary to commemorate the winter solstice and the sun’s rebirth with elaborate feasts and ceremonies.

    The first record of Christmas celebrations in Ireland dates back to 1171, when excommunicated King Henry II celebrated the holiday in Dublin. Ireland had Christmas festivities brought by the English king. In the hamlet of Hogges, Henry II constructed a massive medieval Irish hall. The Irish chiefs who supported the English monarchy participated in lavish feasts and Christmas performances. The following Dublin Christmas story dates to 1458 and is centered on religious plays called Miracle Plays.

    Traditionally, the holiday season for Irish Catholics started on December 8th, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, when people set up their Christmas trees and decorations, and lasted until January 6th, also known as Little Christmas. The Late Late Toy Show, which airs on the last Friday of November, is now considered to mark the start of the Christmas season.

    With a focus on parties and gift-giving, the contemporary Irish Christmas has evolved to resemble the holiday seasons in Britain and America. Nonetheless, many Irish people attend church services or take part in other religious observances around Christmas as a way to recall and commemorate the religious meaning of the holiday. During the Christmas season, a lot of individuals give to charity and to those in need by giving their time and resources.

    Places to Visit in Ireland at Christmas

    Ireland’s top destinations for Christmas travel include various options for unique winter activities and traditions.

    • Dublin: The nation’s capital is a place to visit during the holidays since it has Christmas markets, seasonal decorations, and activities such as Dublin Zoo, Grafton Street lights, Live Crib at St. Stephen’s Green, Christmas concerts, and ice skating.
    • Galway: This city is home to the Galway Christmas Market, which offers food vendors, holiday activities (Winter Wonderland at Wildlands, Santa’s Grotto, or Pantomime), and traditional music.
    • Cork: For a fun environment and distinctive products, check out Cork’s Christmas markets, such as the Glow Cork event or visiting Santa at Blarney Castle.
    • Belfast: Take advantage of the seasonal products and activities available at the Belfast Christmas Market or at Hayfield Manor.
    • Waterford: Take part in the family-friendly Winterval festival, complete with festive entertainment and activities, in Waterford.
    • Dublin: For a lively theatrical experience, see the Christmas Pantomime at the Gaiety or Olympia Theaters.
    • Limerick: Experience a fusion of holiday happiness and horse racing at Limerick’s Christmas Racing Festivals in Ireland.
  • Missi Dominici (Missus Dominicus): Royal Envoys in the Carolingian Empire

    Missi Dominici (Missus Dominicus): Royal Envoys in the Carolingian Empire

    The Emperor Charlemagne inherited an extensive territory that he continually expanded throughout his reign. While his power remained absolute and centralized, it became necessary to dispatch controllers to ensure the proper management of various regions, referred to as counties.

    The missus dominicus (missi dominici) were tasked with monitoring the counts and bishops of these territories, conveying the emperor’s orders to them, and ensuring compliance with the laws. Typically sent in pairs, these envoys of the emperor usually comprised a cleric and a layperson.

    —>Missi dominici had a range of functions during their missions. They were responsible for inspecting local administration, hearing grievances, delivering royal edicts, collecting information on local conditions, and ensuring the loyalty of regional officials.

    What Was the Origin of Missi Dominici?

    The first references to missi dominici (missus dominicus) date back to the Merovingian era, during the reigns of Charles Martel and Pepin the Short. As early as 751, Pepin the Short dispatched “missi” to traverse his kingdom. However, it was Charlemagne who, in 775, more effectively organized the function and utilization of these “missi.” The specific status of missi dominici was established in 789.

    The emperor made them a crucial element of his empire’s administration, deploying them as inspectors and messengers. Their responsibility was to convey information about the occurrences in various countries. They monitored the territorial management of counts and bishops.


    During this period, the empire extended over the majority of Western Europe. The emperor governed from his capital, Aachen, while the administration of counties was entrusted to nobles (counts) or bishops. In 802, a capitulary precisely defined their tasks and missions. Missus dominicus were employed until the 10th century.

    —>Missi dominici played a significant role in judicial matters. They acted as judges, hearing cases and resolving disputes during their travels. This helped ensure the fair administration of justice according to the king’s laws.

    What Was the Role of the Missi Dominici?

    The term “missi dominici” originates from Latin and literally translates to “envoy[s] of the lord [ruler].” It was commonly used in the plural form, less so in the singular (missus dominicus). The role of Missi Dominici was to oversee local representatives of power. Essentially, the emperor delegated the management of his counties to nobles, often counts or bishops.

    The primary mission of missi dominici was to enforce royal rights within the framework of imperial ideology. They received oaths of allegiance and ensured the loyalty of the emperor’s officers. Additionally, they monitored the management of the counties and conveyed directives from the central authority.

    Missi Dominici intervened in political, legal, and religious domains, overseeing both the clergy (bishops) and secular authorities (counts). They were responsible for dispensing justice on numerous occasions and, at times, even commanding an army. Their functions were diverse and significant.

    Missi Dominici typically traveled in pairs (sometimes more), often consisting of a noble and a clergy member. Serving as direct emissaries of the emperor, they fulfilled the roles of inspectors, judges, prefects, and messengers. Some may have remained stationed, but they were obligated to carry out four annual visits to the territory entrusted to them.

    How Did Charlemagne Revolutionize the Role of the Missi Dominici?

    During the reign of Charlemagne, the role of missi dominici transformed. The emperor employed them to consolidate his power across his extensive territory, making them a central element of his policy. While missi were previously selected from the lesser nobility, a shift occurred in favor of trusted individuals.

    The function was now bestowed upon high-ranking aristocrats or significant religious figures, enhancing the prestigious nature of the role. This decision was made to ensure the impartiality of the missi dominici, granting them natural authority over the visited counts or bishops.

    Charlemagne personally appointed the missi dominici to oversee both the political and religious aspects of his kingdom. In a system characterized by robust and centralized power, these officials played a pivotal role in his administration. Operating at the highest hierarchical level, they supervised the counts, who, in turn, received their appointments from the emperor. Charlemagne strategically chose individuals from the upper echelons of the aristocracy to serve as missi dominici, aiming to secure their loyalty.

    The missi dominici were tasked with disseminating Charlemagne’s directives throughout the entire empire. They scrutinized the actions of the counts and their subordinates, reporting any abuse or disobedience to the emperor.


    They conveyed news and challenges encountered in all regions of his vast empire to the emperor.

    Who Were the Missi Dominici?

    The missi dominici were directly appointed by the emperor. Initially, they were chosen from the vassals of the lesser nobility. During the reign of Charlemagne, the missi dominici were selected from the aristocracy, as the emperor sought to ensure their loyalty.

    Typically, the missi dominici work in pairs, consisting of one layperson and one cleric, or more. Initially, they were outsiders to the missatica (region) they were meant to oversee. This condition is intended to ensure a certain impartiality in their control and function. However, in practice, it remains challenging to find individuals unaffected by local political influences. Among the missi dominici, one finds not only nobles but also high-ranking ecclesiastics.

    In specific and rarer circumstances, the emperor would call upon extraordinary missi. These individuals represented the emperor in delicate situations that required sending figures close to power. Consequently, they were chosen from the monarch’s most loyal advisors, all of whom were from the high aristocracy.

    What Were the Missi Dominici’s Missions?

    To gain a precise understanding of the role of missi dominici and their missions, one can refer to the Capitularies of 802 (see an excerpt). This document outlines the various tasks that missi dominici can undertake. They receive letters, forms, or diplomas based on their assigned missions, with instructions originating directly from the central authority. Upon reaching the “missatica,” missi dominici gather all officials to remind them of their civic and religious obligations.

    • Missi dominici oversees the political and administrative management of districts. The conduct of each individual must align with precepts and rights (orthopraxy).
    • They also ensure the proper observance of religious rituals. Missi dominici thus directly intervene in the moral and religious domain, monitoring members of the clergy.
    • They also serve as judges, with the authority to condemn or nullify sentences as needed.

    • Missi dominici acts as an envoy of the emperor, ensuring the loyalty of each individual. They receive the oath of allegiance from counts.

    The Missi dominici facilitated a more decentralized governance of power in an imperialistic and autocratic system. They played a central role in the political administration of the empire during the historical periods of the Merovingians and Carolingians. However, their significance diminished during the 9th century with the establishment of the feudal system.

  • Christmas in Norway: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

    Christmas in Norway: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

  • Salic Law: Prohibiting Female Inheritance of Titles

    Salic Law: Prohibiting Female Inheritance of Titles

    The Salic Law, likely dating back to the 4th century, is a legal code established by the Salian Franks under Roman influence. Initially aimed at ending the practice of revenge in cases of crime, it replaced allowing the victim’s family to seek justice by obliging the offender to pay a fine.

    The code also outlines rules for the inheritance of property. Originally transmitted orally, the Salic Law was later put into writing during the reign of Clovis and underwent revisions during the Carolingian era.

    During the Merovingian period, the Kingdom of France always passed to male heirs, excluding women from succession. This rule is not explicitly stated in the Salic Law, which does not address the rules of the French crown’s inheritance.

    Nevertheless, the text, rediscovered by Richard Lescot in the 14th century, was invoked to counter the claims of the English king to the French throne during the Hundred Years’ War. Since then, it has become synonymous with “agnatic primogeniture,” or the “exclusive succession of the eldest male heir closest in the male line.”

    —>Agnatic succession, as defined by Salic Law, is a system of inheritance and succession that prioritizes the male line of descent. In other words, inheritance and succession follow the male bloodline, excluding female descendants from the direct line of succession.

    Who Created the Salic Law?

    King of the Franks presents the Salic Law
    The King of the Franks presents the Salic Law to the people. French miniature of the fourteenth century.

    The Salic Law was established in the early 6th century by the Salian Franks, a Germanic people who were part of the Frankish League. However, it is likely that this legal code was transmitted orally as early as the 4th century. The Salian Franks inhabited the region near the mouth of the Rhine. In the 5th century, King Clodion the Hairy founded a small kingdom with its capital in Tournai, in present-day Belgium. In 481 or 482, Clovis inherited the kingdom. It was during this period that the Pactus Legis Salicae, the code known as the “Salic Law,” was composed.

    The text derives its name from the people who implemented it. It mentions the names of the law’s authors, who were the Frankish leaders Arogast, Salegast, Visogast, and Windogast. In the 8th century, the code underwent revisions during the reigns of Pepin the Short and Charlemagne. The Salic Law fell into obscurity for several centuries, and it wasn’t until 1358 that a monk named Richard Lescot rediscovered the text in the archives of the monastery of Saint-Denis.

    What Was the Salic Law About?

    The text, written during the reign of Clovis, was a code of criminal and civil law aimed at resolving disputes between families. It essentially outlines the tariffs for compensating the injured party in cases of murder, mutilation, or theft. Originally composed in Latin, the first version of the Salic Law is divided into 65 titles, each consisting of a specific number of articles. Over the centuries, new articles are added to the legal code, reaching 100 articles under Charlemagne. The various titles cover:

    The text, written during the reign of Clovis, constitutes a code of criminal and civil law designed to settle disputes between families. It essentially delineates the tariffs for compensating the injured party in cases of murder, mutilation, or theft. Originally composed in Latin, the initial version of the Salic Law was categorized into 65 titles, each comprising a specific number of articles. Over the centuries, additional articles were incorporated into the legal code, culminating in 100 articles under Charlemagne. The diverse titles encompass:

    • Procedures for summoning (an individual refusing to appear was outlawed, and their property confiscated).
    • Theft of animals.
    • Theft of trees.
    • Abduction of a slave or servant.
    • Theft of objects and break-ins.
    • Robbing of corpses.
    • Injuries.
    • Murders.
    • Adulterous relationships.
    • Mutilations.
    • Insults.
    • Calumnies.
    • Transmission of property.

    The code was particularly detailed regarding the theft of animals. For instance, it specified that stealing a pig that has reached one year of age was punishable by a fine of 120 deniers or 3 gold sous, in addition to the value of the animal and prosecution expenses.

    Notably, the code does not specify succession rules for the throne. The version drafted under Clovis states that women can inherit from men. In the Carolingian era, the concept of “Salic land” emerged in the article De alodis, which declares that “all inheritance of the land passes to the male sex.” However, the text does not precisely define what Salic land entails.

    —>Salic Law, in its historical form, is not directly relevant to contemporary legal systems. However, its influence on medieval legal thought has left a lasting impact on the development of inheritance laws and succession practices in Europe. Some principles related to gender-based inheritance restrictions have persisted in certain regions.

    What Was the Purpose of the Salic Law?

    Salic law
    Salic law.

    The Salic Law aimed to put an end to the blood feud. Among the Germanic tribes, the blood feud was a tradition of private vengeance. When a crime such as murder, theft, rape, or mutilation occurred, the victim’s family had the right to seek revenge on the offender’s family. Often, one murder led to another in this cycle of retaliation. This system was prevalent among Germanic peoples, including the Franks.

    Historians suggest that the Franks established an oral pact with the Romans as early as the 4th century to replace the blood feud with monetary fines. The Franks, like other groups, were integrated into the Roman Empire as Laeti (an intermediate status between freedom and servitude).

    The Romans enforced their legal system, which aimed to maintain public order. The substitution of familial vengeance with fines was a method to replace private justice with public justice, in accordance with Roman law. The Salic Law thus formalizes the concept that legitimate violence falls under the jurisdiction of the public authority. Subsequently, the Franks retained these rules inherited from the Romans.

    How Did the Carolingians Transform Salic Law?

    The Salic Law, drafted during the time of Clovis (around 510), specifies that the inheritance of property occurs through the parents, disregarding the gender of the inheritor. “If any man die and leave no sons, if the father and mother survive, they shall inherit.If the father and mother do not survive, and he leave brothers or sisters, they shall inherit.“

    The legal code underwent revision in 763–764, during the reign of Pepin the Short, the founder of the Carolingian dynasty. It expands from 65 to 100 articles, adopting the name “Terra salica,” introducing the concept of “Salic land,” which cannot be transmitted to women: “But of Salic land no portion of the inheritance shall come to a woman: but the whole inheritance of the land shall come to the male sex.”

    The exact meaning of the term “Salic land” is yet to be firmly established. Some historians speculate it refers to the realm of the Salian Franks, while others suggest it pertains to lands granted by the Romans to Frankish leaders in exchange for military service. Indeed, the Romans believed that these lands assigned to men should remain the property of men available for Roman military service.

    Around the year 800, Charlemagne commissioned a new version of the Salic Law, titled “Lex Reformata,” or “Lex Salica Emendata.” The text is then reduced to 70 titles, with the title De alodis, concerning the inheritance of property, remaining unchanged.

    Did the Salic Law Lead to the Hundred Years’ War?

    The beginning of the prologue to the Salic Law. 1720 edition
    The beginning of the prologue to the Salic Law. 1720 edition.

    During the Merovingian dynasty, the kingdom was divided among the sons of the deceased king. The Capetians put an end to this practice, establishing the primogeniture principle, where the crown passes to the eldest son. Daughters were consistently excluded from succession to prevent the French throne from falling into the hands of a foreign prince.

    Traditionally, the daughters of a king would marry a prince from another realm. Nevertheless, the Salic law was not cited to justify the exclusion of women, as the text had fallen into obscurity from the 9th century onward.

    In 1316, the king of France, Louis X, son of Philip IV the Fair (Philip VI of France), died without a male heir. His brothers, Philip V and then Charles IV, succeeded him but also died without offspring. Ultimately, it was Philip VI, the nephew of Philip IV, who ascended to the throne. In 1327, Edward III became the king of England.

    As the grandson of Philip IV through his mother, he claimed the French crown in 1337. For the French, allowing a foreigner to ascend the throne of France was out of the question, especially since women could not transmit a right they did not possess. This marked the beginning of the Hundred Years’ War.

    In 1358, the monk Richard Lescot rediscovered a manuscript of the Salic law in the archives of the Abbey of Saint-Denis. He then used the title “De alodis” to prove that England’s claims were illegitimate. Under the reign of Charles V, the rules for the devolution of the French crown were definitively established: solely through male dynastic transmission, by election, or by lineage election.

    Did Francis I Become King Thanks to the Salic Law?

    Francis I salic law
    Francis I.

    From the 14th century on, the Salic law became the reference in the succession to the French throne. It was, in fact, applied during the succession of Louis XII, who passed away in 1515. From his first marriage to Joan of France, he had no children. From his union with Anne of Brittany, two daughters survived.

    The elder, Claude of France, married her cousin Francis from the Valois-Orléans-Angoulême branch. It was Francis who inherited the kingdom of France under the name Francis I. Francis I and Claude de France gave birth to Henry II, who ascended to the throne in 1547.

    How Did the Salic Law Bring Henry IV to the Throne?

    The Salic Law was reinstated in 1589 when the King of France, Henry III, was assassinated by the monk Jacques Clément. With his death, the Valois dynasty came to an end. Henry III, like his predecessors, Francis II and Charles IX, died without offspring. According to the Salic Law, Henri de Navarre, the first prince of the blood, was to succeed him.

    Indeed, he was a direct male descendant of King Louis IX of France (Saint Louis), spanning ten generations. Despite being a Protestant, Henry IV of France was despised by Catholics who preferred to see the crown bestowed upon the Cardinal de Bourbon or Isabelle of Spain, the granddaughter of Henry II.

    The Catholic League even invoked a law stating that the King of France must be Catholic. Nevertheless, it was unequivocally Henry IV of France whom Henry III, before his demise, acknowledged as his successor. In 1589, Henry IV of France ascended to the throne of France, assuming the title of Henry IV.

  • Christmas in Denmark: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

    Christmas in Denmark: Traditions, Celebrations, and History

    Danes celebrate Christmas with a mix of new traditions and old favorites. Christmas Eve, December 24th, is the climax of the season, when families get together for a meal and gift exchange. The season starts with Advent in late November. Danish streets and residences are lit up with Christmas lights, while seasonal markets sell all sorts of goodies for the holidays. Danish Christmas dinners aren’t the same without the traditional rice pudding, Risalamande, and the dance that goes around the tree. Danish Santa Claus, known as “Julemanden,” also makes an appearance during the season. Generally speaking, Christmas in Denmark is about ‘hygge,’ or making everyone feel at home and spending quality time together.

    Christmas Traditions in Denmark

    Copenhagen's Tivoli with Christmas decorations. Denmark.
    Copenhagen’s Tivoli with Christmas decorations. Denmark.

    In Denmark, the Christmas season, in the common understanding of the term, spans from Little Christmas Eve on December 23 to the 2nd Christmas Day on December 26. Preceding Christmas is the Advent period, a serene preparatory time that commences four Sundays before Christmas. Liturgically, the Christmas season extends from the evening of the 24th until Epiphany on January 6 or until the Baptism of the Lord. With an emphasis on family, cuisine, and a celebratory attitude, these customs make Christmas in Denmark unforgettable.

    1. Advent: The four Sundays of Advent are celebrated by Danes as a prelude to Christmas. There are 24 little presents or activities to do or receive on each day of the advent calendar (also called a “Julekalender” or “Pakkekalender”) that count down to Christmas Eve.
    2. Julemandan: The ‘Julemanden,’ also known as the Christmas Man or Yule Man, is a figure that Danish children believe delivers gifts. He has a sleigh and reindeer and resembles Santa Claus.
    3. Christmas Lunch: Traditionally, Danes have karrysild, which is herring in curry, aebleflæsk, which is apple porridge with pork, and other meals on Christmas Day. After lunch, they generally go on a group nature walk.
    4. Julefrokost: Gatherings of coworkers, friends, and family for a series of lengthy lunches or dinners beginning around six weeks before Christmas are known as Julefrokost. The delectable cuisine and lively atmosphere at these gatherings are legendary.
    5. Lillejuleaften: On December 23rd, the Danish celebrate Little Christmas Eve, also known as Lillejuleaften, the day before Christmas Eve. A variety of celebratory events and decorations are used to honor this day.
    6. Decorations: Danish houses and streets are decorated with Christmas lights, while local bakeries provide traditional Christmas sweets such as klejner and pebernødder (ginger cookies).

    Two Christmas Dates

    Christmas in Tivoli, Copenhagen.
    Christmas in Tivoli, Copenhagen. (News Oresund – Tivoli Kobenhavn)

    While Danes of the Catholic faith (3% of the population) observe Christmas Day on December 25, members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church (72% of the population) actually observe Christmas Eve on December 24. This is despite the fact that December 25 is honored worldwide as the birthday of Jesus which is debated.

    Christmas Tree in Denmark

    It was in the fifteenth century that German towns like Bern, Freiburg, and Strasbourg began publishing tales about Christmas trees, which is where the tradition began. Some researchers have speculated that the Christmas tree may have originated from holy trees in the pre-Christian era, such as the World Tree; however, this is debatable. A “paradise tree” was a theatrical prop in Germany long before the current Christmas tree came into popularity there. Shortly after its introduction in 1808 on Holsteinborg Estate in western Germany, the Christmas tree quickly became a cultural icon throughout the Western Hemisphere.

    The Germans brought the Christmas tree to Denmark in the 1600s, but it wasn’t until the 1800s that it really took off in the country. The Star of Bethlehem is represented by the star atop the tree in Denmark. This Jewish tradition didn’t catch on until the 20th century. Stars were strung from the branches, and an angel, candle, or spire stood in place of the traditional treetop ornament.

    Danish and Norwegian citizens are encouraged to display their national flags atop their Christmas trees as well. The fullness of Christmas is symbolized by braided hearts and peddled goods.

    Santa Claus in Danish Christmas

    Yule Goat or Scandanavian decorative Christmas straw goat.
    Yule Goat or Scandanavian decorative Christmas straw goat.

    The belief in elves—house gods similar to the Roman lares or guardian deities in ancient Roman religion—is the source of the Danish Santa Claus or Julenissen myth, which dates back to the 1800s. The Danish concept of Julenissen has its origins in the belief in supernatural beings, such as giants or giantesses, which emerged during the Romantic era of the 1800s.

    The Nordic countries never associated St. Nicholas with giving gifts since the practice originated in southern and central Europe. Nordic Christmas customs are based on his entwinement with many characters from local legend. The Yule Goat and Santa Claus are two such examples. The idea of Christmas presents (‘jólagjafir’) is mentioned in Norse literature as early as the end of the Viking Age, casting doubt on the common belief that the custom of distributing gifts at Christmas primarily originated with St. Nicholas.

    Several of Santa Claus’s characteristics are said to have originated from Odin, the deity of midwinter and Christmas. All the hallmarks of the original Santa Claus, such as the hood, long white beard, and robe, are here. Also, the nighttime sleigh ride that Santa takes (which was initially on a horse but is now pulled by reindeer brought over from the United States) is a direct reflection of Odin’s sleipnir, the steed he used to soar over the sky.

    Both of Odin’s names—Jólnir and Jauloherra—mean “Lord of Yule,” suggesting a link between the deity and the holiday season. One of Santa Claus’s earlier titles, Father Christmas, may have been derived from another of Odin’s names associated with Christmas, Jólfaðr.

    The Course of Christmas in Denmark

    Christmas in Copenhagen.
    Christmas in Copenhagen. (Tulumnes, cc by sa 4.0)

    Some of the customs that are part of Christmas in Denmark include nativity scenes, mistletoe, the Christmas tree, exchanging gifts, telling the tale of Santa Claus, hanging gnomes that crawl about, and sending greeting cards that say “glædelig jul og godt nytår” or “Merry Christmas and Happy New Year.”

    Christmas Month

    Opening advent calendars, lighting calendar lights, watching TV advent calendars, going to Christmas parties, baking cookies, making candy, making braided hearts, peddlers, and other ornaments, and decorating with crawling gnomes are all things that happen in December in Denmark.

    Little Christmas Eve (December 23)

    This day encompasses adorning the Christmas tree, partaking in roast duck as a customary Christmas Eve meal, and preparing and consuming rice pudding, with any surplus utilized in the creation of risalamande for the Christmas Eve celebration. Another tradition involves singing at the door, and engaging in the playing of pack games adds to the array of customary practices.

    Christmas Eve (December 24)

    In Denmark, the celebration of Christmas Eve involves several traditions:

    • 1. Enjoy a feast consisting of roast duck, turkey, goose, or roast pork, accompanied by cabbage dolmers, possibly combined with medister sausage and/or red cabbage/kale, and browned potatoes.
    • 2. For dessert, indulge in either risalamande with hot cherry sauce or rice pudding with cinnamon. Rice pudding can be savored both as a starter and as a dessert. During this, present an almond gift to the fortunate discoverer of the almond.
    • 3. Engage in a festive dance around an adorned Christmas tree while singing Christmas hymns and carols.
    • 4. Distribute gifts that have been placed beneath the Christmas tree.

    Christmas Day (25 December)

    Many people throughout the globe celebrate Christmas on this same day, so, the Danes are not different.

    Second Christmas Day (26 December)

    Saint Stephen’s Day, which is also called the second Christmas Day, is a common day for “Christmas parties” in Denmark. Boxing Day is the English name for this day.

    Third Christmas Day (27 December)

    The Third Christmas Day, an ancient Danish holiday, was eliminated by the Holiday Reform of 1770. Prior to 1770, the celebration took place on December 27 and was initially observed as a Catholic saint’s day known as “The Feast of St. John the Evangelist.” This saint’s day commemorated the Apostle John, who, as per tradition, passed away on this particular day. In 1770, the Third Christmas Day was discontinued as a public holiday.

    Fourth Christmas Day (28 December)

    December 28 was commemorated in Norse times as “Children’s Day” or “Innocent Children’s Day” in remembrance of the infanticide that occurred in Bethlehem. The kids would eat well, play with one another, and tease the grownups on that particular day. This day is still celebrated by certain religious families in Denmark.

    Christmas Tree Party

    On the days before Christmas or during the week spanning Christmas and New Year’s, several places of employment, community centers, local and sports clubs, etc. host Christmas tree celebrations. On a regular basis, there are Santa Claus visits, gift bag distribution, Christmas tree dancing, and a variety of singing games in Denmark.

    Places to Visit in Denmark at Christmas

    Among the most delightful destinations in Denmark during the holiday season are:

    • Copenhagen: Visit the capital city of Denmark, Copenhagen, to see the Tivoli Gardens in the winter, Christmas markets, and historic mansions. Festive decorations, markets, and festivities make the city a place to spend Christmas.
    • Aarhus: The open-air museum Den Gamle By in Aarhus is lovely around Christmastime, and the city is known for its eateries.
    • Aalborg: The Christmas markets and ambiance of Aalborg make it a destination during the holiday season.
    • Odense: Visit Odense, the birthplace of Hans Christian Andersen, to partake in its Christmas markets and see its rooted customs.
    • Ribe: Another city where Christmas tradition is alive and well is Ribe which surprisingly only has a population of 8,400.

    The Danish Christmas Foods

    “Christmas lunch” is called Julefrokost in Denmark (more specifically, “Christmas meal that lasts an entire day.”) Many tasty dishes are staples of the Danish Christmas feast and a big part of the holiday spirit. A few of the most beloved Danish holiday delicacies are:

    1. Flaeskesteg: A traditional highlight of the Danish Christmas feast is flaeskesteg, which is a roast pig with crispy crackling.
    2. Andesteg: Roast duck is another typical Christmas main course and it’s named andesteg.
    3. Risengrød: It is a traditional Swedish and Danish dessert or holiday meal item that is basically a heated rice pudding.
    4. Æbleskiver: Danish Christmas treats sometimes include Æbleskiver, which are round pancakes topped with powdered sugar.
    5. Klejner: They are a classic Danish Christmas delicacy made of fried dough twists.
    6. Pebernødder: They are little spiced biscuits that are beloved throughout Danish Christmas.
    7. Gløgg: It is a classic Danish holiday drink, a warm spiced wine that is accompanied with raisins and almonds.
    8. Brunede Kartofler or Caramelized Potatoes: They are a traditional Christmas side dish that combines caramelized sugar with potatoes.
    9. Pickled Red Cabbage: It is a common accompaniment to Christmas dinners in Denmark.
    10. Risalamande: On Christmas Eve, many people eat risalamande, a dessert of rice pudding with cherry sauce.

    Traditional Christmas Decorations

    Kalenderlys. It is a massive candle with the numbers 1–24 displayed on it.
    Kalenderlys. It is a massive candle with the numbers 1–24 displayed on it.

    Kalenderlys

    The Danes like to keep things simple this holiday season by using one of their favorite household items: candles or kalenderlys. It is a massive candle with the numbers 1–24 displayed on it. The Danes move the candle to the next location daily.

    Julehjerter and Julestjerner

    The Danes enjoy making the traditional Danish Christmas decorations, Julehjerter (Christmas Hearts) and Julestjerner (Christmas Stars). Their construction involves folding paper, and they are designed to be strung up.

    Hyacinths, Amaryllis, and Advent Wreath

    Bulb plants such as hyacinths and amaryllis are also common Danish decorations for homes and parties. Additionally, the majority of households also have an Advent wreath. Each of the four Sundays before Christmas Eve is marked by the lighting of one of the four candles that make up this tradition.

    Julefrokost, the Scandinavian Christmas Feast

    The good news is that it’s usually simpler than you’d imagine to set the table for Christmas when you’re literally going to be eating all day, like Julefrokost. Beautiful candle-focused centerpieces, along with table runners and delicate linens, are commonplace on Danish Christmas tables, also known as Julefrokost.