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Spanish Civil War: The bloodiest war in western Europe since World War I in 1918
The Spanish Civil War lasted from July 17, 1936, through April 1, 1939, and pitted the Spanish government against a nationalist rebellion commanded by General Francisco Franco. Spain was in the midst of severe social, economic, and political instability after a period of dictatorship and the subsequent formation of the Second Republic. The military, supported by monarchists and the extreme right, reacted violently after the Popular Front won elections in Spain in February 1936. The left-wing administration was so set on being toppled that they launched a coup d’état in July 1936, but they were unsuccessful.
In response to the fascist danger, the socialist and communist-led republican movement strengthened its own military forces. It was the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, which pitted nationalists against republicans. Talks between the two parties continued. General Franco led the nationalists to victory, and with the help of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, they successfully crushed the Republican resistance. In a nutshell, the nationalists triumphed in the civil war in 1939, resulting in the rise to power of the Franco dictatorship.
What were the causes of the Spanish Civil War?
After the Republicans swept the elections on 12 April 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was officially declared on 14 April. King Alfonso XIII of Spain left the country.
General Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup in Valencia in 1923. He led Spain, which was ruled by a dictatorship at the time, for seven years. When the Great Depression hit in 1929, it sent Spain into a period of economic and social unrest. Primo de Rivera’s backing dwindled over time. As King of Spain, Alfonso XIII deposed him in 1930. While the monarch made an effort to institute constitutional rule, widespread opposition to the monarchy persisted.
There was a formal proclamation of the end of the monarchy and the beginning of the Second Republic by socialists and republicans in April 1931. Anarchist and radical currents’ anger sparked the “bienio negro,” a period of political instability. The fear of a communist takeover on the right and a fascist takeover on the left drove a wedge between the two sides of the nation.
General Emilio Mola was the chief planner of the coup.
After elections in February 1936, the left-leaning “Frente Popular” (Spanish Popular Front) took control. Toppling this new administration was a concerted effort by generals such as Mola, Sanjurjo, Goded, and Franco. They began their uprising on July 17 and 18 and made their way to Madrid. In an effort to quell public support for the military, the administration has distributed weapons to the populace. Militias were formed by both the left and the right in Spain. A little over a third of the populace backed the nationalists, hence the coup d’état was a failure. Meanwhile, the Spanish social revolution saw armed workers capture enterprises and collectivize land.
How did the Spanish Civil War unfold?
Portrait of Francisco Franco
When the Popular Front came to power, the armed forces plotted a pronunciamiento (military revolt) to remove them from office. According to their plan, the military attempted to seize power on July 17, 1936. However, the coup d’état failed because it had little popular backing. Furthermore, workers’ militias equipped with weapons fought the military and even began a social revolution.
Both the nationalists and the republicans, who had armies of almost 500,000 men at the outset of the battle in July 1936, were split into two camps. However, the balance of power was in favor of the nationalists.
General Francisco Franco’s nationalist camp included traditionalists, monarchists, and fascists like the Spanish Falange. Italy’s fascist government and Germany’s Nazi Party both backed the nationalist army. It was well-trained and commanded by seasoned commanders.
There were atheists, socialists, communists, and anarchists all in the Republican camp. After the militias formed, the Spanish army became chaotic. During the month of October, the Popular Army of the Spanish Republic was formed. The Soviet Union and the International Brigades backed the movement. Nonetheless, it lacked the nationalist army’s superior training and hardware.
The Spanish War started when Franco’s army joined Mola’s on the other side of the Strait of Gibraltar. Battles were fought on both sides from a position of strength and from an offensive standpoint. While the nationalists made significant progress in other areas, they were unable to seize Madrid from the Republicans in November 1936. Later, beginning in 1939, Franco’s army methodically eradicated all traces of resistance until the region was completely under their control.
On both sides of the conflict, lives were lost and atrocities were committed. Leftist sympathizers and militants were targeted and killed in the nationalist zone. Union militias repressed right-wing politicians, priests, and even rich families in Republican-controlled regions. Killings in both camps reached the tens of thousands.
The Siege of Madrid
Nationalist soldiers raiding a suburb of Madrid during the Spanish Civil War.
Between November 8 and November 24, 1936, the province and city of Madrid were the site of a series of conflicts known collectively as the Siege of Madrid. On November 8, 20,000 nationalists led by Emilio Mola launched several attacks on the Spanish capital but were driven back by Republican forces. In the days that followed, the Republicans attempted counterattacks, but to no avail.
When it came to advancing their cause on November 19, the nationalists were stopped short of the university area. Afterward, Franco chose to attack the Spanish capital. With both sides exhausted, the front stabilized. After that, the nationalists shifted their focus to other areas, namely the country’s northern regions. The Nationalists did not successfully seize the city until March 28th, 1939.
What role did women play during the Spanish Civil War?
Children take refuge during the Francoist bombing over Madrid (1936–1937).
There was a large influx of female Republicans. People of color were often given the right to bear arms and serve as frontline soldiers in most militias. Women participated as nurses and in the back-end logistics of the movement. The republicans solicited female volunteers around Europe, with the stipulation that they had certain skills. Consequently, multinational brigades gained the services of foreign nurses. Spouses of the volunteers who went to Spain were many.
What were the foreign interventions in the Spanish Civil War?
Polish volunteers in the International Brigades
Nazi Germany sent the Condor Legion (17,000 troops), and Fascist Italy sent the Volunteer Troops Corps (10,000 men) to aid the nationalists (75,000 men) during the Spanish Civil War. One legion was also dispatched from Portugal to fight with the Spanish fascists in the Spanish Civil War. In an effort to counter fascism, the Soviet Union provided aid to the Republican cause. The Soviet Union supplied both military hardware and expert advice.
The International Brigades also fought with the Republicans. Protesters included anti-fascists, socialists, communists, and Marxists from all around the world (France, Italy, Germany, the United States, Poland, etc.). It was legally forbidden to supply arms to Spain, and France and the United Kingdom adopted a policy of non-intervention. The two nations did, however, covertly provide the Republicans with weapons.
Which personalities took part in the Spanish Civil War?
André Malraux was one famous figure who fought for the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War. André Malraux led the Espana Squadron from 1936 until 1937. A fellow American author and staunch Republican, Ernest Hemingway, was someone he crossed paths with about this time. For Whom the Bell Tolls is Hemingway’s classic book set during the Spanish Civil War (1940).
In 1936, the British author George Orwell landed in Spain, where he joined the POUM (Marxist Unification Workers’ Party) militia and participated in the Spanish Civil War. After being injured in battle in 1937, he went to England, where he penned homage to Catalonia, which was released the following year.
Who won the Spanish Civil War?
Ruins of Guernica
Nationalist forces, commanded by Francisco Franco, ultimately triumphed in the Spanish Civil War. The Nationalists put down pockets of Republican opposition in Spain’s north and east after failing to capture Madrid in 1936. Catalonia fell under Nationalist rule in the first months of 1939. As March came to a close, Franco’s forces were able to capture Madrid. Franco declared Nationalist victory on April 1 and installed a dictatorship that would rule Spain until 1976.
What were the results of this war?
Together, military and civilian deaths during the Spanish War totaled close to half a million. Roughly 110,000 Republicans and 80,000 Nationalists lost their lives throughout the conflict. The civil war also threw many refugees and exiles onto the roads. The populations of France, the United Kingdom, Mexico, and the Soviet Union swelled by around 300,000. After the fall of Barcelona in 1939, Catalan republicans flooded into France seeking refuge. The term for this mass migration is “la Retirada” (Spanish for “The Retreat”).
How to analyze Guernica, the work of Pablo Picasso
One of Picasso’s best-known paintings, “Guernica” depicts the destruction wrought by the Spanish Civil War in 1937. On April 26, 1937, the German air force bombed the city of Guernica, and this picture depicts that event. Picasso’s cubist depiction of a horse, a bull, a dead soldier, and bombing victims is influenced by Goya’s Tres de Mayo, Poussin’s Massacre of the Innocents, and Saint Sever’s Apocalypse. Picasso condemns Nazism and declares his aversion to war with this depiction of carnage and suffering.
KEY DATES OF THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
April 12, 1931 – Triumph of the Spanish Republicans in the municipal elections
After 8 years of tyranny, Spain conducted its first democratically organized municipal elections on April 12, 1931. Republican candidates fared very well in the elections, and the monarchy of King Alfonso XIII was toppled as a consequence. The monarch abdicated two days after the elections. It was at this point that the Second Spanish Republic was established. After this point of disarray, the Civil War broke out.
April 14, 1931 – Proclamation of the Spanish Republic
Largely because to their success in the April 12 regional elections, Republican candidates declared a new republic. In an abdication marked by military honors, King Alfonso XIII of Spain stepped down from his throne. So as to protect his family, he decided to take them into exile in France. When the left won the elections in June, a democratic constitution would be put into effect.
April 14, 1931 – Proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic
It was on April 14, 1931, after Republican candidates performed well in local elections, that Spain’s Second Republic was established. As the Spanish provisional government was being formed, the king departed Madrid. Following his election as president, Niceto Alcalá-Zamora immediately instituted an agricultural reform. Spain’s Second Republic was eventually toppled by the civil war and Franco’s dictatorship.
October 29, 1933 – Birth of the Spanish Falange
José Antonio Primo de Rivera, the son of Falange founder Miguel Primo de Rivera, established the group. This fascist group supported establishing a nationalist government. It supported General Franco during the Spanish Civil War. In 1936, its creator was put to death. Soon after, Franco would bring together all the factions that backed him in government, and the Falange would be one of them.
December 29, 1934 – Lorca directed Yerma
Federico Garca Lorca, a poet and playwright from Spain, wrote a play named Yerma. In it, a young peasant lady tries to have a kid against her husband’s strong opposition. Part of a trilogy that also includes Blood Wedding (1933) and The House of Bernarda Alba (1936), this novel was written in 1934. Margarita Xirgu, Enrique Diosdado, Ricardo Merino, Pilar Munoz, Carmen Collado, Pedro López Lagar, and Eloisa Vigo were the actors he enlisted for the play.
February 16, 1936 – The Popular Front wins the elections in Spain
In Spain’s most recent election, the left-leaning “El Frente Popular” alliance defeated the right-leaning National Front and the centrist Popular Party. The new administration was formed under the Republican leadership of Manuel Azana, who exiled General Franco to the Canary Islands. Soon, Spain would descend into civil war as Republicans and Nationalists clashed.
July 13, 1936 – Calvo Sotelo is assassinated
Jose Calvo Sotelo, a representative for the monarchist party, was murdered by Republican police in Madrid. This tragedy was the catalyst for what had been a conspiracy under Generals Sanjurjo and Mola for some time. The legitimate administration had justifiably been wary of these military officers and had expelled them.
Exiled leaders Sanjurjo (in Portugal), Mola (in Pamplona), and Franco (in the Canary Islands) all lived in separate political isolation. The monarchist’s killing also had a role in Franco’s decision to join the insurrection. From that point on, the three generals worked together in an effort to topple the Republican government. War broke out among the people soon after the putsch failed.
July 18, 1936 – Spanish Civil War begins
To overthrow the Popular Front (left) government, the Melilla garrison troops rose up under the command of former army chief of staff General Francisco Franco Bahamonde. A rebellion inside the Spanish military, backed by Generals Mola and Sanjurjo, led to the countrywide outbreak of Civil War. After three years of destruction, the Republicans were defeated, and Franco’s Caudillo dictatorship was established and maintained for the next 36 years.
August 1, 1936 – Leon Blum submits a pact of non-intervention in the Spanish War
French Prime Minister Leon Blum decided to back the Spanish Republicans when war broke out in Spain. However, conservatives, ultraconservatives, and French radicals all opposed military involvement. Also, France’s biggest ally, the United Kingdom, desired to spare Hitler, who backed the nationalists in Spain, and did not want to back the Spanish communists. For his part, Léon Blum advocated a non-intervention agreement, whereby the nations involved would all agree to withhold supplies from Spain.
August 14, 1936 – Franco’s troops seize Badajoz
A few thousand captives were killed during the invasion of Badajoz by Franco’s Nationalist army. The nationalist troops from the south and the north were able to join together in a blockade and bolster their strength thanks to the military’s assistance. The capture of Madrid was the general’s first priority in his quest to topple the Popular Front administration in Spain. However, the initiative was to collide with the Republican-led Nationalist siege of the Alcázar of Toledo.
August 19, 1936 – García Lorca was shot
The poet and playwright Federico Garca Lorca was an early anti-fascist who sided with the Republicans during the Spanish Civil War. He moved away from Madrid to Granada to be near his friend Luis Rosales. The Nationalists, aware of the poet’s political views, detained him on August 16, 1936. Federico Garca Lorca was killed on August 19 in the Andalusian community of Alfacar.
September 27, 1936 – End of the siege of the Alcázar in Toledo
Nationalists of Toledo had been holding out in the Alcázar against armed Republican soldiers since July 22. Though General Franco was mulling an attack in Madrid, he instead opted to lead his troops to Toledo to aid the trapped rebels there. After two months of fighting, most of the stronghold was destroyed, and the Republicans opted to join Madrid to bolster its defenses. The nationalist rebels, for their part, were freed from their entrenchment. With this triumph under his belt, Franco would undoubtedly move closer to gaining Italy and Germany’s formal recognition.
October 1, 1936 – Franco proclaims himself Caudillo
In Burgos, General Franco, leader of the Spanish nationalist insurgents, was named “generalissimo” and ruler of state. In honor of the medieval Spanish knights who drove the Arabs out of Spain (Reconquista), he decided to go by the name Caudillo. Three years later, in 1939, Franco emerged victorious from Spain’s terrible Civil War against the Republican government. From 1975 until his death, he would control Spain with an iron fist.
November 6, 1936 – The legal Spanish government fled to Valencia
The administration of Madrid fled to Valencia when Largo Caballero was in control. Despite General Miaja’s best efforts, Franco’s army was able to launch an onslaught towards the city. The Republican organization and the intervention of the International Brigades were, however, delayed because of the siege of the Alcázar of Toledo. This meant the nationalist military invasion did not instantly succeed. Madrid finally capitulated after 28 months of struggle.
November 20, 1936 – Death of José Primo de Rivera
Primo de Rivera, the leader of the fascist Spanish Falange organization, was put to death by the country’s democratically elected government in 1933. Miguel Primo de Rivera, the ruler of Spain from 1923 to 1930, was his father. As soon as the Popular Front took power, they outlawed his group. Participating in the nationalist uprising of July, Rivera was arrested on the sixth day of the uprising. He was summarily tried and then shot, and was elevated to the rank of martyr by Franco’s regime.
March 18, 1937 – The Italians were pushed back by the International Brigades in Spain
At the outset of the Spanish Civil War, the International Brigades fought with the Republicans and were instrumental in defeating the Italian fascist troops who had joined themselves with Franco. The latter tried to take Guadalajara in order to divide the Republican territory.
Franco had been attempting to destabilize the capital city by seizing the territory surrounding Madrid for months. Republican forces had enough self-assurance after the Nationalists’ setback at Guadalajara to seize Teruel at the beginning of the next year. Human casualties, though, were and would continue to be significant on all sides.
April 19, 1937 – Franco unites the nationalist political parties
In 1937, the anti-republican movement included a wide range of perspectives and ideologies, including the Phalange, monarchists, Carlists, CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights), etc. The “Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista” (FET y de las JONS a.k.a FET-JONS) was a political party founded by Francisco Franco to consolidate his control. The other political parties were dissolved. He subsequently established a fascist-style regime. In 1977, there was no longer a single party.
April 26, 1937 – Bombing of Guernica
More than 1,600 people were killed when the German air force bombarded the Spanish Basque town of Guernica for three hours during a market day. Hitler sided with General Franco during the Spanish Civil War and supported Franco’s plan to intimidate civilians. Later that year, Picasso created his most powerful piece on the subject of Guernica.
1937 – Picasso creates Guernica, a painting that expresses his revolt against the war
On April 26, 1937, Spanish painter Pablo Picasso, while residing in Paris, heard about the bombing of Guernica, a Basque village. Picasso, outraged by this act of violence, spent the period between May 1 and June 4 painting a work depicting the tragedy of the attack. One of Picasso’s most iconic works would soon be this cubist masterpiece. It was not shown in Spain until 1981, long after Franco had died and the Museum of Modern Art in New York had taken possession of it.
May 1937 – New Spanish Republican Government
Juan Negrín, a socialist, succeeded Largo Caballero, a Republican, as president. To keep the Spanish Civil War under control, a campaign of counterattack against the nationalist revolutionaries was implemented. Both Phalangists and Trotskyists (POUM) were put to death by the government, with the help of the communists. The new administration would meet in Barcelona, but it would likely be hampered by internal disagreements.
June 19, 1937 – Bilbao fell to Franco’s forces
Franco’s army, led by General Mola, had been advancing into northern Spain since March. Following their transit through the Basque Country, where the horrific bombing of Guernica took occurred, the nationalists eventually made it to the city of Bilbao (Basque Country, northern Spain). It didn’t take long for them to seize control. Franco eventually came to conquer Santander and Asturias.
January 9, 1938 – Republican offensive on Teruel, Spain
When the Nationalists advanced into northern Spain, the Republican army counterattacked with a victorious operation against the city of Teruel. Since 1936, Republicans and Nationalists (Franco) had been engaged in bloody combat in Spain’s Civil War. In the end, the legitimate (Republican) administration was left disappointed. When the city was bombarded by the Francoists on February 22, the forces were compelled to evacuate, resulting in heavy casualties.
April 15, 1938 – The Republican territory was divided by Franco’s troops
Franco’s armies reached the coast of what was now the Mediterranean Sea, effectively cutting off Valencia and the rest of Catalonia from the rest of Castile. Hence, Franco’s disastrous onslaught against Barcelona was able to commence. Catalonia was invaded on January 26, 1939, and its capital city surrendered despite fierce Republican fighting along the Ebro River. Finally, on March 28, 1939, Franco’s forces were victorious, ending the Spanish Civil War and establishing their dictatorship.
January 26, 1939 – Barcelona falls to Franco’s forces
The capital of Catalonia was taken by nationalist forces led by General Yagüe and Solchaga. The Republicans took refuge in France, where they were met by a flood of over half a million supporters. Rapid decline was coming to both Madrid and Valencia. By April, the Spanish Civil War would be over.
February 27, 1939 – France recognized the Franco regime
General Franco’s Spanish government, founded in Burgos, was acknowledged by the Chamber of Deputies after hearing Léon Bérard’s report as “chargé de mission” to the Spanish nationalists. The civil war was not yet over. They made Marshal Pétain the French envoy to the Franco regime.
March 5, 1939 – The Republican government of Negrín is overthrown
In Madrid, General Miaja led a junta that ousted the republicans and fought against the communists. The latter had previously been part of the resistance led by Negrín. The newly installed administration saw the need to put an end to the resistance and prioritized talks with Franco over the capitulation of the Spanish capital. As of March 28th, Madrid was peacefully invaded.
March 28, 1939 – Republican surrender in Madrid
The Spanish capital was invaded by General Franco’s First Nationalist Army. The military took over the government offices at lunchtime. Republicans, being on the losing side, either gave up or ran. When Madrid finally fell, the Republican and Nationalist forces in Spain’s Civil War, which had been going on since 1936, were finally defeated. From 1964 to 1976, Francisco Franco Bahamonde, better known as “Franco,” ruled as a dictator.
Bibliography:
1. Cox, Geoffrey (1937). The Defence of Madrid. London: Victor Gollancz. OCLC 4059942.
2. Dawson, Ashley (2013). The Routledge Concise History of Twentieth-century British Literature. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415572453.
3. Rust, William (2003) [1939]. Britons in Spain: A History of the British Battalion of the XV International Brigade (reprint). Pontypool, Wales: Warren & Pell.
4. Seidman, Michael (2017). Transatlantic antifascisms : from the Spanish Civil War to the end of World War II. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1108417785.
5. Werstein, Irving (1969). The Cruel Years: The Story of the Spanish Civil War. New York: Julian Messner.
6. Thomas, Hugh (2001) [1961, 1987 (Penguin)]. The Spanish Civil War. London: Modern Library. ISBN 0141011610.
November 11, 2022
Battle of Tours: End of the Arab Invasion of Europe
Historians disagree on the exact date, but October 25th, 732 seems to be when the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) occurred. During this period, the Umayyad caliphate of Muslims controlled almost all of Spain. They made repeated inroads into Gaul and even occupied the southeast of the region. The Duke of Aquitaine, Eudes (Odo the Great), faced another invasion in 732 and enlisted the help of the Franks under Charles Martel to repel it.
Since the Franks and Aquitaine celebrated their victory against the Muslims headed by Abd al-Rahman, who was killed in the engagement, the decisive combat has been commemorated in history as the “Battle of Tours,” even though the precise site of the fighting is unknown. While warfare persisted for several more years, this incident came to symbolize the end of the Arab invasion of France. It will have been worthwhile since it increased Charles Martel’s influence and helped bring about the Carolingian victory over the Merovingians.
Why did the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) take place?
The Umayyad Caliphate maintained its massive growth in the early eighth century, expanding its control over most of North Africa and the eastern section of the Arabian Peninsula. In addition to controlling modern-day Portugal and Spain on the Iberian Peninsula, the caliphate also overran southern Europe with the help of a formidable cavalry of Berbers who had just converted to Islam. Located in the southeast of France, the Visigoths conquered the city of Narbonne and eventually became firmly rooted inside the Visigothic Kingdom in Septimania.
They often made raids over the Pyrenees, known as razzias, to steal valuables. In 719, the caliphate started paying attention to the Frankish realm. In 721, during one of his expeditions, he was soundly defeated by Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine (Odo the Great), and his forces in Toulouse.
But in 732, Abd al-Rahman led a new raid and ravaged Aquitaine. Duke of the Franks and mayor of the palace is a designation more often associated with a monarch than a mayor; thus, Eudes had to summon Charles Martel. Thus, Charles Martel and Eudes (Odo the Great), Duke of Aquitaine, will work together to repel the Islamic invasion.
What is the correct place and date of the Battle of Tours?
Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours, depicted in the Grandes Chroniques de France
There is considerable agreement among historians that 732 was the year of the Battle of Poitiers; however, others say it occurred in 733. As for when exactly, it is still very speculative. This is unquestionably the 25th of October, 732, a Saturday. Arab reports, which are now considered the most credible, place the fight on the first Saturday of Ramadan (114 of the Hegira) or October 25. Historians are also sharply split about the precise location of the battle.
Rather than mentioning the Battle of Poitiers, the Anglo-Saxon chroniclers of the period refer to the Battle of Tours. A reasonable assumption, given the apparent destination of Abd al-Rahman: Rahman’s sanctuary in Saint-Martin in Tours. Another theory places the conflict in the little town of Moussais-la-Bataille, inside the commune of Vouneuil-sur-Vienne, about 25 kilometers from Poitiers.
Who were the main protagonists of the Battle of Tours in 732?
In the Umayyad Caliphate’s army, Abd al-Rahman held the rank of general. In 721, he participated in the Battle of Toulouse. Hisham, the Caliph, named him wali (governor) of Al-Andalus in 730. Thus, he was in command of the whole Iberian peninsula that the Muslims had conquered during the preceding decades. Charles Martel, for his part, held the titles of duke of the Franks and mayor of the palace. During that ancient period, there was no such thing as France. Charles Martel ruled over what was still a divided Francia.
He set out to expand his domain, particularly to the east. The Burgundians were also governed by Charles Martel. On the other side, Eudes reigned over the huge duchy of Aquitaine, which covered a sizable portion of present-day southern France. Eudes of Aquitaine, like Charles Martel, was an ambitious man, and in 719 their forces fought one another. Eudes, defeated, made a peace deal with the Franks and thereafter had to endure constant invasions from the south by the Arabs. An event that would lead him to form an alliance with Charles Martel in 732 for the Battle of Tours.
How did the Battle of Tours in 732 take place?
Charles Martel and Eudes mustered around 20,000 troops between them. Abd al-Rahman amassed a crowd of 25,000. Abd al-Rahman, true to the strategies that permitted Muslims to take over such a large area, sent out his powerful cavalry, which consisted mostly of Berber fighters. However, the other side employs an entirely different tactic.
The bulk of the Frankish army is made up of foot men. Strongly armed and nearly entirely armored in steel, they are formidable foes. They formed a tight line to fend off the terrifying attack, as wave after wave of enemy riders were impaled on the impregnable barrier. A actual “rampart of ice” would be mentioned in the future by Arab historians.
Who won the Battle of Tours in 732?
After a week of fighting, it seems that Eudes’s forces were successful in attacking the Muslims from behind, forcing them to retreat in order to save not only their loot but also the families who had joined them on the raids. There was a retreat by the Arabs toward Narbonne. As Abd al-Rahman was slain in the battle, the victory was decisive. The Arabs lost a total of 12,000 troops in the battle, while their opponents lost just 1,000.
What were the effects of the Battle of Tours in 732?
The outcome of the Battle of Tours was pivotal for the development of the French monarchy. The big political victor was Charles Martel, who aided Duke Eudes of Aquitaine. Because Aquitaine stubbornly defied him, his power was diminished. As a result, he was able to quickly seize control of Bordeaux, a rich city. In the years after his death in 735, Eudes’ sons took over as dukes of Aquitaine. But this was a pivotal moment in history, and Aquitaine eventually became a part of the Frankish empire under Charlemagne’s rule.
The second crucial point is the well-known saying, “Charles Martel defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Tours.” An asymmetrical dictum Although the extension of the Umayyad caliphate into Western Europe was halted thanks to Charles Martel’s triumph, the conflict itself persisted for decades. Bayonne, for instance, was ruled by Muslims until the year 759. Even when Charlemagne, the future ruler of Europe, arrived in the early ninth century, Europe still suffered from sporadic attacks.
Bibliography:
1. Mastnak, Tomaž (2002). Crusading Peace: Christendom, the Muslim World, and Western Political Order. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22635-6
2. Oman, Charles W. (1960). Art of War in the Middle Ages A.D. 378–1515. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9062-6
3. Poke, The Battle of Tours, from the book Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World From Marathon to Waterloo by Sir Edward Creasy, MA
4. Reagan, Geoffrey, The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles, Canopy Books, New York (1992) ISBN 1-55859-431-0
5. Collins, Roger (1989). The Arab Conquest of Spain: 710–797. Oxford, England: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-15923-0.
November 10, 2022
Battle of Hastings: Norman Victory at Hastings
November 10, 2022
War in the Vendée: The French Genocide Erased from History
November 10, 2022
Franklin’s Lost Expedition: A Chilling Arctic Tragedy
For the British, the Franklin Expedition was an opportunity to revitalize the great polar expeditions. The 19th-century challenge was to finally cross the Northwest Passage of the Arctic Ocean between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Encouraged by John Barrow, the Admiralty of the Royal Navy selected John Franklin, an officer who had already distinguished himself in many Arctic expeditions, as commander.
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However, the expedition, which set sail on May 19, 1845, got stuck in the ice near King William Island. Between 1846 and 1848, all 129 crew members died of cold, disease, or starvation.
Throughout the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, numerous scientific studies and investigations have been carried out to understand the causes of the disaster. The Franklin expedition has become a legend.
Who Was Behind the Franklin Expedition?
Sir John Franklin and his crew, illustrated for the London News, circa 1845.
In the first half of the 19th century, the Royal Navy represented the dominance of British power over the world’s oceans. The expeditions led by the Admiralty were among the events that kept Europe, Canada, and the United States on their toes. Since the early 19th century, the greatest challenge has been to finally cross the Northwest Passage of the Arctic Ocean between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, the area between Davis Strait and Baffin Bay in the east, and the Beaufort Sea in the west. This region connects Hudson Bay in the southeast and the Arctic Ocean in the northwest.
The impetus for the Northwest Expedition in 1845 came from John Barrow. Second Secretary of the Admiralty since 1804 and an explorer himself, Barrow was an experienced man who had supported many expeditions, including those of William Edward Parry (1821), John Ross (1829), and James Clark Ross (1839). At the age of 82, it was he who persuaded the Royal Navy to undertake an expedition to the northern Canadian Archipelago.
Portrait of John Franklin
John Franklin was not immediately chosen to lead the expedition. This was because the explorer was 59 years old. However, Barrow’s first choice, William Edward Parry, declined the offer, as did James Clark Ross. At 35, James Fitzjames was considered too young but would still be part of the expedition. George Back was approached for some time but no action was taken.
Francis Crozier, who had participated in six polar expeditions, was ostracized because of his Irish roots but still joined the expedition and was appointed as his assistant. Finally, at the insistence of William Edward Parry, John Franklin, a well-known officer who had participated in many expeditions and battles, including the Battle of Trafalgar, was contacted. This time, Franklin said yes and promised his wife that it would be his last voyage.
Why Was the Franklin Expedition Launched?
The dire circumstances of the Franklin expedition are detailed in a note buried in a cairn on King William Island.
The end of the Napoleonic Wars allowed British naval officers to devote themselves to the conquest of unexplored northern territories. During this period of peace, exploration was a way to showcase the human and material prowess of the great Western powers.
The British Admiralty saw polar exploration as an opportunity to make a name for itself, following the extraordinary discoveries made in this region in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries by famous navigators such as Frobisher, Davis, Hudson, Baffin, Knight, Middleton, Hearne, Cook, Mackenzie, and Vancouver. Moreover, from the beginning of the 19th century, a major challenge emerged: after several failed attempts, doubts began to arise about the existence of a navigable passage in the temperate latitudes north of the Canadian archipelago.
The exhibition includes artifacts from Franklin and images of the mummified remains of the crew. Source: Yereth Rosen.
Many explorers crossed the icy waters of the Great North, but to no avail. Giovanni Caboto (1450–1498), also known as John Cabot, died there. Martin Frobisher (1535–1594) failed. So did Henry Hudson (1565–1611) and Captain James Cook (1728–1779). More recently, Admiral William Edward Parry (1790–1855) tried his luck between 1821 and 1823.
Rear Admiral John Ross’s (1877–1956) expedition between 1829 and 1833 led to the discovery of the Magnetic Pole and showed that survival in the Far North was possible. Finally, officer James Clark Ross (1800–1862) visited the North Pole several times. None of them managed to cross the famous Northwest Passage.
Who Was John Franklin: The Commander of the Expedition
Four graves at Camp Franklin near the harbor on Beechey Island in Nunavut, Canada. Image: Wikimedia.
John Franklin was a British naval officer, explorer, governor, and writer. He was born on April 16, 1786, in Spilsby and died on King William Island on June 11, 1847. He was only 14 years old when he first joined the Royal Navy. Many of his expeditions remain famous, as do the naval battles in which he participated, such as Copenhagen (1801). In 1805, he served under Vice Admiral Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar, where Napoleon Bonaparte‘s attempt to conquer the United Kingdom failed.
In 1818, as a lieutenant, he joined the David Buchan expedition in an attempt to find an ice-free sea at the North Pole. The following year, he was appointed a midshipman on the Coppermine expedition to explore the northern coast of Canada. He returned to the Arctic in 1829, this time to explore the shores of the Beaufort Sea.
In 1823, he married the poet Eleanor Anne Porden, with whom he had a daughter in 1825. In 1828, he married Jane Griffin, a great traveler and Tasmanian pioneer.
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John Franklin was knighted by King George V (1829), then awarded the Royal Order of the Guelphs by King William IV (1836). Finally, he was appointed governor of Tasmania on the southeast coast of Australia (1837–1843).
What Resources Were Used for the Franklin Expedition?
Sites of remains of Franklin’s Lost Expedition. Image: Wikimedia.
On May 19, 1845, at the point of departure at Greenhithe in Kent on the River Thames in England, the resources deployed to ensure the success of the expedition were enormous. The two ships, HMS Erebus (378 tons) and HMS Terror (331 tons), had proven themselves time and again in Antarctica, especially with James Clark Ross. The ships were equipped with state-of-the-art technology, such as iron plate reinforcements and auxiliary steam propulsion systems specifically designed to deal with ice. An internal steam heating system, a daguerreotype camera, three years of canned food and a library of more than 1,000 books per ship were installed on board.
The expedition’s mission also included various zoological, botanical, magnetic, and geological studies. The young, robust, and experienced crew was selected with this goal in mind. Under the command of John Franklin and his assistant, Captain Francis Rawdon Crozier, the crew consisted of 129 seamen, mostly British, including 24 officers and two glaciologists, Reid and Blanky. In 2017, unconfirmed DNA analysis showed that four women may have taken part in the expedition.
What Was the Franklin Expedition’s Route Like?
Map of possible routes followed by HMS Erebus and HMS Terror during Franklin’s lost expedition. Disko Bay is about 3,200 km from the mouth of the Mackenzie River.
By order of the Admiralty, Franklin’s route passed through the port of Stromness in Orkney in the north of Scotland. At Disko Bay on the west coast of Greenland, the ship received new equipment and fresh meat. It was here that the crew sent their last letters to their loved ones. The expedition was last seen in the Baffin Sea in August 1845, as the Erebus and Terror searched for favorable conditions to cross Lancaster Sound between Devon Island and Baffin Island. This is where the last European record of that period ended.
The rest of the voyage became a riddle that other expeditions, taking advantage of recent technological advances, would solve over the next 150 years. Franklin and his men spent the winter of 1845–1846 on Beechey Island, where three crew members were found buried. In 1846, the ships headed south to Peel Sound near King William Island, where they became stranded in the ice. According to a note left on the island by Crozier and Fitzjames dated April 25, 1848, by June 11, 1847, 24 men, including Franklin himself, were already dead. The crew left King William Island on April 26, 1848, planning to head for the Back River (present-day Nunavut, Canada) and find a way out to the Pacific.
Why the Franklin Expedition Failed?
In Franklin’s chosen passage, the ice on the west coast of King William Island would not necessarily melt in the summer, at least not that summer. Unlike the eastern shore chosen by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen (1872–1928) between 1903 and 1906, this passage was not successfully traversed.
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Stranded in the ice of the Victoria Strait (between Victoria Island and King William Island) for two winters, the crew was ill-equipped for land travel.
Cultural disagreements probably prevented Europeans from adapting to Inuit survival methods. In addition, testimonies from Inuit tribes indicate that men on the expedition starved to death; research suggests that some died of disease. In short, the crew was ill-prepared for such an expedition and had little knowledge of the sea routes.
What Were the Losses Caused by the Franklin Expedition?
The face of John Hartnell begins to emerge from the ice.
In addition to the consequences of cold and starvation, most crew members died from a combination of diseases uncovered by forensic studies from the 1980s onwards, following field investigations and excavations. Many men died of pneumonia, colds, tuberculosis, lead poisoning, and possibly scurvy. The existing drinking water system on board contained high levels of lead. The same was true for a number of lead enclosures, such as sealed lead boxes.
The face of John Hartnel.
These findings were confirmed by the autopsy of the “mummified” bodies of John Torrington, John Hartnell, and William Braine found on Beechey Island in August 1984. Their graves were preserved virtually undisturbed for 138 years in impermeable permafrost, a component of ice. John Franklin died on King William Island on June 11, 1847. Finally, some dark spots have been brought to light: a forensic examination of the bones found cut marks “consistent with butchery”, raising suspicions that the last survivors resorted to cannibalism.
What Were the Results of the Failure of the Franklin Expedition?
After two years without news of the expedition, the Admiralty ordered the first search. One team was sent overland along the Mackenzie River to its mouth on the shores of the Arctic Ocean. Two other teams were sent by sea to reach the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. However, all three failed. In 1850, 11 British ships and 2 American ships reached the shores of Beechey Island, where the first remains were discovered. These were, in particular, the graves of three sailors, John Torrington, John Hartnell, and William Braine.
Subsequent expeditions, especially those of John Rae in 1854 and James Anderson in 1855, reported Inuit testimony and found material and other human remains, especially near the mouth of the Back River and on Montreal Island in Chantrey Bay. Great Britain then declared the crew officially dead on March 31, 1854, and halted the search.
Jane Griffin, John Franklin’s wife, decided to finance a new expedition under the command of Francis Leopold McClintock, which sailed on July 2, 1857. This voyage led to the recovery of some important documents, such as this note dated April 25, 1848, showing that the two ships had been stranded in the ice since September 12, 1846.
In the 20th century, research resumed. In June 1981, the 1845–48 Franklin Expedition Forensic Anthropology Project (FEFAP) was launched, allowing modern forensics to better identify new human remains. The wreck of HMS Erebus was found south of King William Island on September 7, 2014. The wreck of HMS Terror was found off the southwest coast of King William Island on September 12, 2016. Currently jointly managed by Parks Canada and local Inuit, the wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site are closed to the public.
November 9, 2022
Tikal: The Capital of the Maya
Temples, palaces, and pyramids from the pre-Columbian metropolis of Tikal rise from the tropical forest floor. North of modern-day Guatemala is where archaeologists uncovered this vanished civilization in 1848. Tikal, a Maya city-temple complex constructed in the Petén Basin to the north of modern-day Guatemala, has been called the “Angkor Wat of the Americas.” Its construction began in the 4th century BC. It was here that the Maya’s most powerful empire ruled over the whole Yucatán peninsula in southern Mexico during its heyday, between the years 200 and 900.
As the primary political, cultural, and military unit of this pre-Columbian society, city-states were crucial to its success. However, at the fall of the Mayan kingdom in the 10th century, the city’s 100,000 residents left, and the forest eventually engulfed it. A team of explorers didn’t find the remains of Tikal until 1848, and another century passed before the remains of Tikal became the focus of serious archaeology.
Tikal is one of Guatemala’s major tourist attractions
The Great Jaguar Temple
Tikal’s main, tourist-accessible section is 6.2 square miles (16 square kilometers) in size and contains the vast majority of its interesting landmarks. The Great Plaza serves as the focal point of the design and is framed by four distinct architectural ensembles.
The Great Jaguar Temple has a pyramidal construction with a crest that soars 155 feet (47 meters) into the air on the temple’s eastern side at 9 degrees. It was constructed about the year 734 and is the last resting place of Jasaw Chan K’awiil (also known as “Ah Cacao” or “Lord Chocolate“), the 26th king of the at least 33-king Tikal dynasty.
Jasaw Chan K’awiil’s portrait on Stela 16. Image: A. Skromnitsky, CC BY-SA 3.0
Before him lies the Temple of the Masks, where his wife, Lahan Unen Mo’, was most likely interred. Other Mayan royals were buried in a jumble of ancient houses located to the north, which are connected by flights of stairs.
Several palaces opened on patios, used as honorary residences but likely used by the government, are aligned on 705 feet (215 meters) to the south, making up the central Acropolis.
Another group of 33 buildings can be seen to the south-west of the Great Plaza in Tikal; among them is a 98-foot-tall (30-meter) pyramid adorned with stucco masks depicting the Sun god of Maya. At the time of its discovery, the archaeologists were reminded of the mood of the eponymous book by Conan Doyle, the author of Sherlock Holmes, therefore, the group was dubbed “The Lost World” (The Mundo Perdido) after the novel.
A very small fraction of Tikal has been excavated and cleared
Temple IV, Tikal.
In addition to Temple IV, the westernmost and tallest pre-Columbian sanctuary (213 ft / 65 m), there are other sanctuaries located across the area. The view from the peak is breathtaking and encompasses the entire property of Tikal.
Paths go through a national park between these structures, providing shelter from towering kapok trees (the Maya holy tree). This abundance of structures is only the tip of the iceberg; the metropolis of Tikal covered more than 23 square miles (60 square kilometers) at its peak, of which only a fraction has been cleaned and excavated.
Getting to Tikal requires taking a bus from Flores, a city located approximately 37 miles (60 kilometers) to the south. The majority of travel agencies provide daytime return trips that begin early in the morning.
A stay at one of the few motels near the park’s entrance is your best bet. Despite the steep cost and subpar amenities, you are certain to be on top of the pyramids around 6 a.m., when the sun’s rays reawaken the spider monkeys and cast a golden glow over the ancient structures. Then, an old world that mysteriously reappears.
When is the optimum time to visit Tikal?
During the cooler months of the year, when the heat is manageable and rain is rare. Avoid December and January to avoid the bulk of the tourists.
A number of carved stele from the Tikal ruins are on display at the city’s two museums. You may go on several jungle excursions since the area is encircled by a 222-square-mile (575-square-kilometer) Tikal National Park.
November 9, 2022
Why Did the Maya Civilization Disappear?
In little over a few centuries, the Mayan culture had all but vanished. There is no agreed-upon explanation for the fall and disappearance of the Maya civilization. Although there are various plausible theories that explain the decline of Maya. Let’s have a look at them here.
There wasn’t any kind of pandemic, curse, or earthquake behind the end of the Maya civilization. American archaeologist Michael D. Coe calls the collapse of the Maya civilization “the deepest social and demographic catastrophe of all the history of the humanity.” And this decline did not happen suddenly. Today, historians and scientists believe that a confluence of several causes led to the abandonment of Mayan cities between the years 800 and 1000.
The Soil Depletion
Chichén Itzá, Tonina, Calakmul, Caracol, Palenque, and many more besides! There are hundreds of city-states in Maya land, including a dozen that can support as many as 70,000 people apiece (such as Tikal). According to research by American climatologist Benjamin I. Cook, between 600 and 800 CE, the Mayan population reached a high of almost 10 million. Time when many flourishing settlements sprung up, including Yaxchilán, Bonampak, Piedras Negras, Copán, Ceibal, Xunantunich, and the Altar de los Sacrificios.
Today, there are several theories to explain why the Mayan towns were abandoned. (Image: Pixabay)
A strength at first glance, however, may rapidly become a vulnerability when you consider that these millions of people also represented millions of hungry stomachs. There was limited space for farming in their tropical and wooded environment. Due to the poor quality of the soil, milpa was employed: two to three years of cultivation followed by eight to ten years of fallow. As their numbers expanded, farmers no longer observed this period of rest and instead enhanced cultural exchange. At this time, the procedure was already in progress.
It required around 15 hectares and 50 days of labor to feed a household of 10 Maya people for a year. A catastrophic threat to Maya communities whose livelihoods depended on the land.
Because of this, Mayan farmers cleared forested areas that are tens of miles from their houses to expand their agricultural domains. An enormous loss of forest cover, which exacerbated problems like soil erosion and nutrient deficiencies as well as, in certain locations like the Petén, significant landslides, and, hence, productivity limitations. The Mayan people were forced to leave the cities because of the widespread malnutrition, starvation, and illnesses that resulted from it.
Climate Change Amplified by Deforestation
Photograph of Maya sacrifice taken from within the cave Actun Tunichil Muknal in Belize. This skeleton is popularly known as the “Crystal Maiden”. Image: Wikimedia.
Scientists have long known that stalagmites provide a powerful witness of the weather conditions of the past due to their unique composition. These limestone structures in the cave of Actun Tunichil Muknal were of interest to anthropologists, climate scientists, and archaeologists in 2012.
After a lengthy period of rainfall (about 450–660), the Maya area underwent spells of significant drought beginning in the 800s, as determined by analyzing its chemical composition, notably the concentration of mineral salts.
As a consequence, a dramatic reduction in yields occurred during the heat wave era due to the overexploitation of resources during the wet years, which was accompanied by a rise in population. An increase in the intensity of a natural occurrence brought on by deforestation. The switch from forest to maize decreased the quantity of moisture transmitted from the land to the sky, which lowered the level of precipitation.
Recent NASA computer calculations suggest that the loss of this forest resulted in a 3 to 5 degree Celsius temperature rise and a 20 to 30% decrease in precipitation. Unfortunately for these communities, corn—their primary food source—is very vulnerable to drought. To assure a harvest, they require at least an annual rainfall of roughly 24 inches or 600 millimeters.
Research shows that the critical 18-inch or 450-millimeter barrier for growing maize was seldom fulfilled between 760 and 910. This occurrence, when added to the soil’s depletion, was a fatal blow. The Maya peasants were unable to provide for themselves in the cities, so they migrated westward into what is now Mexico.
A Dated Political Structure
Map of the Maya region, with main rivers, mountain ranges and regions.
“Theater-states.” This was the governmental structure that the main Mayan towns had, according to American archaeologist Arthur Demarest’s book “Ancient Maya.” This society did not have a king who controlled the government and the economy, but instead relied on a representative government. Kings with “charismatic and shamanic” personalities called K’uhul Ajaw (divine lords) were placed in charge of each city, with the responsibility of maintaining communication between humans and the supernatural. His power came from the ritualization of his deity. The decline of the Maya culture was hastened in part due to these wasteful practices.
The territory’s structure, with so many separate cities, encouraged rivalry. The king felt pressure to increase his displays of riches as a symbol of his superiority over his subjects. The growth of cities from the 700s to the 800s amplified this competition for status. The enormous expenditures eventually brought the city to collapse.
The population boom and polygamy among the elite, which expanded the number of princes eager to face each other for positions of power, also contributed to the instability. Disputes that became deadly were a desecrated kind of authority. When the K’uhul Ajaw started acting “too human,” people had a harder time believing in him. More so since the notables of the time were unable to alleviate the famine that afflicted the Mayan populace in the 800s.
The only thing Maya found to do to stop the drought was to engage in more gory rites, offering sacrifices to the gods of rain (Chac) and agriculture (Ahmakiq). The ingredients for collapse were met: a devastated society in which people feared for their safety every day. As a result, uprisings sprang out, and the Maya presumably fled to the north.
Civil Conflicts Within the Maya Civilization
Stones from Maya temples, village castles, abandoned palaces, toppled thrones, and even damaged sculptures were used to construct hastily erected defensive walls. Not only do the ruins from the late classical era (about 900) stand in stark contrast to the typical Maya environment, but they also bear witness to a high degree of militarism and bloodshed.
The Mayan city-states often engaged in conflict and rivalry with one another. A method for kings to strengthen their rule and acquire human sacrifices for the gods. However, the instability seems to have been more pronounced after the year 900. Cities were drawn further and deeper into a hellish spiral as the frequency and severity of disputes rose.
A large portion of the population fled to exile as a result of the conflict, and governmental Maya authority began to weaken. The decline of Maya society paved the way for the conquest of the region by neighboring civilizations in Mesoamerica. Frescoes and pottery from the 9th century in places like Chichén Itzá, Tikal, and Ceibal witness the confluence of Mayan and Toltec patterns.
More centralized systems, like those of the Toltecs and Mixtecs, which the Aztecs would eventually adopt, gradually superseded the Maya “theater-states.” Even though the great cities were deserted, however, the Mayan culture has not been eradicated. About 6 million individuals in Central America can still communicate in Mayan languages.
November 9, 2022
The Story of Picasso’s Guernica Painting
One of Pablo Picasso’s most renowned paintings, Guernica (1937) shows the bombardment of the titular city during the Spanish Civil War and is widely regarded as a strong allegory for the horrors of war.
Representations of the Spanish Civil War in Guernica
Pablo Picasso, then a Parisian artist, was commissioned by the Spanish Republic to produce an artwork for the 1937 World’s Fair. But he still needed to find a topic, since the Spanish artist lacked inspiration in the late 1930s.
As political upheaval spread throughout Europe, he saw his own creative process stall. There has been a horrific civil war between Republicans and Francoists in Spain since 1936.
Pablo Picasso, Guernica, 1937, Centro de Arte Reina Sofia
On April 26, 1937, the Basque city of Guernica was bombed by the German Condor Legion, an ally of Franco’s, in an effort to intimidate the local populace into switching sides and abandoning their support for the Republicans.
The onslaught, which started at 4:30 p.
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m. and continued for more than three hours, turned the landscape into one of dread. The streets of the destroyed city are littered with the remains of the dead. 1,645 people out of a total population of 7,000 were killed, with another 889 injured.
The following day, at the Café de Flore in Paris, Pablo Picasso read the newspaper and found out the news. It was settled; he would be studying this topic.
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As a nod to the black-and-white source material of the news, he opted not to use color.
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Women, men, and animals in turmoil
The horrors of war are shown all over the 11.5 ft x 25.5 ft (3.49 m x 7.77 m) painting. Michelangelo’s Pietà, in which the Virgin weeps for her slain son, may be alluding to the woman bearing her dead child in her arms and gazing up at the sky in a scream of grief in Guernica.
Picasso’s depiction of the horse has a skull and crossbones in its mouth and nostrils, if one looks carefully enough. The bull’s intense stare, which represents Spain, appears to implore the observer to come to its aid.
However, the artist depicts a few symbols of peace, such as the dove, which is there but unobtrusively between the horse and the bull, or the lady who arrives at the window carrying a lamp, which may signify hope or the illumination of an event of global importance.
Guernica is a work of democracy
The 1937 Paris World’s Fair was when Guernica first gained international attention; it went on to be shown in a number of other countries before being acquired by the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York. As long as Spain was not a democracy, Picasso had no interest in having his art shown there.
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Pablo Picasso passed away in 1973, and then Franco two years later. The Spanish Senate began the process of returning the work to Spain in 1977 on the grounds that “freedoms are guaranteed.”
The piece was first restored to the Prado Museum in 1981, after the country’s democratic win, and then moved to the Reina Sofia Museum in Madrid in 1992.
November 9, 2022
The Birth of Venus: The Story Around This Masterpiece
The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli is one of the most iconic works of the Italian Renaissance and continues to captivate viewers today. Learn the truth behind the legend that has surrounded the masterpiece. Venus, the goddess of love, is shown here as a lady with translucent skin who is gently perched on a shell and is surrounded by people who are all facing her. For this piece, the Italian artist paid homage to the creative sophistication of his day by depicting a pagan topic.
What are the characteristics of this painting?
The painting “The Birth of Venus” is a tempera on canvas.
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To get this effect, the artist likely mixed ground pigments with egg white or fig milk. This colossal work, measuring in at 67.9 x 109.6 inches (172.5 x 278.5 cm), required the sewing together of two canvases.
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This picture, which is now housed in Florence, Italy’s Uffizi Gallery, was either commissioned by or created for a Medici family member. It was painted in 1485, at the time of Lorenzo de’ Medici (Lorenzo the Magnificent). Sandro Botticelli aimed to pay homage to the most valuable qualities of nature through the people, scenery, and arrangement.
The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli, 1485.
How is the work composed?
In this seafaring tale, three distinct groups of people emerge. The shoreline in this artwork is quite steep, and the waves are crashing ever lower. Roses, conceived by Venus, rain down from the heavens. All four classical elements are here: air (represented by the deity of the winds, Zephyr), water from the sea, earth (the coastline can be seen to the right), and fire (that of love).
A melancholy Venus perched on a shell occupies the focal point. This primary figure is nearly life size, and on each side of her are two smaller figures: a young lady (the goddess of spring) and the wind deity Zephyr, who is joined by his wife, the nymph Chloris (a symbol of physical love). The triangle arrangement focuses attention on the lovely goddess’s face.
Who are the different characters?
Venus (Aphrodite for the Greeks), the goddess of beauty, stands front and center on an open conch. Her curves convey sensuality, and her nakedness represents innocence. The shell represents the female sex, hence, it is seen as a symbol of fertility.
With a subtle motion of her hand, she covers her breasts, and her long blond hair also helps. Her subtle wiggle, reminiscent of ancient statues, gives the impression that she is in motion. Her eyes have a melancholy beauty about them.
Zephyr, the god of the winds, and his wife are seen entwined in the air to the left of the artwork. His puffy cheeks show that he is blowing on Venus to force her toward the beach. The springtime goddess Flora (one of the “Horae”) appears on the right.
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She stands on the coast, holding out a purple fabric with flowers on it as a welcome mat for Venus. The cornflowers on her outfit are a nod to the romantic springtime.
What mythological episode does this painting depict?
This artwork shows Venus’s first trip to Cyprus after she was born. According to Hesiod, a Greek poet, Venus was conceived in the genitalia of her father Ouranos (Uranus), the god of the sky, who concealed his offspring under the surface of the Earth. Chronos, his disobedient son, removed his father’s internal organs and hurled them into the ocean.
When they hit the ocean, a foam arose, and from it sprang Venus, also known as Aphrodite, the goddess of love. Then Zephyr blew her to Cyprus, where the daughters of Zeus and Themis, the Horae, greeted her and whisked her away to Olympus.
November 9, 2022
William the Conqueror: Duke of Normandy Who Became King
After his victory at the Battle of Hastings on September 28, 1066, William the Conqueror (1027-1087), the most renowned of the Dukes of Normandy, was crowned King of England. On Christmas Day of the same year, he was crowned in London, marking the beginning of the first Anglo-Norman dynasty. Once his new realm was at peace, William instituted the feudal system and proved himself to be an able ruler.
The “Bayeux Tapestry“, an iconic needlework measuring 70 meters, would depict the fantastical narrative of William the Conqueror. This tapestry, both a piece of beauty and a crude means of political expression, would ensure this Viking’s great-great-place grandson’s in history.
The Origins of William the Conqueror
Statue of William the Conqueror in Falaise, France
William was born at Falaise in 1027. Robert the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy, had an extramarital affair with the daughter of a tanner in Falaise and produced a son. No matter the reason, Robert married William’s mother in accordance with the Viking custom of having several wives. Both the father and the son can trace their ancestry back to Rollon, a legendary Viking leader who eventually made his home in Normandy. Many obstacles stand in the way of the young Norman nobleman who is the product of an illicit affair.
In 1034, Duke Robert made a religious journey to the Holy Land. Just before he left, he called a meeting of all the major Norman lords at Fécamp and requested that they acknowledge his only son, William, as his successor. Unfortunately, Duke Robert became sick on the return trip from Jerusalem and passed away at Nicaea, in July 1035. William was then elevated to the position of Duke of Normandy. He was only 7 or 8 years old.
Anarchy Wins the Duchy of Normandy
The Battle of Hastings, 1066, as seen on the Bayeux Tapestry, with Bishop Odo rousing Duke William’s forces.
Archbishop Robert the Dane of Rouen, the duke’s uncle, assures the rule of Normandy during Robert the Magnificent’s absence and later becomes a teacher to young William after the death of his father. The seneschal, Osbern the Crépon, whose grandfather, Herfast, was a brother to Gunnor, the duke’s concubine, and the duke’s grandson, Gilbert, Count of Brionne, helped him accomplish this goal. After the death of the archbishop on March 1, 1037, his position was filled by Mauger, the son of Duke Richard II and his mistress Papia. But he lacked his predecessor’s power, and conflicts among the great lords of Normandy flared up rapidly.
Counts, viscounts, and lesser lords, who had been ruled with an iron hand by the dukes Richard I and Richard II, seized the opportunity presented by the seigniorial authority’s temporary absence to indulge their lust for power and break the shackles of feudalism they had found so limiting. Rivalries and animosities amongst the Norman lords, whose position and origins were highly varied (the initial Scandinavians were joined throughout time by men from all areas, particularly Bretons and Angevins), erupted in broad daylight, and the lack of punishment swiftly strengthened their daring. Each settlement put up its own set of fortifications, called a “motte-and-bailey castle”, to show the world who was in charge and to make it easier to attack their neighbors.
In the period of Duke Richard, the duke held sole jurisdiction over significant breaches of public order, including armed house invasions (known as “Hamfara” in Scandinavian law). In this case, the duke did not impose any kind of penalty. As long as people were allowed to get even, violence would continue to escalate.
The Conspiracy Against Duke William
William, Duke of Normandy, turns 15 in the year 1042. It was at this point that complaints of bastardy first surfaced, and the revolt morphed into a plot with the boy as its target. Up until this point, none of the lords who are very close to William had seen this. All or almost all of the most powerful were descendants of Frilla, therefore the news that Duke Robert’s wife Herleue wasn’t a devout Christian had little impact on them.
Guy of Burgundy or Brionne, the duke’s grandson from his mother Adelaide, is at the center of a well-planned plot to usurp the duke’s position. As the duke’s familiar and the son of count Reginald of Burgundy, he grew up alongside the duke. Once Gilbert, Count of Brionne, passed away, William gave him control of the strategically significant castles of Brionne and Vernon. Hamon Dentatus, Renouf de Bricquessart, Néel de Saint-Sauveur, and the viscounts of Cinglais were all involved in the plot, as was Raoul II Taisson, lord of Cinglais, and another of the duke’s familiars, Grimout de Plessis, who was in charge of an estate of 10,000 acres. The men took an oath to “fervor William”.
What little we do know about these events comes mostly from Wace’s Roman de Rou, which was composed in the c. 1170s. Most of the plotters had returned to the duke’s favor by the time William of Jumièges (Guillaume de Jumièges) wrote in 1070, so he is more evasive. “If I didn’t want to avoid their unwavering hostility, I’d identify them here. Nonetheless, I tell you in my ear, all of you who surround me: it was exactly these individuals who today pretend to be the most devoted, and upon whom the duke has showered the highest honors, “to paraphrase Guillaume de Jumièges (William of Jumièges), who composed it.
The duke’s life was the target of the conspirators’ desire to take his life. The duke, aged 19 years old, went hunting near his Valognes castle in 1046. Duchess’s idiot Golet barged into his master’s bedroom one night while the duke and his family were sound asleep. Ahead of his assault, he overheard the conspirators making their intentions clear. Anxious, the duke springs to his feet with a start. He doesn’t bother putting on his shoes, just grabs a hat and rides out on his horse. The conspirators immediately set out in hot pursuit.
On the run, Guillaume used the great Vey’s path, cutting through Montebourg and Turqueville before entering the Veys Bay late at night via Brucheville, when the tide was low and the fords were safe. After crossing “with great dread and rage at night the fords of the Vire” (Roman de Rou), he arrived at Saint-Clément, where he reflected and prayed to God for safe passage.
Finally, he got back on his horse and continued north, using a route that took him about midway between the coast and Bayeux. Upon waking, he found himself in the little town of Ryes. Both he and his horse had clearly reached their limits. The duke was escorted by Lord Hubert of Ryes to his estate, where the lord presented the duke with a new horse and instructed his three sons to drive them to Falaise. The four men set off and Hubert takes charge of sending the pursuers on the wrong road.
Battle of Val-ès-Dunes
Duke William arrived unharmed at his castle in Falaise. His next move was to seek aid from his suzerain, King Henry I (1008–1060). During the upheaval that rocked Normandy, King Henry did not step in to protect the duke. In fact, he brought in several of the Norman lords who had been expelled for their perfidy at his court. Perhaps under pressure from them, about 1040, he launched an effort to reclaim for himself the fortress of Tillières-sur-Avre, a major obstacle to the expansion of Capetian territory. This castle was built by King Richard II on the border of his state to protect himself from the Count of Blois.
Then the count of Blois ceded the town of Dreux and its surrounding land to the king, bringing the castle of Tillières nearer to the domain of the Capetians. So the King mustered his army, marched up to the castle, and demanded that Lord Gilbert Crespin surrender. Crespin, who knew his way around the ducal court and was friends with Robert the Magnificent, said no. Raoul de Gacé and Duke Guillaume, however, had the king swear that he would demolish the stronghold rather than rebuild it on their behalf, and so they gave him their orders to do it. Gilbert caved, and the king burned the castle, invaded Normandy, pillaged Argentan, and then headed back to Tillières with his spoils. Despite earlier assurances, he had the fortress repaired and a garrison stationed there.
Nonetheless, Henry did not turn down his help back in 1047. Certainly, he had no desire to see Normandy weaken, since it would benefit the Capetian-pressed holdings of the Counts of Blois and Chartres. During the summer of 1047, King Henry I’s army landed on the banks of the Muance River, close to Caen. The King was present during the Mass at Saint-Brice de Valmeray. Duke William’s men joined the king’s that morning. The rebels, meanwhile, had amassed about a league away.
Both armies moved forward and eventually met in the middle, close to the town of Billy, at a location once known as Val-ès-Dunes. Raoul II Taisson is reluctant to act as one of the conspirators. Among the conspirators, Raoul II Taisson hesitates. His knights urged him to go back on his word to “fetch Duke William” and not to go further in the treason. He gave orders for his troops to stand still just as the battle was about to commence, and then he rode to the Duke.
When he got close, he smacked him with his glove and said, “I’m keeping my end of the bargain. When I finally located you, I vowed to strike you. Because I took an oath and I don’t want to lie to you, I struck you. But don’t worry; my erratic behavior is not indicative of my becoming a criminal (Roman de Rou).” The duke expressed his gratitude, Raoul Taisson returned to his soldiers, and the retreating army left.
Battle has officially broken out. Néel de Saint-Sauveur, an infantryman, threw King Henry I from his horse, and the king only survived because the quality of his haubert stopped the spear from penetrating him. Duke Guillaume showed great valor in killing Hamon Dentu. The tide of the battle then changes in his favor. Renouf de Briquessart fled; the rebels turned back and many of them drowned while crossing the Orne at the ford of Athis because the rush was so great.
Restoration of Peace in the Duchy
The Duke’s triumph quickly put an end to the years of unrest that had plagued the duchy. As a result, nobody questions the duke’s authority any more. Insurgents were put in their place. As a result, Grimoult du Plessis was captured before he could reach his citadel, taken to Rouen, and discovered dead in his cell that very same day. Néel de Saint-Sauveur had his fiefs taken away from him and was exiled to Brittany as a result. Finally, Guy of Burgundy shut himself up in his Brionne fortress. The Duke of William arrived to lay siege to him, but he didn’t bother attempting to seize the formidable citadel. There was a pause of three years. Guy surrendered and the Duke offered him a pardon in exchange for the destruction of the castle. But Guy of Burgundy preferred to leave Normandy and return to his native Burgundy.
The Duke of Normandy called for a Council of Peace and Truce of God in 1047, and with the help of his relations, Archbishop Mauger and Nicolas, abbot of Saint-Ouen, it was held in the brand-new city of Caen, only two locations from the Val-ès-Dunes battlefield. Leaders from the church and the nobility of Normandy met at the gathering. From Sunday night through Monday morning, as well as during major religious holidays, violence was strictly prohibited.
In times such as these, only the Duke would be able to muster an army. The penalties for breaking this ceasefire were excommunication and banishment. Innocent individuals, women priests, and infants were designated as “inermes,” or off-limits. The pledge to uphold divine peace was made on the relics of Saint Ouen, brought from Rouen especially for the occasion, by William’s vassals. In this way, the duke had some chance of restraining the unrest caused by private warfare and, by enforcing the Peace of God, combating the pervasive practices of “hamfara” and personal retribution.
Nonetheless, problems remained. As a result, in 1048, Yves de Bellême, lord of Bellême and bishop of Sées, battled out opponents of his family who had taken up residence in the church he had built. Yves de Bellême was so unimpressed that he set fire to his own chapel in order to get rid of them. William was honored by all his lords in 1049. His half-brother Odon, to whom he had granted the see of Bayeux, was now assisting him.
When William’s authority matched that of the French monarch, competition between the two men ensued. William’s focus is taken away from the Capetians in 1066 thanks to events across the Channel. There is no straight line of ancestry between King Edward the Confessor of England and William. Edward, though, had already promised William the throne a few years before. When the latter started asserting his rights, a local nobleman named Harold came up and took the kingdom with the blessing of the ancient Anglo-Saxon parliament.
Conquering the Kingdom of England
Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry showing Normans preparing for the invasion of England.
The Norman has no plans to give up and end things for himself. At the end of September 1066, he set sail with his army aboard drakkars and crossed the English Channel to reclaim what was rightfully his. He had rediscovered the warrior air and the spirit of conquest of his Viking forebears. After fending off yet another Scandinavian assault, Harold hurried to see the Duke of Normandy.
On October 14, 1066, during the bloody and drawn-out Battle of Hastings, which eventually went in favor of the Normans, Harold died. On his march to London, a victorious William was given the moniker “Conqueror.” Despite the fact that “conqueror” is more complimentary than “bastard,” the next monarch of England will refuse to accept the moniker since he sees himself as a rightful successor rather than an invader or usurper. An air of Viking-ness, but not an excessive amount.
Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry depicting the Battle of Hastings.
It is widely agreed that 1066 marks the beginning of England as a country and a major force in Europe. With a new monarch at the helm, England was able to emerge from centuries of internal strife and foreign invasions in a completely different light. While he was in power, several fortifications, notably the Tower of London, were constructed throughout the island to ensure its safety. William immediately went out to assert his dominance and shore up royal power.
He eventually replaced the ancient Anglo-Saxon nobility with Normans, who had joined his cause when he overcame their opposition. The Norman invasion was finally successful in 1070. Two years later, William invaded Scotland and forced King Malcolm III Canmore to pay him tribute.
William the Conqueror: Clever Administrator
A page from the Domesday Book for Warwickshire.
The “Domesday Book,” a census of commodities and people whose rights and obligations were standardized in accordance with the Norman law that he incorporated with the preexisting local norms, was particularly significant. The modern English language has its roots in the (nearly) French he brought with him (the English monarchy still has as its motto in French “Dieu et mon droit”). In addition, he split up the big counties that had been semi-independent under their previous rulers and gave the stolen territory to his obedient Norman slaves. A strong new country emerged under the leadership of a Norman and his wife, Queen Matilda.
William is remembered for forcibly imposing the feudal system on the European continent. To cement the notion of the direct devotion of each lord to the royal authority, he had all the lords swear fealty to him in the oath of Salisbury (1086). William I maintained numerous Anglo-Saxon institutions, including the municipal courts, and the lords were required to accept their jurisdictional power. Courts of ecclesiastical and secular law were kept distinct, and papal influence in English politics was severely curtailed.
William brought over the Channel in his longships more than just a new language and a new law. He was still the duke of Normandy, but his competition with the King of France over the duchy was fierce. With the help of the new French king, Philip I, William I’s oldest son, Robert Courteheuse, instigated a rebellion in Normandy beginning in 1075. So, William made regular trips to the continent to engage them in battle. In 1087, in response to the plundering of Evreux, William burned down Mantes (modern-day Mantes-la-Jolie).
William the Conqueror died on September 9, 1087, at Rouen, after falling off his horse. At the Abbey Church of Saint-Etienne in Caen, he was laid to rest. His son William II took over the leadership of their vast empire after his death.
Key Dates: I. William (William the Conqueror)
Birth of William the Conqueror (1027)
William the Conqueror was born circa 1027 in Falaise, Normandy, descending from the Norman Viking lineage established by Rollo in 911.
Victory of William the Conqueror at Val-des-Dunes (1047)
While still known as William the Bastard, William, the First of Normandy, seized the opportunity upon reaching adulthood to confront rebels united against him since the death of Robert the Magnificent. Surviving an assassination attempt, William gained support first from Henry I and then from Raoul Taisson, a former conspirator, to defeat the vassals at Val-de-Dunes.
The victory was decisive, showing no mercy to the defeated, many of whom drowned in the Orne. The reign of the future William the Conqueror over all of Normandy could then commence.
Marriage of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders (1053)
Despite opposition from the Pope, William of Normandy and Matilda of Flanders decided to marry. Beyond political interests, their love also motivated them. However, their fifth-degree consanguinity was a factor frowned upon by Pope Leo IX. To appease the Church, they built two splendid abbeys in Caen: the Abbey of the Holy Trinity, known as the Abbey for Women, and the Abbey of Saint-Stephen, known as the Abbey for Men. These abbeys housed the tombs of Matilda and William.
September 29, 1066: William the Conqueror Invades England
The 650 ships of William, Duke of Normandy, landed in the bay of Penvensey in England. After the victory at Hastings on October 14, 1066, where King Harold II’s army was defeated, William the Conqueror became the King of England.
October 14, 1066: Battle of Hastings
William of Normandy, also known as the “bastard,” lands in England with 4000 men to overthrow King Harold. He achieves a resounding victory, invading the country. William, a descendant of the Viking Duke Rollo, proves to be a worthy heir to the English throne. He contends for the title with the King of Norway and Harold, the Earl of Wessex. Harold dies in battle, struck by a Norman archer.
William was then proclaimed King of England under the name William. After his death, he was posthumously named William “the Conqueror.” The Battle of Hastings was immortalized in one of the 58 scenes of the Bayeux Tapestry, created between 1066 and 1077.
December 25, 1066: William the Conqueror Becomes King of England
Following the victory at Hastings, William the Conqueror ascended to supreme power in England, being crowned at Westminster Abbey. This introduces a gesture that will become a tradition in the English monarchy. However, the new Anglo-Norman kingdom still faced difficulties; the conquest of England would only be completed in 1070.
Moreover, the situation in this kingdom was unique: the King of England, William, remained a vassal of the King of France for the Norman territories. The latter, Philip I, becomes William’s most significant adversary, especially as the Capetians do not appreciate the rise of the powerful Anglo-Norman kingdom.
July 14, 1077: Dedication of Bayeux
Odo of Conteville, Bishop of Bayeux and half-brother of William the Conqueror, consecrates the new cathedral of his city, one of the most important in Normandy. William, Duke of Normandy, and the King of England are present as the Archbishop of Rouen presides over the dedication. The Bayeux Tapestry, 69 meters long, was displayed in the cathedral. It was specially created between 1066 and 1077 to celebrate this event.
September 9, 1087: Death of William the Conqueror
The last man in history to successfully invade England, William the Conqueror, died in Rouen from an accidental injury. Described as obese, the king was said to have been injured while riding back from the Battle of Mantes, where he faced Philip I for control of the Vexin. The story goes that repatriating and burying William at the Abbey for Men in Caen was challenging.
One man opposed the procession, questioning William’s legitimacy, and a fire in Caen disrupted the procession. Finally, within the Church of Saint-Étienne in Caen, where his tomb still rests, the few men who came to pay homage had to flee after the body ruptured during burial. His political legacy was also challenged as England and Normandy were temporarily separated.
September 28, 1106: Normandy Reunites With England at Tinchebray
After the death of William the Conqueror, the Anglo-Norman kingdom was temporarily divided, with England going to William Rufus and Normandy to his brother Robert Curthose. However, after the dubious death of the English sovereign, a victim of a hunting accident, it was William the Conqueror’s last son, Henry, who seized the English crown from an unpopular Robert. This fratricidal war concluded at the Battle of Tinchebray in Normandy. Henry I of England inflicts a severe defeat on his brother Robert, captures him, and takes control of Normandy. It was once again attached to England.
Bibliography:
1. Lawson, M. K. (2002). The Battle of Hastings: 1066. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-1998-6.
2. Lewis, C. P. (2004). “Breteuil, Roger de, earl of Hereford (fl. 1071–1087)”. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9661
November 8, 2022
Battle of Britain: Great Britain’s excellent defense against relentless air strikes
During World War II, the British Air Force (RAF) and the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) fought it out in the Battle of Britain from July 1940 to May 1941. It followed the previous month’s disastrous Battle of France. When the German-Soviet Pact was signed, Hitler was no longer confined to the western front and could focus only on England. Winston Churchill’s England, not Chamberlain’s, was the one he chose to bring to its knees with an unparalleled bombardment, which showed the world the British were brave and made the Royal Air Force famous. The first major loss for the Nazis since the war’s outbreak in 1939 occurred as a result of these air battles.
Operation Sea Lion: Prelude to the Battle of Britain
It seems that Adolf Hitler directed Admiral Raeder in May 1939 to prepare a lengthy economic war to starve the United Kingdom via a maritime blockade, and that it was Raeder who came up with the idea of invading England. After the unexpectedly successful Sedan breakout (Battle of Sedan) in May 1940, Raeder, perhaps alarmed by the difficulties of a long war at sea against the British navy, proposed an invasion of England, capitalizing on the swift defeat of France to gain months in preparation for the programmed attack against the USSR. Hitler was seduced and gave orders accordingly.
It’s certain that the German staffs (particularly the German Navy and the German Army) had considered this possibility in 1939, but the job looked practically overwhelming due to its complexity. Whatever the situation may be, the RAF had to be annihilated before any consideration could be given to a hypothetical landing of troops. It’s possible that if the British air force was wiped out, an invasion wouldn’t even be required.
Admiral Raeder’s suggestion naturally led to the German Navy taking up the task once again. In contrast to an expensive economic war (not only in time), Hitler and the general staff took an interest in this idea at the end of June 1940. Combining an assault meant to smash the RAF with an offensive against the supply of England was a plan explored by Jodl and others. This would cause the British populace to capitulate, making the landing the last act of a fight already won in the air and on the sea.
The Kriegsmarine immediately voiced concerns, but that didn’t stop Jodl from putting out proposal after proposal, each one more brazen than the previous. He came up with the original name, Lion , which was eventually shortened to Sea Lion. Given that Raeder, the invasion’s conceptual originator, was uncharacteristically slow to act, it was only natural that the Luftwaffe, the Royal Air Force’s chief opponent, should take the initiative. Hitler became impatient and demanded that it be wrapped up by the middle of September.
Hitler urged and demanded that the Luftwaffe smash the RAF; this was to be Operation Eagle Attack, despite Raeder and numerous army commanders advising the Führer to delay the assault until the following year and to prefer an offensive in the Mediterranean. Even though the result of the air war was unknown and the value of a landing was still up for debate, preparations persisted until September 1940.
RAF vs. Luftwaffe: The air fleets involved
Before diving into the Battle of Britain itself, it’s worth reflecting on the materials used, which were perhaps as important as the overall strategy. After their stunning successes in Poland and France, where they easily conquered the opposing air force, the Luftwaffe was ecstatic. They used cutting-edge planes that blew away (nearly) every other option.
The Messerschmitt Bf 109 “Emil,” equipped with two 7.9 mm machine guns and two 20 mm cannons, was the primary Luftwaffe fighter during the Battle of Britain. It could go at 575 kilometers per hour and was very agile, but its range was short. Goering preferred the Messerschmitt Bf 110, the other fighter. It is equipped with a large arsenal (two 20-mm cannons, four 7.9-mm machine guns, and one 7.9-mm mobile machine gun), a long range, and decent accuracy, but poor maneuverability makes it a poor choice for engaging enemy ground troops.
It was hoped that the “Stuka,” a nickname for the Junkers Ju 87 bomber, would strike fear into the hearts of British forces with its 500 kg bomb, or four 50-mm bombs and one 250-mm bomb, much as it had in the hearts of French and Polish forces and the populace. The adaptability of the Junkers Ju 88, a standard German bomber in every respect, meant that it could be used in a number of roles, including that of a reconnaissance plane. Although the Dornier Do 17 is a veteran of the Spanish War, both the Do 17 and the Do 215 were of lower quality due to their inadequate bomb load capacities. While the Luftwaffe relies on the Heinkel He 111 as its primary bomber, this aircraft has a rather short range for a heavy bomber that is still classified as medium. It’s not even close to becoming a “flying fortress” capable of withstanding attacks from the opponent.
At the height of the Battle of Britain, the Royal Air Force relied on two types of aircraft and a third “weapon” that proved to be just as important. First, the RAF’s Hurricane was the service’s first and most widely used fighter, and it excelled at its primary mission of preventing bomber attacks. The M-109 was a formidable opponent, but the Spitfire, which would go on to become a hero of the battle (and the war), was faster, more agile, and better equipped. However, there were not a lot of Spitfires in the RAF at the start of the Battle of Britain.
Luftwaffe goes on the offensive
Since the hurried evacuation from Dunkirk, the RAF and the Luftwaffe have been at each other’s throats. The opening weeks of the war were comparatively peaceful in the British skies. Beginning in early June of 1940, the German air force launched an assault on England, with a total of about thirty bombers aiming targeting airfields. There was a break when the French onslaught ended, but activities resumed the day following the ceasefire, particularly at night.
Since England had refused to negotiate peace, and the French had fallen quickly, Hitler decided to hasten the preparations for Operation Sea Lion by destroying the Royal Air Force (RAF). The Luftwaffe began attacking English Channel convoys in the middle of July, testing the mettle of the already-overworked British fighter fleet. This was only the beginning of the massive air assault on England.
The Luftwaffe had around 3,000 operational planes at the start of August (including a little over 1,000 Me 109s and 300 Me 110s). Around 450 Hurricane and Spitfire planes were at the disposal of the British, but major gains were made, and by the middle of August, the RAF had more than 700 active fighters and just under 300 in reserve.
The British defence system
In the weeks after the evacuation of Dunkirk, British command had enough time to not only increase the number of fighter aircraft but also to arrange the defensive system. A reorganization of the air force led to a shift in where the fighter units would operate, and the radar system was also expanded. This new device was in its infancy and had not been tested extensively, but its significance was already recognized by RAF personnel. Air Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding had Coastal Command and Bomber Command to fall back on whenever he needed reinforcements due to persistent personnel shortages. However, the latter’s bombers (about 350 aircraft, mostly Blenheims) were meant to strike against German airfields and ports where the eventual invasion fleet would be based.
Finally, the lack of initiative was the RAF’s worst weakness throughout this Battle of Britain. The Luftwaffe clearly had the upper hand, while the British Air Force could only respond defensively. The radar helped make up for some of the British military’s shortcomings. England lucked out in that their defenses were well-developed and forced the Germans to launch an impromptu attack in response to Hitler’s impatient desire for the Otarie operation to succeed in September.
Despite his misgivings regarding Operation Sea Lion’s use in the event that the Luftwaffe was successful, Hitler eventually consented to try a big operation against England. This would include first a large air bombardment, and then an invasion. Thanks to its thousand pilots and its Hurricanes and Spitfires, England was prepared to reply to the German planes, but it also had a new “weapon,” the radar. The people living there were unaware that they, too, would have to pay a heavy price.
The Eagle’s Day
Beginning on August 10 and continuing for a few days afterwards, Goering plotted the destruction of the RAF, at least in the southern part of England. The British knew the air operations were set to start in the opening days of August. Stukas mostly attacked airfields and radar sites that the Germans had identified as targets. There was just one radar station damaged and the airfields were rapidly restored after the August 12 attack, which claimed 31 German and 22 British aircraft.
The English counties of Kent, the Thames Estuary, Hampshire, Dorset, and Wiltshire were all targeted in an assault on “Eagle Day” (Adlertag) on August 13. There were heavy attacks on three English airfields, but no fighters were present. That same night, a bombing raid damaged a Spitfire production plant near Birmingham. The Luftwaffe lost 45 planes in over a thousand missions, whereas the British lost just 13. The Germans considered “Eagle Day” a victory because they believed they had shot down 300 enemy aircraft, but in reality the number was closer to 100.
RAF wins the air battle
The Stuka remained at the forefront of the raiding parties in the coming days. However, the British fighters retaliated fiercely, and the German light bombers, notably the Me 110s, started to struggle against the superior speed and maneuverability of the British Hurricanes and Spitfires. The bombing operations seldom had desirable consequences.
On August 15, the Luftwaffe launched more than 500 bomber raids and 1270 fighter sorties, demonstrating an escalation in the intensity of German strikes. In comparison to the Royal Air Force’s loss of 34 planes, they suffered 75. They assaulted the airfields the next day, meeting with some success but ultimately incurring more casualties than the British.
Despite German predictions of roughly 300, Dowding still had 600 Spitfires and Hurricanes, and his fighters had downed more than 360 German aircraft, giving the RAF the first round victory. The Luftwaffe decided to switch tactics after a string of unsuccessful raids, including one on August 18. The inclement weather had kept the conflict at bay. After being harassed by Spitfires, it stopped using the Stuka and instead focused on capturing inland targets.
The Blitz on London
Even though the British side had more success in terms of raw numbers, morale among Dowding’s team was low. Both the manufacturing of aircraft and the training of British pilots were not enough to make up for the losses. Even if the Luftwaffe continues to lose more men at this pace, the Allies may still lose the war.
The British were unaware that their enemies were likewise pressed for time due to their goal of launching Sea Lion by the middle of September. As a result, a heavy blow was required to make the foe yield. The first change was a greater emphasis on escorting the aircraft. Then the targets shifted; airfields and facilities producing fighters became prime targets. The RAF’s situation quickly deteriorated at the start of September as it was forced to contend with an increasing number of bombers accompanied by a growing number of Me 109s. Over 380 German planes and 280 British fighters had already been destroyed by the time September 5 rolled around. As time went on, the wear and strain on the British fighters became more alarming. The Germans decided to switch targets and launch an assault on London at this time.
Both the disorganization of the Royal Air Force and the strike on the center of the British government were goals of the Luftwaffe. In addition, the Reich hoped to exact revenge for a British attack on Berlin that had been initiated because of a German bombing mistake over London. Despite Goering’s claims that the city was unreachable, the Luftwaffe persisted in their attacks, and Berlin was eventually destroyed.
A total of 300 bombers, accompanied by 600 fighters, set fire to London on September 7, 1940. Londoners gave this assault the name “the Blitz” after the devastating Blitzkrieg their French friends experienced. They believed the landing and last blow were imminent on the German side. However, British forces were worried that an invasion was imminent, so they ramped up their assaults on German ports.
Time is against the Luftwaffe
Despite some adverse weather and the brave response of the British fighters, the bombing of London continued during the next few days (and nights). However, time was of the essence for the British, since the Sea Lion operation needed to be started 10 days after the effective defeat of the RAF, and this was not yet definite despite the casualties. Hitler hoped to launch the invasion around the middle of September, so he gave the Luftwaffe another postponement. The severe weather on September 12 and 13 prevented the Luftwaffe from launching any further large attacks. The date of September 27 was chosen for the landing since it was the final day of favorable tide for many weeks. At the same time, the bombing of German barges by Bomber Command was having an increasing amount of success…
Using the radars, which identified the German waves from a distance and allowed for better coordination of the reaction, the British fighter squadron considerably limited a fresh raid attempt on London on September 15. Without much success, the attacks spread to other English cities, including Liverpool, Manchester, Bristol, etc. It was the worst day of the Battle of Britain for the Germans and another defeat for Goering’s Luftwaffe.
Battle of Britain: Turning point of the war
The Luftwaffe will not be able to destroy the RAF in the allowed time. As long as the RAF was operational, it was impossible to invade England. As a result, Hitler postponed Operation Sea Lion on September 17. Barely a month later, on 12 October 1940, he postponed it until the spring of 1941. Meanwhile, other concerns began to consume him.
The Battle of Britain did not finish with the Führer’s directive, however. Air Marshal Goering, infuriated, kept up the attacks on London for the next several weeks. But despite the suffering of the inhabitants, the German air attacks were kept to a minimum by the legendary English weather, supported by the RAF on good days. More than 400 Luftwaffe planes were destroyed between September 7 and September 30, 1940, but just 242 British planes were destroyed during the same time period. Goering’s ambitions and the invasion of Great Britain as a whole were dashed by Hitler’s decision on October 12.
Its people displayed a persistence and bravery that would become legendary; its pilots displayed skill and heroism, aided by a Spitfire that was hailed one of the greatest fighters of the combat; and the radar became an indispensable tool of the war thanks to the latter’s decisive win.
England, however, took a heavy hit; many of its seasoned pilots were killed, but the Germans’ fury was focused mostly on innocent people. Most of the main British city cores sustained heavy damage in the month of September. Bombings of civilian areas, as opposed to just industrial sectors, increased during the month of November. One such attack, on November 14, led to the martyrdom of Coventry. The deaths of forty thousand British citizens due to these attacks caused widespread mourning until May of 1941.
The start of the Eastern Front in the spring of 1941 and the subsequent Soviet resistance brought an end to the Battle of Britain and the Blitz. Fewer than a thousand RAF pilots engaged in the Battle of Britain, with 400 losing their lives. This defeat came long before El Alamein or Stalingrad. If Operation Sea Lion had been successful in September 1940, as Hitler had hoped, the Reich could have thrown all of its troops into the struggle in the East, then it is safe to infer that the result of World War II would have been quite different.
Bibliography:
1. Churchill, Winston S (1949), The Second World War – Their Finest Hour (Volume 2), London: Cassell
2. Churchill, Winston S. The Second World War – The Grand Alliance (Volume 3). Bantam Books, 1962.
3. Stacey, C P (1955). The Canadian Army 1939–1945 An Official Historical Summary. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer.
4. Dönitz, Karl. Ten years and Twenty Days. New York: Da Capo Press, First Edition, 1997. ISBN 0-306-80764-5.
5. Wagner, Ray; Nowarra, Heinz (1971). German Combat Planes: A Comprehensive Survey and History of the Development of German Military Aircraft from 1914 to 194. New York: Doubleday & Company.
6. Hooton, E.R. (2007). Luftwaffe at War: Blitzkrieg in the West, Vol. 2. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. ISBN 978-1-85780-272-6..
7. Collier, Richard. Eagle Day: The Battle of Britain, 6 August – 15 September 1940. London: Pan Books, 1968.
8. Bungay, Stephen (2000). The Most Dangerous Enemy : A History of the Battle of Britain. London: Aurum Press. ISBN 978-1-85410-721-3. (hardcover), 2002, ISBN 1-85410-801-8 (paperback).
November 8, 2022
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Women Scientists Erased From History by Gender Bias (Matilda Effect)
The genetic code, Down’s syndrome, writing the first computer program… These happenings marked significant scientific progress at the time, but the scientists who made them have been forgotten. They all had one thing in common: they were female. The Matilda effect is the official moniker for this occurrence. In the 19th century, women in Europe were essentially banned from the field of science in the name of their so-called innate inferiority.
Sisters, mothers, spouses, and daughters of scientists contributed to the advancement of the field alongside their male counterparts, but their contributions are often overlooked, as was the case with Mileva Marić, the physicist who was married to Albert Einstein.
Matilda Effect: The Phenomenon That Makes Women Scientists Invisible
In 1968, sociologist Robert King Merton introduced his theory on the Matthew effect, named after a verse from the Gospel of Matthew: “Whoever has will be given more, and they will have an abundance. Whoever does not have, even what they have will be taken from them.” This theory explains how some great people have been recognized at the expense of their partners, who often participated in their research.
Margaret W. Rossiter, a historian of science, developed and applied Robert King Merton’s theory to women in science in the early 1980s. She dubbed this phenomenon the “Matilda effect” in honor of feminist activist Matilda Joslyn Gage, who, towards the close of the 19th century, had spoken out against the erasure of women from the scientific community.
Trota of Salerno
The gynecological treatise “De passionibus mulierum curandarum” (or “About women’s diseases”), written by the 11th-century physician and surgeon Trota of Salerno, was translated into several languages in the Middle Ages.
It was unimaginable in those days for a woman to have such expertise. Therefore, males were given credit for the effort surrounding her numerous creations. Trota or Trotula of Salerno was actually the world’s first gynecologist.
Jocelyn Bell Burnell
In the mid-1960s, astronomy enthusiast Jocelyn Bell started her studies in radio astronomy at the University of Cambridge, where she also began, under the supervision of astronomer Anthony Hewish, the building of a radio telescope to investigate quasars.
Without the astronomer’s backing, she built the instrument in 1967 and made the discovery of objects that would be called pulsars. However, it was Anthony Hewish whose name appeared in the paper when her study findings were published in Nature in 1968. In 1974, he and Martin Ryle won the Nobel Prize in Physics again.
Rosalind Franklin
British-born scientist Rosalind Franklin is now well recognized for her pivotal contribution to the identification of the DNA double helix. She did the research that led to the publication of the results in the scientific journal Nature, but it was her colleagues James Watson and Francis Crick—with whom she did not have the best working relationship—who published the results, which involved the now-famous photograph No. 51, in which the two helices of the structure of DNA are visible.
At Maurice Wilkins’s request, both Rosalind Franklin and the scientist with whom she collaborated were solely mentioned in the acknowledgements.
Nine years later, in 1962, James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins were given the Nobel Prize in Medicine for “their” discovery of the structure of DNA.
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The late Rosalind Franklin has been mostly forgotten since her death.
Marthe Gautier
Together with Raymond Turpin, chief of the pediatric section at the Trousseau Hospital, Marthe Gautier studied polymalformative disorders, including Down’s syndrome, in a little laboratory they set up in the 1950s. The additional chromosome she found in children with “mongolism,” the word used at the time to describe Down syndrome, was a major breakthrough.
This finding was crucial to elucidating the disease process. Ultimately, however, credit for the discovery was given to a man named Jérôme Lejeune, and her name—spelled incorrectly—was included below Jérôme’s as the second signatory on the publication verifying the findings acquired by the French team in 1959.
The Inserm Ethics Committee (IEC) didn’t come around to the idea that “the discovery of the supernumerary chromosome, the part of Jérôme Lejeune (…) is unlikely to have been preponderant,” until 1994.
Mileva Einstein
Mileva Einstein (Mileva Marić), the wife of Albert Einstein, was another woman who fell prey to the Matilda effect. Mileva Einstein followed in her husband’s footsteps by pursuing a profession in physics and mathematics.
While no one doubts Albert Einstein’s brilliance, new research is focusing on Mileva Einstein’s contribution to his professional success. particularly with regard to the findings about space-time and the velocity of light.
Especially after the pair have had a few interactions, this may come to light. And for good reason, the very gifted, Mileva Einstein regularly corrected the work of the scientist, as evidenced by this letter from 1901: “How happy and proud I shall be when we have both conducted our work on movement relative to a victorious conclusion!
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Despite this letter and others like it, Mileva Einstein’s role in Albert Einstein’s achievements is still very weakly estimated today due to a lack of evidence.
Lise Meitner
At a time when higher education was difficult for women, Lisa Meitner earned a Ph.D. from the University of Vienna in 1901. She became the second woman to receive a doctorate from the University of Vienna.
She started working at the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Advancement of Science in 1911, in the chemistry department led by Otto Hahn.
When the physics department was first established, she took over as its head. The partnership between Otto Hahn, a chemist, and Lise Meitner, a physicist, was very productive.
Fritz Strassman joined the two scientists in 1934 in their pursuit of knowledge on artificial nuclear processes.
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The discovery of fission in 1938 was crucial to the development of the atomic bomb.
Lise Meitner, who came from a Jewish family, was forced to leave for Sweden when Austria was annexed by the Nazi authorities. Given her predicament, Lise Meitner was not credited when the group’s findings appeared in the December issue of the scholarly journal Naturwissenschaften that same year.
Thus, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman shared the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Ada Lovelace
The idea that a woman might be interested in, much less talented at, computer technology was unthinkable in the 1800s, when the field was still dominated by men.
Ada Lovelace, often known as the “Princess of Parallelograms,” was a mathematician who, starting in the 1840s and continuing forward, devoted a great deal of time and energy to translating the writings of Charles Babbage (her own professor) into French. She translated it, but was she pleased with the results?
Because, in fact, she added her own (many) insights. Among these were formulas for determining Bernoulli’s figures. In a nutshell, what Ada Lovelace created is widely recognized as the world’s first computer program today.
Ada Lovelace gave computer science a fresh perspective by treating programming as a language. Nevertheless, her impact on computer science is mostly unknown.
November 7, 2022