The most pivotal moment in human history occurred around 11,000 years ago, when agriculture was first developed. It made space for novel ways of thinking and doing things, as well as for a reorganization of society. For what reasons did modern Homo sapiens first begin farming? Actually, nobody can say for sure. The emergence of agriculture, however, was crucial to the subsequent growth of urban centers, literacy, and ultimately, civilization.
Since the Neolithic Era forward, human sustenance has shifted away from hunting and gathering to agriculture and livestock raising. In the 10th millennium BC, this shift began in the Near East and spread to other population hubs throughout the globe. Population expansion, attesting to a change in lifestyle that resulted in higher food demands, explains this phenomenon.
Several key innovations have shaped the history of agriculture, including the plow, crop rotation, irrigation systems, and the use of fertilizers. These innovations improved crop yields and made agriculture more efficient.
Improvements in Farming
Several times during the 10th and 8th millennia B.C., people on all four continents “developed” agriculture on their own. The archaeological remnants of plants and animals are our only source of information, although their numbers were likely far larger in reality. Even before the first traces of agriculture, it’s likely that ancient hunter-gatherers had established a kind of proto-agricultural by dispersing seeds or tubers from the plants they had gathered from the wild to ensure that the plants would not be depleted.
Neolithic agricultural equipment.
Recent hunter-gatherer cultures apparently still engaged in this method, as shown by anthropological research. Under the right circumstances, it has even developed into a full-fledged manufacturing sector. Tools like the millstone for grinding, the knife for harvesting, and the digging stick were all creations of the hunter-gatherers. There was no need to develop brand-new technologies to facilitate the emergence of agriculture.
While humans have been around for at least 300,000 years, agriculture as a subsistence economy didn’t emerge until around 11,000 years ago and it took centuries to become widespread. This means that fewer than 5% of human history, or around 500 generations, has been spent as “farmers.” Accordingly, natural selection has led to our species’ development, notably in our forager ancestry. Natural selection, however, benefited those who engaged in agriculture. The evidence may be found in the decipherment of the human genome.
For instance, lactase, an enzyme that allows newborns to digest lactose, a milk protein, has persisted in adults thanks to a genetic mutation in the DNA of Central European herders 6,000 years ago. After the age of four, most people lose the ability to digest lactose because this enzyme stops being produced. This mutation is now widespread throughout Europe but is rare or nonexistent in regions such as the Far East and South America, where milk production from domesticated animals is not commercially exploited.
Early agricultural societies used various techniques, such as slash-and-burn agriculture, terracing, and the cultivation of staple crops like wheat, barley, and rice. These techniques varied depending on the region and available resources.
Agriculture Helps Increase the Population
Paleolithic village.
Thus, the descendants of settled farmers rose to prominence at the expense of their nomadic ancestors. Because of their low reproductive success, the latter were driven to the margins of the earth, if not eradicated altogether, while farmers came to rule the world. The number of Homo sapiens has increased from 2–5 million to 8 billion since the advent of agriculture. This agricultural production system has never ceased changing natural vegetation, with more alarming environmental repercussions, and this is directly responsible for the dramatic increase in the world’s population.
Despite the wide spread of agriculture, only a select few societies were able to develop under the influence of this economic model. To begin, have a look at South-West Asia. Due to the semi-arid environment, the ruins in this area are in remarkably good condition, making it one of the finest documented regions in the world by archaeologists. Cereals like wheat, barley, and rye, as well as legumes like peas, chickpeas, and lentils, grow wild in their native environment in the Fertile Crescent (seen on the map). The previous ice age occurred 23,000 years ago, and at that time, wheat and barley were already being cultivated.
About 14,000 years ago, in the southern Levant, people settled down thanks to the great yields and easy storage of these plants (Israel, Palestine, Jordan). Then, starting about 11,000 years ago, locals started growing and using grains commercially on a huge scale. Through Darwinian selection, the plants that were most suited to cultivation eventually became the dominant species, while their wild relatives were extinct over the course of the next millennium. Domestication (or cultivar improvement) began with natural selection and evolved into the intentional breeding used today.
Early Stages of Livestock Breeding
Agriculture of Ancient Egypt.
Animal husbandry, including the domestication of the cow, goat, sheep, and pig, also began in this period, around 10,500 years ago. Plants and animals provided the starch (a vast energy store!) that powered the subsequent flourishing of civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Europe beginning in the 4th millennium BC. This agricultural assemblage could adjust to many climates, allowing it to expand from northern Europe to the Americas, Africa, and even Australia. The urbanization, irrigation, animal traction, and literacy that followed the development of agriculture.
Further annual grain plants were domesticated elsewhere, giving birth to additional civilizations as well. These included rice and millet in China, maize in Central America, quinoa in South America, and millet and sorghum in Africa. In tropical regions like the Amazon and New Guinea, horticultural systems based on tubers have become the backbone of subsistence agriculture.
That begs the question: why did we develop agriculture? Scientists have long been intrigued by this subject, and they often discuss it by bringing up topics like population expansion, climate change, technical, mental, and social advancements, or the overexploitation of resources. However, it is common for us to mix the causes with the results. The habitat, climate, and civilization of each agricultural domestication site are distinct from one another. The “why” question has been replaced by a focus on the “how” and “by what procedures” of agriculture’s spread to new areas of the globe.
Bibliography
Melinda Zeder (2011). “The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East”. Current Anthropology.
One of the first human societies, Ancient Egypt, had been around for a very long time. King Narmer of Egypt united Upper and Lower Egypt before the year 3000 BC. He ushered in a dynasty of pharaohs that ruled Egypt for nearly 2,500 years. The Nile’s frequent yearly floods ensured more bountiful crops, which contributed to Egypt’s and the Pharaohs’ long lifespans and prosperous rule. The river served as the primary north-south transportation corridor, and the vast desert that surrounded it served as a natural barrier against invaders while also providing a source of construction materials and valuable metals. As a result of the Nile’s depletion, Egypt became a desert, and the development of Egyptian civilization was likely prevented. Egypt is a gift from the Nile, as the Greek historian Herodotus put it in the 5th century BC.
The Nile Valley is 500 miles (800 kilometers) long, beginning at the first cataract of the river near the old Egyptian boundary and ending at the Mediterranean. The Nile rises in the Ethiopian Highlands, much to the south of modern-day Egypt.
Back in Ancient Egypt, the waters of the Nile River were swelled by the onset of summer’s heavy rains, and by the conclusion of the season, it overflowed its banks into Egypt. As the water levels dropped, the floods left behind a damp, silty landscape. The Ancient Egyptians never required flood walls or elaborate water management techniques.
Ancient Egyptians planted their seeds in the fall in the rich, soggy soil, and then allowed the crops to mature in the winter sun. Then, in the spring, they harvested the fields just in time for the next flood. Only when the Nile floods were really bad did the people suffer from famine.
Around the 6th millennium BC (6000 to 5001 BC), farmers established themselves in the Nile Valley. The Sahara, now a huge grassland punctuated by numerous lakes, was formerly cultivable when North Africa was wetter than it is now. The environment started becoming drier and more desert-like about 4000 BC. Some Egyptian farmers became nomad herders, while others settled in the Nile Valley.
The beginnings of Egyptian culture
People living in the Nile Valley had been dividing the country into two distinct parts for thousands of years: Upper Egypt, in the south, along the river, and Lower Egypt, in the north, surrounding the delta. The southern area was guarded by the vulture goddess Nekhbet, while the northern part was guarded by the cobra goddess Wadjet. Both regions also had their own symbols, the lotus and the white crown in the south, the papyrus and the red crown in the north.
A kingdom developed in the southern area of Upper Egypt just before 3000 BC. It was during this time that the pictographic writing system of hieroglyphics was in widespread use. According to history, Narmer, the first king of Egypt, united the land by leading an army to victory over Lower Egypt. He made Memphis the new state capital due to its central location and strategic importance. Egypt’s successor kings built a robust administration during their time in power. Due to his divine lineage as the son of Ra, the sun god, the king was able to rule for all time.
The documents that have made it down to us have allowed historians to create a thorough list of the royal dynasties that dominated ancient Egypt and the approximate dates of their reigns, which span nearly continuously from 2920 to 30 BC. They did this by creating time eras in Egypt’s history. Following the collapse of the early dynasties (2920–2649 BC), the old empire (2649–2134 BC) saw royal rule expand southward all the way to Nubia. The conflict between competing dynasties (the first intermediate period, 2134–2040 BC) was followed by the reunification of Egypt under the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BC).
Pharaoh: ruler, and deity or a god-king
The Pharaohs were the kings and queens of ancient Egypt. The Pharaoh was both a human king and the divine offspring of the sun deity Ra. The Egyptians saw the Pharaoh as the embodiment of the gods, who sent him to Earth to act as a mediator between the gods and humans. The Pharaoh only would become a god after his death if the Egyptians believed he had supernatural abilities, such as the ability to control the Nile’s annual floods.
How the Pharaoh’s authority shaped Egyptian society
During his reign, the pharaoh had unchecked authority since he served as head of state, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and spiritual leader for his people. Supporting him in his efforts was a strong administration, with the viziers as the show-stopping protagonists. Since this was the case, the pharaoh enjoyed unchecked and consolidated authority.
The many facets of the pharaoh’s authority were represented by his characteristics. He represented national sovereignty by donning the pschent, the twofold crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. The uraeus, the snake symbol of protection, was tattooed on his forehead. The ruler held two scepters (the hook and the whip) as symbols of his authority.
Up to Alexander the Great‘s invasion of Egypt in 332 BC, 31 dynasties of pharaohs ruled Egypt in succession (because the following rulers, i.e., the Macedonian and Ptolemaic dynasties, were not really pharaohs).
Ancient Egyptian Empire
About 2649 BC, a time period known as the Old Empire began. Both the Egyptian kingdom and culture were expected to develop their signature features during this time. The Old Kingdom was the time when ideals were established that would serve as constant touchstones for years, if not millennia, to come.
The notion of divine kingship underpinned the whole of pharaonic Egyptian society. The king, as the reincarnation of Horus and the son of Osiris, acted as both an interpreter and an agent of the life force that kept the universe going. He was the only person responsible for managing the government and the economy. He had ownership of all of Egypt. The peasants, who were deemed to be dependents and were thus obligated to do tasks, did so in family teams overseen by royal authorities. The Old Kingdom monarchy was centralized and bureaucratic, yet it was not an arbitrary system. Power and fairness were always inextricably intertwined concepts.
In the beginning, only the king could attain immortality. When he dies, he becomes like the deity Osiris and watches over his home and the people from above. Therefore, the primary task of Egyptian dynasties was the building of tombs that would stand the test of time and ensure the king’s eternal legacy. The Egyptians led military expeditions against the Nubians, Libyans, and Sinai nomads since the reign of Snefru (about 2625–2601 BC) to acquire the raw materials needed for their great achievements, like wood from Lebanon.
The builders of the Egyptian pyramids
Massive structures began to arise throughout the Old Kingdom. Imhotep, minister to King Djoser, erected the first royal tomb at Saqqara, a seven-tiered structure with rows of stones defining the levels. This huge monument was built to honor a king who, even in death, continues to watch over his subjects.
Thanks to the pyramids of Giza, we know the names of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. The slanting sun rays symbolized by the pyramids’ form let the king’s soul reach heaven after death. For decades, a massive workforce was recruited to create these massive stone monuments.
The Pharaoh was mummified after his death. Mummification, a method that emerged in Ancient Egypt about the 3rd millennium BC, involved drying the corpse to prevent it from decomposing further. The bandage made the body seem nearly alive. In this way, the body would serve as a home for the soul all the time.
The pharaoh’s body was relocated to the pyramid’s central burial chamber. The walls of the chamber were covered with texts and magic formulae, and the luxurious items inside were meant to follow the departed into the afterlife. As soon as the funeral was over, the entrance to the room was blocked up with stones.
The pyramids were not constructed by slaves, as is often believed, but rather by trained artisans with the assistance of idle peasants during the flood season. How the hundreds of massive stone slabs were lifted and stacked one above the other remains a mystery.
Due to the high cost involved, pyramid building was abandoned after the end of the Middle Kingdom. When it came to displaying their riches and authority, the following Egyptian kings favored constructing temples adorned with huge bas-reliefs and sculptures.
The Middle Kingdom
The seated scribe, c. 2620-2500 BC. (Credit: Rama, BY-SA 2.0)
The period between the end of the 7th dynasty and the start of the 6th dynasty, or roughly 2152 BC and 2065 BC, is known as the First Intermediate Period. The invasions caused the region to become fractured, starvation to develop, and rebellion movements to proliferate, all of which coincided with the spread of the religion of Osiris, goddess of agriculture (who also taught mankind the technique of making beer).
In the year 2050 BC, after many years of civil conflict, Egypt was finally reunited under the rule of Mentuhotep II of Thebes. The Old Kingdom’s rigid structure was gradually dismantled and replaced with a more malleable Middle Kingdom governance, beginning about the year 2050 or 1786 BC.
During this time period, a theological compromise was reached with the Theban and Heliopolitan clergy in which Amun was connected with Ra. This was done in an effort to strengthen national unity. Throughout the 2nd millennium, the authority of the Amun priesthood was to be strengthened. Amenemhat I (1991-1962 BC) and Senusret III (1877-1843 BC), kings of the 12th dynasty, worked to reduce regional influence over the central government.
By acting as an intermediary between Amun-Ra and humanity, the pharaoh was able to increase his own authority, decreasing regional feudalism and guaranteeing the continuity of the kingdom during his own reign. Simultaneously, the possibility of eternal life opened up to a wider range of people. From now on, anybody could go there, so long as they adhere to the ritual’s tight guidelines. During this time, scribes reached the height of their power; they were the first real “middle class,” standing between commoners and nobles.
The Middle Kingdom wasn’t more “imperialist” than the one before it, but its kings still wanted to protect Egypt by fortifying its outposts. In the north-east, Amenemhat I had the “Prince’s Wall” built in front of the Bedouins (around 1976 BC); in the south, the high valley of the Nile was annexed up to Semma, beyond the second cataract, at the borders of Nubia. And it was protected by the construction, under the 12th dynasty, of fourteen fortresses that extended from Elephantine to Semna (Nubia).
Amenemhat III (1842–1797 BC) had a massive funerary complex, the “labyrinth” of the Greeks, in the center of the city and constructed and ordered massive works of drainage and irrigation for its expansion.
Egypt’s culture was revived after a period of invasion
A painting of an ancient Egyptian chariot. (Credit: Image)
After nearly three centuries of relative stability, the Ancient Egyptians began a period of turmoil known as the second intermediate period (1640–1532 BC). The inflow of Semitic inhabitants from Asia, who had been pushed out by the Indo-European invasions, threatens the stability of Egypt’s government. The Hyksos, who had established themselves in the region to the northeast of the Delta, waited until the pharaohs of the 13th and 14th dynasties fell from power to conquer all of Lower Egypt.
As a result of their military prowess, Egypt was able to acquire horses and chariots. Avaris, the Hyksos’ power hub, enters a new intermediate era as the seat of a 15th foreign dynasty. The Hyksos monarchs followed the Egyptian pharaohs’ example and adopted their cartouche and procedure, as well as Egyptian culture and religion.
Pharaoh: its origins and significance
The southerners put up a fight against the invaders. The rulers of Thebes took it upon themselves to free the land between Elephantine and Abydos. Even though Kamose was successful in his fight against the Hyksos, it was his brother, the Pharaoh Ahmose I, who ultimately expelled the invaders and united the land once more. When he assumed power in around 1552 or 1070 BC, he established the 18th dynasty and the New Kingdom. It was Ahmose who established the New Kingdom and the 18th dynasty (about 1552-1070 BC). It was during this era that the title “pharaoh” first appeared in historical records. This moniker, which translates to “great palace,” was chosen to reflect their prominent position within the administration.
The Egyptians realized that the period of seclusion from which their nation had benefited until the advent of the Hyksos was finished after experiencing foreign occupation. Egypt invested heavily in its military and fought a succession of endless battles for four centuries to secure its position of dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean marine commerce, the control of the Syro-Palestinian ports, and the caravan routes going to Mesopotamia.
The New Kingdom, in contrast to the Old and Middle Kingdoms, was unwaveringly imperialist; it vied with the Mitanni and the Hittites, the other two major nations of the time, for dominance of the Eastern Mediterranean, but it was never victorious.
The New Kingdom: the golden age of Ancient Egypt
Thutmose III (1481-1425 BC).
The 18th dynasty (c. 1570–1319 BC) was the height of Ancient Egyptian power and prestige on the international stage (thanks to conquests) and inside the country (thanks to the opulence of the court and the blossoming of literature and the arts; see the Necropolis of the Valley of the Kings). From the time of Pharaoh Amenhotep I (1546–1524 BC), Egyptian forces flooded Syria and reached the Euphrates; however, these early successes were rapidly nullified by local revolts and a dynastic crisis in Egypt (usurpation of queen Hatshepsut, 1503-1482 BC).
In 1482-1450 BC, under Thutmose III, all of the previous conquering efforts in Asia had to be restarted from scratch. This king, the greatest in Egyptian history, commanded no less than eighteen expeditions to Asia during his lifetime. At Megiddo (1482 BC), he destroyed a great Syrian-Palestinian alliance led by Mitanni, then he captured Kadesh on the Orontes (1474 BC), and finally he reached the Euphrates again, completing the conquest of Syria (1472 BC).
Ahmose, during the start of the 18th dynasty, retook control of southern Nubia, which had previously been subjugated to the Middle Kingdom. Expeditions led by Thutmose II and Thutmose III penetrated far into Kush, extending Egypt’s southern frontier to the fourth cataract (before 1477 BC). The New Kingdom’s administrative structure reflected a tremendous amount of regional variation. Once the middle class of scribes and prosperous peasants vanished with the Hyksos invasion, the pharaohs were forced to rely on a body of city officials that was considerably less in number than previously but was hereditary.
Nothing about imperial rule in the conquered nations could be described as dictatorial. When a viceroy was put in charge of Nubia, the region was rapidly and thoroughly Egyptianized. However, the pharaohs in Asia were content with a more lenient regime of protectorates and alliances, which left the local princes in place, and respected the local customs, languages, and indigenous religions. Economic responsibilities (trade contracts guaranteeing Egypt’s standing as a favored country), military obligations (annual payment of a tribute in kind: slaves, ore, horses, war chariots, livestock, timber, oil, etc.), and financial commitments all helped to establish Egyptian suzerainty (each subjugated people had to provide a contingent which served on the spot, under the command of Egyptian officers).
From the Amarna Period until the Ramesside Dynasty
Bas-relief depicting Amenhotep IV (Pharaoh Akhenaten, c. 1360- 1342 BC) while worshiping the solar disc, 18th dynasty. (Image)
It was under the reign of Amenhotep III (about 1417–1379 BC) that the “Egyptian peace” reached its pinnacle, ushering in an age of extraordinary affluence, luxury, and sweetness of life. The Theban priesthood, however, had not stopped expanding its sphere of authority and land holdings since the New Kingdom’s outset; the high priest of Amun had become something of a de facto second personage of the State.
Amenophis IV (1379–1362 BC) chose to leave the worship of Amun, the deity of his dynasty, and create the pure religion of Aten, the solar disk, as a reaction to this interference and, possibly, also to base the Pharaonic empire permanently on a religion more broadly available to men of all nations. The king, now known as Akhenaten (which means “Splendor of Aten”), and his wife, Nefertiti, relocated the capital from Thebes to the city of Akhenaten (or Amarna in Egyptian).
The Theban priesthood, representing Egyptian particularism, fought back violently against the revolution. Upon becoming king, Tutankhamun (1361–1352 BC), Amenhotep IV’s son-in-law and heir, had to immediately make peace with the Amun priests, return to Thebes, and reinstate the traditions. The crisis not only crippled the Egyptian monarchy outside (the Hittites having replaced the Egyptians in Syria by around 1375 BC), but also severely damaged its reputation domestically. After a period of chaos after the death of young Tutankhamun, the general Horemheb took control (1348–1320 BC) and began the restructuring of the state on the basis of the strictest traditionalism, with the backing of the Theban church, which was more powerful than ever. Egypt’s 19th dynasty (1319–1200 BC) was an attempt to revive the country’s former Asian dominance.
Sometime between 1318 and 1304 BC, Seti I retook southern Palestine. Ramses II (1304–1238 BC) attempted to retake Syria from the Hittites, but was defeated at Kadesh (c. 1300 BC), and subsequent campaigns were fruitless. Finally, in 1284 BC, the Egyptians and Hittites signed a treaty dividing Syria between them, and the treaty was confirmed by Ramses II’s marriage to the daughter of the Hittite king Hattusili III. This meant that the New Kingdom gave up on Eastern dominance for good, but it also brought around forty years of calm, during which classical Egyptian civilization shone its last light (construction of the funerary temple of Abu-Simbel, of the hypostyle hall of Karnak).
Decline of the pharaohs and end of Ancient Egypt
With the threat posed by the Hittites eliminated, the territory now needed to be protected from the Sea Peoples, who were making their way inland from the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece after being pushed out of those areas by subsequent Indo-European invasions and the arrival of the Dorians in the Aegean Sea. Merneptah, son and successor of Ramses II, drove them back.
Because of Pharaoh’s oppression, the Jews decided to escape Egypt and go with Moses to the land that God promised them. The New Kingdom’s collapse started with the death of Ramses III, the second king of the 20th dynasty. After the Assyrians and Libyans destroyed the empire and surrounded it, the priesthood of Amun, led by high priest Herihor, seized authority in Upper Egypt.
Egypt had lost the ability to defend itself against the relentless invasions, notwithstanding brief periods of strength under the reigns of pharaohs Shoshenq I (945-924 BC) and Psamtik I (664-610 BC). The final pharaohs were so badly off financially that they couldn’t even afford a tomb before it was destroyed. From then, Egypt fell under the rule of the Nubians, the Assyrians, and the Persians until finally capitulating to Alexander the Great’s army in 332 BC. The Ptolemies, a family of Greek ancestry, took control of Egypt and established themselves as the ruling dynasty.
Up to the 2nd century BC, Alexandria, the Ptolemaic capital, was a thriving economic and cultural hub. The Ptolemaic empire eventually collapsed due to internal strife, populist uprisings, and battles with the Seleucids. A series of weak monarchs led to the collapse of the Ptolemaic dynasty in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, when Rome became more involved in the country’s affairs.
Cleopatra was the last and most well-known of the Ptolemaic monarchs. She reigned autonomously at first but eventually received help from Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. After she and her son Ptolemy XIV, Caesarion, died in 30 BC, the Ptolemaic dynasty collapsed and Augustus seized Egypt for the Roman Empire. Incredibly, even the earliest known civilization managed to leave behind a rich cultural and artistic legacy that would be appreciated by future generations.
World War II was the worst war in human history, involving 61 countries and leading to the deaths of almost 60 million people. The Allies and the Axis fought each other around the globe for six long years. The war was marked by the emergence of notable individuals, such as Winston Churchill and Charles de Gaulle, who took the lead in standing against Adolf Hitler‘s Germany. World War II lasted longer than just the years 1939–1945, so it’s helpful to look back at its pivotal years to get a fuller picture of what happened.
Adolf Hitler’s first wave of racist legislation was enacted when the Nazi party came to power in Germany in 1933. His ambitions prompted the invasion of Poland that started World War II in 1939. Following the failure of their invasions of France and the Benelux nations, Germany launched an unsuccessful assault on England. The Soviet Union entered the war after Germany’s 1941 invasion of the country. The unexpected Japanese assault on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, was what finally mobilized the United States to fight in the Pacific.
In 1942, when Nazi officials sanctioned the “final solution,” the Allies were winning their first significant victories over the Japanese in the Coral Sea and Midway Atoll. The Allies landed in North Africa and defeated the Axis forces in the Battle of El Alamein, forcing the Axis to withdraw from the region. In the USSR, the Soviets were victorious in the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943. In the wake of the Normandy invasions, the German army was forced to retreat. On May 8, 1945, after being trapped by the Red Army and the other Allies, Germany surrendered. The United States detonated atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to force Japan to capitulate. On September 2, 1945, Japan officially surrendered.
What were the causes of World War II?
In the wee hours of September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, thus starting World War II. Austria had been annexed by Germany in 1938, and Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939, with little resistance. The battle had been building for quite some time before it officially started in September of 1939. By the time World War I ended in 1918, many nations were bitter and angry.
Germany’s repeated remilitarization and territorial expansion were in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles. Conquering Manchuria was an act of colonial ambition on the part of other nations, such as Japan. Italy first invaded and conquered Ethiopia, and then moved on to Albania. Many local wars also contributed to the outbreak of global war. It’s also worth noting that several countries were damaged by the Great Depression of 1929.
How did World War II begin?
Adolf Hitler and Heinrich Himmler inspect SS troops during a Reichsparteitag (Reich Party Day) parade in Nuremberg (September 5, 1938 – September 12, 1938).
On September 3, 1939, after Germany invaded Poland, French and British forces went to war with the Third Reich. There was hardly any combat throughout the first eight months of World War II. This conflict was a charade. On May 10, 1940, German armies invaded Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, marking the beginning of the “blitzkrieg.”
These three nations were overrun in under two weeks. Despite General de Gaulle’s appeal on June 18, 1940, Germany occupied France as well, and an armistice was signed on June 22. It was only the United Kingdom and the Axis powers. The Battle of Britain was fought by the German Luftwaffe and the Italian Air Force against the Royal Air Force of the United Kingdom (RAF).
Vernichtungskrieg: The World War II was a war of annihilation
Photo of the Wehrmacht propaganda unit: two German soldiers in front of the burning roof of a building, Soviet Union (Russia), photo from 1941.
World War II has been called a “war of annihilation” by several scholars. The stakes in World War II were significantly higher than those of a typical military war, when the primary objective was to eliminate the opposing force. Most nations that participated in the war were motivated only by a desire to wipe out the adversary, military and civilian alike, as seen by their extraordinary mobilization and the methods they used.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki are apt metaphors for this “war of annihilation” because of the atomic bombs dropped on them. Also in line with Nazi ideology’s racial beliefs was the genocide of Jews (the Final Solution), Gypsies, and other supposedly “inferior” races. World War II was also a “total war” that had far-reaching effects on civilian life.
Which countries were involved in World War II?
Between the years of 1939 and 1945, World War II was fought on the part of almost sixty different nations.
Since 1939, the Allies have consisted of Poland, France, the United Kingdom, and its empire (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, etc.). In April of that year, Norway and Denmark joined them, and on May 10 of that year, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg fell under enemy control. After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States and numerous Central American nations joined forces. While this action was taken, China was already at war with Japan, dating back to 1937.
Axis forces, including Japan, Italy, and Germany, stood in their way. In 1940, three parties reached an agreement. As the year 1940 came to a close, Hungary, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania all joined the Axis. While the Italian monarch signed an armistice with the Allies in 1943, Mussolini remained in power with the support of Nazi Germany.
As a result of the German-Soviet Pact, the Soviet Union entered the war on the side of Germany. The Soviets contacted the Allies on June 22, 1941, the day before Operation Barbarossa, the Third Reich’s invasion of the Soviet Union, began.
How did the World War II unfold in France
German Chancellor Adolf Hitler shakes hands with Head of State of Vichy France Marshall Philippe Pétain in occupied France on Oct. 24, 194.
France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939, marking its formal entry into World War II. Then came eight months of “Phoney War,” during which actual hostilities were minimal at best. As part of their “blitzkrieg” plan, German soldiers invaded France on May 10, 1940, after first seizing Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands the previous day. Marshal Pétain took power in France on June 17, 1940, and immediately ordered a halt to hostilities. General de Gaulle, operating out of London, ordered the combat to continue the next day. France capitulated to a German attack on June 22, 1940, and Marshal Pétain was eventually compelled to negotiate an armistice. After that, the line of separation split the country into a free south and an occupied north.
From 1940 to 1944, French life hummed along to the tune of the Vichy France dictatorship, the German occupation, and the Resistance. As part of Germany’s “final solution,” the yellow star was made mandatory for all Jews in France in June of that year. The French police detained all foreign Jews in the Paris area in the month of July.
This tally was taken at Vel d’Hiv. Multiple enlistments in the STO (compulsory labor service) beginning in 1942 greatly complicated the lives of the French. With the Allied arrival in North Africa, the free zone was eliminated, and all of France was seized by the Axis powers on November 11, 1942. The liberation of occupied France was made possible in June 1944 with the arrival of Allied soldiers in Normandy and afterwards in Provence. Then, on May 8, 1945, Germany surrendered to the onslaught of Allied forces.
French Resistance during World War II
Throughout the war, both men and women secretly fought for General de Gaulle and the Free French Forces as part of the French domestic resistance. The Resistance did as much as it could with what it had to try to weaken the enemy’s grip on French territory and defeat the Vichy administration, and it did this through a wide variety of tactics (sabotage, information collection, etc.).
When World War II ended, the Resistance played a significant role in the political rebuilding of the nation so that it would not be ruled by the United States. General de Gaulle was a major player in the French resistance movement. The London-based “resist” campaign he initiated on June 18, 1940, was his brainchild. Jean Moulin was able to successfully coordinate the numerous French resistance groups in France.
How many people died during World War II?
A Marine throws a grenade during the fight for Betio Island in Tarawa, ca. November 1943. Image: History Navy.
More than sixty million people lost their lives in World War II (estimates range between fifty and eighty five million deaths, according to historians), or over 2.5 percent of the world’s population at the time. The great bulk of the 60 million missing were innocent bystanders. Nearly six million people’s lives were lost as a direct result of the Holocaust.
Estimates place the number of French casualties during WWII at somewhat over 560,000. More than five million German troops and an additional one to three million civilians were killed or injured. More than 26 million people lost their lives in the Soviet Union as a direct result of the brutality of the warfare, Nazi racial cleansing, and starvation that the war created. Estimates range from 110,000 to 250,000 lives lost as a direct result of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings.
Who won World War II?
A correspondent stands in the rubble in Hiroshima on Sept. 8, 1945, a month after the first atomic bomb ever used in warfare was dropped by the U.S. (AP Photo/Stanley Troutman)
The Allies were victorious in World War II. The invasion of Nazi territories by the Allies began in March of that year. The Soviet army marched into Berlin on May 2 and quickly took control. Surrounded by invading Allies on April 30, 1945, Adolf Hitler decided to terminate his own life in his Berlin bunker rather than sign Germany’s surrender to the Allies on May 8. Japan’s Emperor Hirohito steadfastly rejected American demands for surrender. The Americans then tested two atomic bombs. Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the decisive bombing targets that brought World War II to a conclusion on August 6 and 9, 1945. On September 2 of that year, Emperor Hirohito capitulated.
Aftermath of World War II
The defeat of the Axis powers by the Allied powers (United Kingdom, France, the United States, China, and the Soviet Union) led to the disintegration of the Third Reich, the fall of the Japanese Empire, and the termination of the Italian Colonial Empire. The Yalta Conference in February 1945 created the accords for the four-part occupation of Germany (English, French, American, and Russian).
In addition to the disarming of the nation and the redefining of the boundaries, this agreement was also endorsed at the Potsdam Conference (summer 1945). At the Nuremberg trial, 22 Nazi war criminals were judged in an effort to finally put an end to Nazism. The tensions between Stalin and American President Harry Truman at these summits were a sign of what was to come in the Cold War.
TIMELINE OF WORLD WAR II
The Maginot Line legislation was passed on January 4, 1930
The legislation authorizing the building of a line of fortifications from the Mediterranean to the Belgian border was presented in December 1929 by Minister of War André Maginot. It took five years to finish the “Maginot Line” after a loan of 3.3 billion francs was approved. The line of defense would stretch over the whole of eastern France, with the exception of the Ardennes massif, which military leaders deemed insurmountable.
The Japanese occupied Manchuria on September 25, 1931
The Chinese military was defeated by the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on September 25th, 1931. The Japanese captured the whole province, renaming it Manchukuo and installing Emperor Puyi, the last Chinese emperor in exile, as its leader. The Japanese rule in Manchuria fell as a result of an offensive by the Soviet Union in August of 1945. Today, Manchuria is still not included among the provinces that make up the PRC’s central government.
On January 30, 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany
The German President, Paul von Hindenburg, appointed Hitler as Chancellor of the Reich against his will. He disliked the “Bohemian corporal,” as he referred to the National Socialist Party’s top official. Hitler needed to establish a new “national concentration” government. Hitler became dictator, Goering became the Interior Commissioner, and Frick oversaw the Ministry of the Interior; all three were members of the Nazi Party. Hitler became president when Hindenburg died on August 2, 1934.
The first concentration camp opened on March 20, 1933
Heinrich Himmler, leader of the SS (Schutzstaffel), converted a disused factory at Dachau into a concentration camp for political prisoners. Many government opponents were sent there, including communists and social democrats. Over the course of its operation from 1933 to 1945, Dachau held around 250,000 inmates. A total of 70,000 people perished.
On November 12, 1933, the Nazi Party in Germany won an election
The Nazi party’s only electoral list in Germany received 92.1% of the vote. After a decisive win, the Nazis marched into the Reichstag. In a referendum, 95% of Germans showed support for the National Socialist Party’s foreign policy.
On March 16th, 1935, Hitler orders a return to military duty and a rearmament of Germany
Hitler brought back mandatory military duty for Germans. As a result, the force strength went from 100,000 to 500,000 under his command. As the first infractions of the Treaty of Versailles occurred, France, England, and the United States watched on. Chancellor Hitler was no longer coy about his plans to build an aggressive, formidable army. To facilitate the Third Reich’s rearmament, Hitler effectively ignored the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. No nation has responded to the reinstatement of the navy and air force. The Treaty of Versailles renamed the German army the Reichswehr; this was changed to the Wehrmacht.
The Stresa Conference officially began on April 11, 1935
Germany’s transgressions of the Treaty of Versailles prompted a meeting between France, the United Kingdom, and Italy. The conference lasted for four days in the Italian city of Stresa. If there were to be no additional violations of the Treaty of Versailles, a “Stresa Front” had to be established. The front was disbanded, however, when Mussolini’s Italy sought to seize Ethiopia. After that, Mussolini gradually began to get closer to Hitler.
The Nuremberg Code was drafted on September 15, 1935
Hitler’s first anti-Semitic measures were introduced at the Nazi Party Congress in Nuremberg. A Jew could no longer become a naturalized German citizen. They were not allowed to mingle with or marry members of the “Aryan” race. The “Final Solution” of 1942 was a direct result of this first discriminatory legislation.
September 15, 1935: The Swastika flag of the German Reich
A flag known as the swastika was used by Adolf Hitler’s National Socialist Party of German Workers. Consisting of four gallows arranged in the form of a gamma, it represents the swastika, a Neolithic-era religious emblem. The red denotes social consciousness, the white represents purity, and the black depicts the cross of battle. It was adopted as the only national flag on September 15, 1935, during the Nuremberg Congress.
Italy invaded Ethiopia on October 3, 1935
The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent 400,000 soldiers to Abyssinia to launch an assault on Ethiopia. After months of fighting, Ethiopian forces under King Haile Selassie eventually surrendered. Victor-Emmanuel III, King of Italy, was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia on May 9, 1936. In May of 1941, with help from the British, Haile Selassie retook control of his kingdom.
The Rhineland was remilitarized on March 7, 1936
Wehrmacht forces reoccupied the Ruhr demilitarized zone. Hitler proclaimed the demilitarization obligations Germany had made under the Treaty of Versailles to be null and invalid. The Western nations were alarmed by Germany’s breach of international law, but they did little to stop it. Forcibly reinstituting mandatory military duty was done a year earlier. In 1938, the annexation of Austria was a further breach of the boundary accords.
On October 25, 1936, Mussolini and Hitler began to work closely together
In the three years leading up to the outbreak of World War II, the two leading Axis officials proclaimed their union. The first reconciliation between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy under the leadership of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, which would eventually lead to joint military action against the Allies, was established on October 25, 1936. The Führer therefore acknowledged the Italian government’s authority over Ethiopia.
November 1, 1936-Birth of the Rome-Berlin Axis
A first military alliance was formed as a result of the warming of relations between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. In 1940, the Rome-Berlin Axis grew to include the Empire of Japan. Other nations joined this axis over the course of many months. The countries of Hungary and Romania are good examples of this.
The Anti-Komintern Pact was signed on November 24, 1936
During its conquests, Japan fought against the Soviet army but ultimately opted to join forces with Nazi Germany to counter communism. The avowed goal of this partnership was to fight the Comintern (or Third Communist International). In reality, it was a military aid deal that helped solidify the Axis once Fascist Italy joined the bloc the next year.
July 7, 1937-Beginning of the Sino-Japanese War
The Chinese-Japanese War officially began with the events at Marco Polo Bridge in Peking. Because of the loss of one of their men, the Japanese decided to conduct a search of the city. The Chinese resisted, so they brought in the big guns. On the 28th of July, they took control of Beijing.
The Japanese army had been present in Manchuria since 1931, but it wasn’t until this invasion that they really demonstrated their intent to conquer China. After then, it grew at a lightning pace. However, the Kuomintang (KMT) still delivered several crucial fights while being significantly slowed down by the guerilla forces commanded by the communists in the north.
Combat began in Shanghai on August 13, 1937
During the Sino-Japanese War of 1937, China and Japan fought in the Battle of Shanghai. On August 13, four days after Japanese Lieutenant Isao Oyama was killed by Chinese forces, fighting broke out. It took the Japanese over three months to completely conquer Shanghai, despite having superior weapons, preparation, and organization. Chinese forces were outnumbered, yet on November 26, they surrendered anyhow. The Japanese established a government based on collaboration.
Nanjing Massacre, December 13, 1937
Imperial Japanese Army troops slaughtered between 200,000 and 300,000 civilians and unarmed soldiers at Nanking, the headquarters of the Nationalist government of the Republic of China. Mass rapes, unlawful killings of Chinese POWs, robbery, and arson occurred alongside this incident during the Sino-Japanese conflict.
March 13, 1938: Hitler carried out the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria
Adolf Hitler ordered an invasion of Austria after the country’s chancellor was removed from office by force. Soldiers of the Reich were cheered by Austrians when they annexed the country with little resistance. In the name of “attachment,” the Führer announced the reunification of Austria and Germany (Anschluss). This compromise, forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles, was first tried in 1934. However, it met with little opposition from Western democracies this time. This annexation was supported by a large margin in a referendum held in Germany and Austria. Austria was added as a new piece to the Nazi battlefield and transformed into the “Ostmark,” or Eastern March of the Reich.
China’s Battle of Wuhan starts on June 11th, 1938
In China, the Battle of Wuhan starts. After taking Shanghai and Nanking, the Japanese army was more eager than ever to complete the Sino-Japanese War with a decisive victory over China. The Chinese troops, aided by the Russians, put up a fierce fight for four months before eventually succumbing to Japanese forces.
“Sudeten Crisis” began on September 15, 1938
German-speakers in Bohemia and Moravia were known as the Sudetenland. The Sudeten crisis started on September 15th, 1938. Hitler’s goal was to incorporate the Sudetenland into Nazi Germany. This was advanced by the signing of the Munich Agreement on September 29, 1938. As a result of Germany’s defeat at the war’s conclusion, the Sudetenlanders would be forced into exile in the country.
The Munich Pact was signed on September 30, 1938.
An agreement about Czechoslovakia’s future was signed that night in Munich by Hitler, Mussolini, and the prime ministers of the United Kingdom and France, Neville Chamberlain and Édouard Daladier. After 12 hours of talks, France and Great Britain caved to German demands in order to prevent a new war.
Despite its reluctance, the Czechoslovak government ultimately caved in to the demands of the major nations and acknowledged the country’s breach of the Treaty of Versailles. There was no doubt that Hitler came out on top at this conference. The next day, Hitler invaded the Sudetenland and began demolishing Central Europe’s lone democracy. The Munich Agreement was a metaphor for the impotence of European democracies in the face of fascism’s march to power.
Czechoslovak President Edvard Benes resigned on October 5th, 1938
On October 5, 1938, Edvard Beneš resigned as president of Czechoslovakia. This action followed the September 1938 Munich Agreement, which authorized German control over Czechoslovakia’s German-populated regions. The First Czechoslovak Republic collapsed when Edvard Beneš was replaced as president by Emil Hácha. Bene had been exiled. There was just one year of the Second Czechoslovak Republic. Bohemia-Moravia became the official name of the nation while under Nazi control.
November 9, 1938: Tragic “Kristallnacht” in Germany
In order to incite a Nazi uprising against Jews, German Propaganda Minister Goebbels falsely claimed that Jews were plotting against Germany. Synagogues, businesses, and Jewish houses in Germany’s major cities were assaulted by thousands of Nazi extremists in the middle of the night.
As a direct consequence of the fighting, 91 Jews lost their lives and almost 10,000 were taken as captives. As an allusion to the shattered windows during the “pogrom,” Hitler dubbed this first outbreak of anti-Semitic violence “Kristallnacht.” As punishment for the nighttime disturbances, the Jewish community had to pay a billion marks.
January 13, 1939: Hungary was invited to the Anti-Comintern Pact
Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany formed the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936. The dilemma of whether or not to oppose the Third Communist International arose against the backdrop of the bloody conflict in Siberia and Mongolia between Japan and the Soviet Union. In January 1939, the Hungarian monarchy joined Mussolini’s Italy and Franco’s Spain as signatories. In the case of a military assault by the Soviet Union, both nations pledged to help each other militarily.
The biggest German battleship, the Bismarck, was launched on February 14, 1939
The battleship “Bismarck” was named after Otto von Bismarck, the German chancellor from 1815 until his death in 1898. It was launched in Hamburg port on February 14, 1939, with Hitler watching. It entered service on August 24, 1940, under the leadership of Ernst Lindemann, and quickly became one of the most important assets of the Nazi navy of the Third Reich with the Tirpitz. She was renowned for having capsized her British equivalent, the HMS Hood.
Bohemia was occupied by the Germans on March 15, 1939
Nazi Germany attacked Bohemia and Moravia after the Munich Agreement, the acquisition of regions by Poland and Hungary, and the secession of Slovakia, which became under fascist rule. The treaties of Versailles and Saint-Germain-en-Laye were also terminated at this time, along with those with the Czechoslovak Republic.
The Munich Accords failed to achieve their stated goal of ensuring lasting peace. The next day, Bohemia and Moravia were occupied and turned into protectorates, while Slovakia was reduced to a German satellite state. The Beneš government, having fled the nation in the wake of the Munich Agreement, planned the uprising from London.
April 5, 1939: Albert Lebrun was re-elected President of the Republic
Albert Lebrun was re-elected as President of France on April 5, 1939. The economic crisis of 1934, the rise of the Popular Front, and rising tensions in Europe all occurred during his first seven years in office. Even though he was against signing an armistice with Nazi Germany, he had to accept Marshal Pétain as President of the Council. After Pétain fired him, the Germans imprisoned him at Itter Castle in the Austrian Tyrol beginning in October 1943.
Italy invaded Albania on April 7th, 1939
Italy, led by Benito Mussolini, invades Albania after putting intense pressure on the nation. Victor Emanuele II, King of Italy, was also crowned King of Albania. King Zogu abdicated and fled to Greece when his nation was invaded. After Italy, Germany seized Albania in 1943. Then, Zogu sought asylum in the United Kingdom. Soon, communists and nationalists joined forces to organize the resistance in Albania.
On April 20, 1939, the German military celebrated Hitler’s 50th birthday with a parade
Hitler marked his half-century on this earth on April 20th, 1939. On this day, Berlin was planning a massive military parade. The Nazi military’s might was on display for the world to see during the three-hour parade of numerous corps. The parade began with the Waffen SS in the front, then the Luftwaffe, the air force, the army’s panzers, and the heavy artillery, which included assault guns.
The Pact of Steel was signed on May 22, 1939
In Berlin, von Ribbentrop and Count Ciano, the foreign ministers of Germany and Italy, respectively, signed an offensive military support treaty. It formally solidified the alliance between Nazi Germany (which conquered Austria and Czechoslovakia) and Fascist Italy, which had been declared in November 1936 and annexed Albania.
August 23, 1939: The German-Soviet Pact
German and Soviet representatives signed a non-aggression agreement on August 23, 1939. A series of military and diplomatic agreements were outlined in this text, including a pledge of neutrality should Germany or the Soviet Union come into confrontation with the Western countries.
This covert pact rearranged Eastern European power structures. In response to Germany’s September assault on Poland, the Soviet Union launched an invasion of Finland. Invading Russia in 1941 was a clear violation of this pact by Hitler.
The German Wehrmacht invaded Poland on September 1, 1939.
Adolf Hitler’s German troops invaded Poland at 4:45 a.m. without first issuing a formal declaration of war. Italy declared its neutrality on the same day that France, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union all declared universal mobilization. At this point, World War II had officially started.
The Swiss border was protected by General Guisan on September 2, 1939.
Switzerland, a neutral country and a significant international financial hub, raises its military to defend its borders against a hypothetical German invasion. General Guisan defended the nation throughout World War II, and the Nazis were unable to invade.
September 3, 1939: London and Paris declare war on Germany
France and the United Kingdom formally declared war on Germany two days after the German invasion of Poland. The French and British governments, pushed by their own publics, came to the conclusion that a diplomatic settlement and discussions with Germany were no longer viable options. The “Phoney War” had officially begun.
On September 10, 1939, Canada declared its participation in World War II
Canada joined WWII on May 10, 1940, seven days after Britain and almost two years before the United States. However, the situation remained precarious because French Canadians had rejected foreign support for the war. At the start of the 1940s, the speed of industrialization helped the Allies a lot.
On September 17th, 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland
After signing an August treaty obligating them to aid Germany, the Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland. In the same vein as Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union permitted this invasion to occur without formally declaring war. After intense combat, the Red Army emerged victorious.
Soviet troops invade Finland on November 30th, 1939
Following a border dispute over the Karelian Isthmus, Stalin invaded Finland without even making a formal declaration of war. Nearly half a million Russian forces invaded the nation. Viborg and the capital city of Helsinki were both hit by bombs. In this fight, known as the “Winter War,” 265,000 Finns fought against the Red Army. This violence was widely criticized across the world.
On December 14th, the USSR was kicked out of the League of Nations. Finnish territorial concessions and the signing of the Moscow Treaty on March 12, 1940, brought an end to the war that had been more difficult for the Soviets than they had anticipated. The Soviet Union took over 15,500 square miles (40,000 square kilometers). Once again on the attack, Finland allied with Nazi Germany in 1941.
December 13, 1939: Battle of the River Plate
The Battle of the Rio de la Plata began on December 13, 1939, and it was the first naval battle of World War II. In response to Admiral Graf Spee‘s repeated attacks on British commerce ships in the Atlantic, three British warships gave chase. Due to the extensive damage sustained by both vessels, the German ship sought sanctuary in the Rio de la Plata at Montevideo. When he felt trapped, Nazi Captain Langsdorff sank his ship.
Initiation of Case Yellow, February 24, 1940
The German military high command drafted the Case Yellow plan, Fall Gelb, on February 24, 1940. Attacking in the western countries of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg was part of the strategy. The strategy called for three separate armies: one to penetrate the Ardennes and rapidly reach the Meuse; another to invade the Netherlands by fooling the majority of the soldiers into thinking they were already there; and a third to fix the French forces at the Maginot Line.
March 5, 1940: Order sent for the Katyn massacre
Germany and Russia agreed to divide Poland in half the same year, in 1940. In 1940, on March 5, members of the Soviet Politburo signed the order for the Katyn massacre. Polish commanders and elites who were thought to be anti-communist were killed in a woodland close to the city of Smolensk. The Soviet Union did not acknowledge the massacre until 1990. The deaths of another 25,000 to 26,000 Poles in 1940 were attributable to more executions of the country’s elite.
On this day in 1940, April 9th, Germany invaded Norway and Denmark
German forces began Operation “Weserübung” at 2:15 a.m. in Norway and 5:20 a.m. in Denmark. Christian X, King of Denmark, issued a ceasefire order to his forces immediately. Norwegians fought back against the invaders and sank many German ships. On the 19th, they were rescued by a joint French and British force, providing needed protection for the commerce fleet.
“In order to safeguard them from the Allies and to ensure their neutrality until the conclusion of the fight, Germany is taking Denmark and Norway,” Hitler said to justify the invasion. The two nations were under a less harsh occupation than many others until 1943. With the help of Sweden, Denmark was able to relocate a sizable number of Jewish people there, where they were safe from deportation.
Battles of Narvik, April 10, 1940
In Norway between April 10 and 13, 1940, Allied forces defeated German forces in the first major battle of World War II. In April of 1940, the Germans launched an attack in Norway in an effort to capture the port of Narvik, the only port in the area that remained open during the winter, and so facilitate the shipment of iron, which the Germans desperately needed to fuel their war machine. French and British forces destroyed their ships, and the invaders fled.
The Battle of France started on May 10, 1940
Using the Case Yellow strategy, known as the Manstein Plan, the German army began the Battle of France on May 10, 1940. The Dutch, the Belgians, the Luxembourgians, and the French were invaded. The Wehrmacht moved through Luxembourg and Belgium toward Sedan, France. To the dismay of the French, German forces were able to sneak across the Ardennes and past their defenses at the Maginot Line. During the Battle of France, the breakthrough at Sedan was an important operation.
Hitler invaded Belgium on May 10th, 1940
Hitler’s invasion of Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and France was part of his massive “Case Yellow” campaign. When Neville Chamberlain resigned as United Kingdom prime minister as a result of this incident, the “Phoney War” was over. When the German forces arrived, the border residents fled. On May 22, the Netherlands surrendered, and on May 27, Belgium did as well.
On May 10, 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister
Winston Churchill replaced Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom after Chamberlain’s resignation. The man who was dubbed “the old lion” made the statement, “I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat,” in the House of Commons three days after his appointment. In 1938, he publicly criticized the Munich Pact.
The Lys Battle began on May 23, 1940
On May 10, 1940, Germany initiated the Battle of France and took the fort at Eben-Emael, weakening the Belgian defenses. Once the Wehrmacht advanced into Sedan, the Belgian troops withdrew peacefully. The Battle of the Lys took place from May 23 to May 28, 1940, and was initiated by the Belgians to stop the Germans from crossing the river Lys. Heavily beaten, King Leopold III of Belgium surrendered after both armies suffered devastating casualties.
Evacuation of Dunkirk, May 24, 1940
When the German army finally entered Abbeville on May 20, 1940, it effectively cut the Allies in half. A million troops from France, Britain, and Belgium were cornered up north. On May 24, the Battle of Dunkirk started, and its primary purpose was to get as many men back to the United Kingdom as quickly as possible. This mission was a success because of the stubbornness of the Dunes Fort’s defenders and Hitler’s hesitance to invade Dunkirk. The operation required the use of every ship in the Channel; therefore, all of them were called into service.
Operation Alphabet, 24 May 1940
On May 24, 1940, after the success of the Allied onslaught during the Battle of France, they launched Operation Alphabet. Mission: get all Allied forces out of Norway, especially out of the port of Narvik. After their invasion of Belgium, the Germans lost interest in the iron-exporting port of Antwerp. The Wehrmacht’s occupation of this port harmed the defenses of both Sweden and Finland. Despite their official neutrality, these nations were obliged to cooperate more closely with the Germans, who were able to use the railways in Sweden.
May 25, 1940: Siege of Lille
When the German Wehrmacht launched their attack during the Battle of France, they were within striking distance of the French city of Lille. From May 25 to May 30, 1940, the French and British Allies fought against the resistance in the enclave of Lille. When General Molinié attempted to breach the enemy’s lines, his effort proved unsuccessful. Colonel Aizier signed a document of surrender on behalf of the defenders of Lille. Aizier was later fired after being criticized by Hitler for giving the Allies too much breathing room.
26 May 1940 – Operation “Dynamo” at Dunkirk
The evacuation of the Allied forces encircled at Dunkirk was given the go-ahead by British Vice Admiral Bertram Ramsay (North). The name “Dynamo” was chosen to honor the previous location of Ramsay’s offices, which included a functioning generator. The French and British forces were caught off guard by the German onslaught and were forced to retire with their backs to the ocean to the safety of Dunkirk. In only nine days, the Royal Navy had requisitioned every possible ship in order to bring 340,000 soldiers back to Britain. However, this proved insufficient, and on June 4, the 30,000 Frenchmen who had remained on the beaches were forced to capitulate to the Germans.
Battle of Abbeville, May 28, 1940
With Dunkirk harbor besieged, the Allies focused on protecting the Channel ports still in their hands. From May 28th until June 4th, 1940, the Battle of Abbeville raged. After replacing Gamelin, General Weygand made an effort to clear a path to Abbeville. Involved in the action and contributing to the Anglo-French victory was Colonel de Gaulle. In the Battle of France, this victory had just a modest impact.
On May 28th, 1940, King Leopold III surrendered
In the face of the Nazi invasion, King Leopold III of Belgium surrendered without an armistice. The Germans imprisoned him at Laeken Castle and then sent him into exile in London. On September 8, 1944, the government departed for Brussels, and he was transferred to Austria. A great deal of political and internal strife ensued after the restoration of the king. Not till 1950 did the monarch return to the land of his nation.
June 5, 1940: De Gaulle appointed Under-Secretary of State for Defense by Paul Reynaud
In response to the invasion by the German troops, France attempted to make some major changes to its government. General de Gaulle was asked to serve as Under-Secretary of Defense under Minister of War Paul Reynaud after Edouard Daladier was ousted for being too defeatist.
Italy officially joined the war on June 10, 1940
Italy took advantage of France’s vulnerability to declare war on it, even though its army was not yet ready to go to war. It signed the Steel Pact with Nazi Germany and then with the United Kingdom. On the military front, though, Italy would suffer a series of setbacks.
Starting on June 10, 1940, the East African war officially got underway
On June 10, 1940, Italy joined Nazi Germany in their war effort. Mussolini unified Eritrea, Somalia, and Ethiopia inside Italian East Africa as early as June 1936. As the British were concerned about the safety of their supply line, they fought against the Italian assault. It was at this time that the East African campaign began, pitting Italy and Germany’s Afrika Korps against the United Kingdom and its allies from the Commonwealth, plus Belgium and South Africa.
France fell to the Nazis on June 14, 1940.
French opposition was nonexistent when German forces marched into the city on June 14th, 1940. Many people had already abandoned the city of government. Additionally, some hours before the arrival of the German army, Paris was designated an “open city” to shield the city’s historical landmarks from the battle. From that point on, Paris was a city under Nazi occupation.
14 June 1940: Operation Vado
France lost the Battle of France to the German Wehrmacht and then had to fight Mussolini’s Italy in the Battle of the Alps. The army of the Alps put up a valiant fight against the Italian soldiers, and on June 14th, 1940, they decided to begin Operation Vado. Attacks against the Italian ports of Genoa and Savona were planned. Shortly after leaving Toulon, the French navy did some small damage and discovered a gap in the Italian coast’s defenses.
16 June 1940-Pétain, president of the Council
The armistice with the Third Reich was a point of contention, and Paul Reynaud ultimately decided to retire as a result. Marshal Pétain, a hero of World War I, took up the negotiations for an armistice with Adolf Hitler’s Germany when he resigned. Pétain declared an armistice on June 17, 1940, after taking power. The document was signed on June 22.
Jean Moulin attempted suicide on June 17, 1940.
Jean Moulin, the prefect of Chartres, declines to sign a paper in which he admits the improper conduct of French soldiers. Jean Moulin attempted suicide by slitting his neck with a shard of a shattered bottle because he feared he would not be able to withstand the torment he was about to endure. Once he was well again, he was treated and released.
17 June 1940: Destruction of the RMS Lancastria at Saint-Nazaire
It was a transatlantic liner called the RMS Lancastria. It was requisitioned along with other vessels to aid in the evacuation of civilian refugees and British troops. Saint-Nazaire, where the Lancastria was docked, was attacked by the German air force on June 17, 1940. In only 24 minutes, it went down, taking 1,708 lives with it. It was one of the worst shipwrecks in history and a World War II tragedy.
June 18, 1940—Appeal of 18 June
General de Gaulle, in exile in London, made his now-famous plea on the BBC on June 18, 1940. In his address, the French general encouraged his countrymen to keep fighting and enlisted the aid of French troops, engineers, and weapons experts already stationed in Britain to better coordinate their efforts against Germany.
June 22, 1940: France signs the armistice
An armistice between France and Germany was signed by Marshal Pétain’s administration across the English Channel. According to the story, the armistice was signed in the same automobile in which the German generals signed the armistice that ended the First World War in 1918. Almost immediately after it was signed, Churchill criticized the armistice between France and Germany. The occupation had spread to northern France.
July 2, 1940: The Pétain government moved to Vichy
It was determined at the beginning of July that the Pétain administration would establish itself in Vichy. “Work, Family, and Homeland” became the new national slogan of France. Simultaneously, General de Gaulle gave a speech to the French people from London. The great spokesperson for Free France called on his countrymen to keep fighting until they were finally free.
July 2, 1940: Operation Catapult
Winston Churchill launched Operation Catapult on July 2, 1940. The British were concerned that the French navy might fall into German hands after the French surrender and armistice. Therefore, it was resolved to either capture or destroy the French navy. Some of the action occurred in harbors in Great Britain, while other parts occurred close to the coast of Africa. It permanently damaged ties between France and Britain when 1,300 French sailors were slain.
July 3, 1940: The French fleet is destroyed at Mers-El-Kebir
At six o’clock in the evening, British aircraft began attacking French vessels docked at Mers el-Kebir, a port located northeast of Oran. After the loss of the battleship “Bretagne,” the battleships “Dunkerque” and “Provence” were severely damaged. There were 1,380 lost French sailors. Some days after the French surrender to Germany was signed, the British launched their offensive.
When it became clear that the French navy might fall into German hands, Winston Churchill’s administration made an offer to the French naval troops in Algeria to come under their command. British Vice Admiral Somerville issued an ultimatum, which was refused by French Fleet Commander Admiral Marcel Gensoul, prompting the assault.
July 10, 1940: Pétain established the French State
The National Assembly met in Vichy and unanimously approved a constitutional amendment giving Marshal Pétain, then 85 years old, absolute authority. Philippe Pétain, acting with absolute authority, formed the French state and ended the Third Republic, which Albert Lebrun had ruled over.
Broadcasting of “The French Speak to the French” began on July 14, 1940.
The propaganda program “Les Français parlent aux Français” (The French speak to the French) premiered the day following General De Gaulle’s famous Appeal. Michel Saint-Denis oversaw production and transmission of the show from the BBC in London. Until August of 1944, it transmitted a wide variety of news and analyses of current events with the aim of aiding the Allied cause.
July 15, 1940: Battle of Moyale in Kenya
On July 15, 1940, a battle was fought at Moyale, Kenya. The East African campaign saw one of the few Italian offensives. Moyale, a border town guarded by a single British unit, came under assault. The First King’s African Rifles put up a valiant fight, but General Gustavo Pesenti ultimately prevailed. They were outnumbered, so the company fled, and the town eventually fell to the Italians.
August 7, 1940: Churchill recognized de Gaulle’s legitimacy
Winston Churchill sent a letter to General de Gaulle as the departments of the Moselle, Upper Rhine, and Lower Rhine were being annexed by Germany. Churchill acknowledged de Gaulle’s authority and signed the historic Churchill-de Gaulle accords with this handwritten letter. Eventually, Roosevelt did put his faith in the General.
August 16, 1940: Arrival of the ship Massilia in Morocco
The withdrawal of 27 lawmakers who had sought safety in Bordeaux was prompted by the French army’s defeat by German forces. Admiral Darlan requisitioned the ship Massilia for the administration of Paul Reynaud in order to form a government in exile in North Africa. The crowd booed them when they arrived in Casablanca, Morocco, on August 16, 1940. After being taken into police custody, several members of parliament were eventually found guilty of desertion in the face of the enemy, while others were determined to have participated in the French rout.
On August 26th, 1940, the countries of Chad and Niger joined the Free French
In 1938, Félix Éboué was appointed governor of Chad and tasked with safeguarding a vital French supply line to the Congo against Nazi aggression. His approval of General de Gaulle’s request to reclaim territory in Chad on June 18, 1940, was a major victory for France. On August 26, 1940, he and Niger’s leader both publicly declared their countries’ support for Free France. French Equatorial Africa as a whole soon followed suit.
Transylvania was handed over to Hungary from Romania on August 30th, 1940
The second Vienna arbitration, led by Germany and Italy, was decided upon on August 30, 1940. The Axis wanted to prevent conflict between Hungary and Romania. Hungarian claims to the northern part of Transylvania were recognized. Moreover, 2.5 million people, of whom half were ethnic Magyars, lived in the territory that Romania handed over to Hungary. Because of this arbitration, many people had to leave their homes.
The Blitz began in England on September 7, 1940
Hitler said, “We will raze their cities to the ground,” in early September, as the Royal Air Force successfully bombed Berlin. A few days later, the Luftwaffe switched its focus to London and launched its first extensive aerial bombardment of people, rather than military objectives. This marked the beginning of the Blitz, a crucial phase of the Battle of Britain. Hitler intended to lower English morale, but his actions only served to galvanize the populace against the Nazis. The “blitz” (lightning) lasted nearly a month.
On September 13th, 1940, Italy invaded Egypt
Egypt was invaded by Mussolini’s fascist Italy from its Libyan colony on September 13, 1940. Conflicts in North Africa broke out in the British protectorate. The British were concerned about the safety of a major supply line, so they sent soldiers from the Commonwealth, Belgium, and South Africa to defend it. There was a swift defeat of the Italian onslaught.
Léon Blum’s Arrest on September 15, 1940
Léon Blum, a Popular Front delegate who was one of the few to vote against giving Pétain absolute authority, was arrested on September 15, 1940, while enjoying parliamentary immunity. He made no secret of his outrage and disapproval of the Vichy government. He was put on trial with other politicians blamed for the conflict. A window of opportunity opened up for him to escape to the United States just before he was apprehended. Léon Blum’s trial was put on hold, and he was sent to Buchenwald immediately thereafter.
Tonkin was occupied by the Japanese on September 22, 1940
Since 1937, Japan and China have been at war, and Japan blamed Tonkin, a French territory and a supply route for China, for the country’s failure to win. Japan was able to exert pressure and establish a military presence in Tonkin after the French were defeated in Europe.
Japan launched an invasion and subsequent occupation of the area in September and October of 1940. Admiral Jean Decoux, spokesperson for the Vichy administration, had to negotiate when the city of Lạng Sơn fell on September 22.
On September 23, 1940, the Anglo-Gaullists attacked Dakar
The Battle of Dakar, also known as Operation Menace, took place between British and General de Gaulle’s forces on the one hand, and French soldiers loyal to the Petainist government in Vichy on the other, between September 23 and 25, 1940. The goal of the Anglo-Gaullists was to secure their African strongholds by seizing French East Africa under Governor Pierre Boisson. There was a failure in the landing effort when Admiral Muselier challenged General de Gaulle’s authority.
September 27, 1940: Signature of the Tripartite Pact
A military pact between Japan, Italy, and Germany was signed on September 27, 1940. Three nations joined forces to oppose the United States and the United Kingdom.
Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Yugoslavia were some of the later entrants to the alliance. The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis, or Axis armies, peaked in 1942 and was ultimately defeated and disbanded when World War II ended.
October 23, 1940—Meeting at Hendaye
Hitler and Franco met at Hendaye, a Basque town on the border between France and Spain. A discussion about Spain’s possible enlistment in the Axis armies began. Germany’s refusal to accept Spanish equivalents and Spain’s insistence that it could not contribute to a war effort doomed the negotiations. Volunteers from Spain were signed up to go to the Russian front as part of a procedure, but Franco never officially entered Spain into the global fight.
The Italian invasion of Greece began on October 28, 1940.
Italy chose to attack Greece in the autumn of 1940, far after the United States and Japan had already entered the war. The Italian army, assisted by Axis troops, eventually won the Battle of Greece in April 1941, although it suffered many defeats along the way.
The Battle of Taranto began on November 11, 1940
On the 11th and 12th of November, 1940, the Battle of Taranto was fought. The operation was a military one in which the British navy used airstrikes to destroy the Italian navy. Damage to the port of Taranto from the Royal Navy’s enormous torpedoing thwarted Italy’s plans to dominate the Aegean Sea. This conflict showed how aircraft carriers had assumed command of the oceans.
14 November 1940-Operation Mondscheinsonate
Operation Mondscheinsonate, literally “moonlight sonata” in German, occurred on the night of November 14–15, 1940. As part of their massive Blitz campaign, the Nazis planned to drop bombs on innocent English citizens in the city of Coventry. The cathedral of Saint Michael of Coventry caught fire numerous times during the night as a result of the Luftwaffe’s 450 tons of bombs.
Hungary and Romania officially joined the Axis forces on November 20th, 1940.
Hungary and Romania signed on to the alliance with Japan, Germany, and Italy on November 20, 1940. After World War I ended, Hungary attempted to make territorial claims, which drew it closer to the Axis powers. Both Czechoslovakian and Romanian territory were reclaimed. After Ion Antonescu deposed the monarch, Romania allied with Germany, enabling the Axis powers to create a future front against the Soviet Union.
The Nazi German annexation of Alsace-Lorraine on November 27, 1940
Alsace-Lorraine, a prized French territory, was conquered by Nazi Germany. Rather than just occupying the area, the Germans wanted to include it in their territory, so exacting revenge for the insult they had suffered in 1918 and the “Diktat” that Hitler had so vehemently criticized. From 1871 until 1918, the area was, in fact, a part of Germany.
Battle of Cape Spartivento, November 27, 1940
During the Battle of Taranto, Italy chose to commit her full fleet into battle after realizing that it was no safer there than at sea. The Battle of Cape Spartivento (“Teulada” in Italy) took place between the Italian fleet and the British Navy on November 27, 1940. The latter’s goal in consolidating its presence in Malta was to better safeguard its commercial ships. The British had big plans for the Mediterranean, but the Italians got in the way of these plans.
15 December 1940: First issue of the newspaper Résistance
When it came to fighting back against the Nazi occupation of France, the Musée de l’Homme network was one of the first to form. The inaugural issue of Résistance was released to the public on December 15, 1940. The group pretended to be a literary society while really gathering political and military secrets. After that, it coordinated with other resistance organizations to conduct liaison operations between the occupied and free zones.
In 1940, on December 21, the submarine Narval met its watery demise
The Free French Forces submarine Narval sank on December 21, 1940, after striking a mine off the coast of Sfax, Tunisia. This ship was commissioned in 1925 and became a vital element of the French navy that supported General de Gaulle. On June 26, 1940, its whole crew reported to the naval station in Malta to take part in the French counteroffensive in the Mediterranean.
14 February 1941: The Afrika Korps landed at Tripoli
The Afrika Korps (or Deutsche Afrikakorps) arrived in Tripoli to battle the British soldiers there in order to help Mussolini’s troops in a confrontation in Italian Libya. The Afrika Korps launched its mission with 45,000 troops and 250 tanks.
Peter II of Yugoslavia deposed the Nazis on March 27, 1941
At the age of 17, Yugoslavia’s future King, Peter II, led a coup d’état against the administration of the Yugoslav Council President, who had signed a tripartite alliance with Hitler on behalf of Germany, Italy, and Japan.
As a result of the military coup, the nation was once again neutral. People all around Yugoslavia went out onto the streets to show their approval of the young king. Axis armies invaded Yugoslavia on April 6, and there was no prior declaration of war. After a few days of resistance, it gave up.
The “Bismarck” torpedoed the “Hood” on May 24, 1941
Royal Navy prestige was lost when the German battleship “Bismarck” sank the British cruiser “HMS Hood” in the North Atlantic. Approximately 1,400 Marines were killed. “Find and destroy the Bismarck,” the British Admiralty ordered all of its ships to do. Three days later, the “Bismarck” was torpedoed off Brest by British cruisers, taking 1,800 people with it.
Beginning in the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, Operation Barbarossa
Despite the ratification of the German-Soviet accord on June 22, 1941, Germany opted to attack the Soviet Union the next day. The German military authorities gave the operation the code name “Operation Barbarossa” before it had even begun. It was the first major ground battle of the war in Europe, and it took place on the Eastern Front. Both the Slavs and communism were seen as threats by Hitler, who also saw the Slavs as lower than humans. It’s going to be a much bloodier conflict in the East compared to the West.
Mussolini declared war on the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941
Benito Mussolini took the initiative to deploy his soldiers to battle in the USSR despite having previously suffered military setbacks. When his alliance with Germany ended, he felt he could finally enjoy military triumph on his own terms. But, once again, the outcome of this action was a catastrophe. Mussolini’s standing with Adolf Hitler and the Italian people plummeted.
On July 14, 1941, an armistice was declared in Lebanon and Syria
The British were successful in getting an armistice with the Vichyists in Syria and Lebanon with the support of a Free French division headed by General Catroux. By early June, combat had already broken out. Damascus and Beirut were promised freedom in the name of General de Gaulle. In spite of British pressure, however, the French were not very excited about meeting the new deadline. Although Lebanon gained its formal independence in 1943, France did not surrender its mandates until after the war ended in 1946.
The Atlantic Charter was signed on August 14, 1941
Off the coast of Newfoundland, Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Winston Churchill host the Atlantic Conference aboard the warship USS Augusta. The signing of the Atlantic Charter, which included provisions for “building the foundations of a new foreign strategy,” resulted from this gathering. The United Nations Organization was established in accordance with this Charter.
September 27, 1941: Foundation of the EAM
The National Liberation Front (EAM) was formed to fight the Nazi occupation. This organization of communists and other leftists formed a military unit called ELAS (Greek People’s Liberation Army). A major anti-occupation movement existed in Greece, and it was hostile to George Papandreou’s new administration once the country was freed. At this point, the communists and the royalists in Greece were officially at war with one another. The communist members of the EAM formed a temporary government in 1947. In 1949, the civil war was officially concluded when royalist soldiers, backed by England and the United States, decisively crushed the communists.
22 October 1941: Execution of Guy Môquet
The young communist activist Guy Môquet was among the 28 inmates executed outside of Châteaubriant. Upon learning that resistance fighters had killed Lieutenant Colonel Karl Hotz of the German army, the Germans had Guy Môquet, then 16 years old, hanged. Together, the cities of Châteaubriant, Nantes, and Paris saw the deaths of 48 inmates.
Leningrad was first besieged on November 8, 1941
St. Petersburg (now known as Leningrad) was Russia’s former capital and a city that embodied many of the country’s ideals. Hitler, a key target in the Russian conquest, instead chose to lay siege to the city rather than risk sending his forces into potentially risky and costly combat.
So, the metropolis of three million people was sealed off from the rest of the world until January 18, 1944, with the exception of a canal across Lake Ladoga. Also, a third of the people who lived in the city died because of how hard things were for them.
December 7, 1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor
At 7:55 a.m. on December 7, 1941, the Japanese air force launched a surprise assault on the American war fleet docked at Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian archipelago. There were more than 2,000 American deaths and 100 Japanese deaths. The goal of the Japanese Empire was to maintain Japanese dominance across the Pacific.
It aimed to destroy the American fleet in order to stop it from interfering with its next operations in Malaysia and toward Australia. The attack on Pearl Harbor led directly to the United States’ participation in World War II the following day.
December 7, 1941, “Night and Fog” decree
Field Marshal Keitel’s “Nacht und Nebel” decree called for the expulsion of anybody deemed an enemy of the Reich. People who were thought to be dangerous to the German “NN” army were moved secretly and eventually disappeared.
The United States officially went to war with Japan on December 8, 1941
After remaining neutral up to that point, the United States declared war on Japan and so joined World War II. After Japan’s assault on Pearl Harbor, the United States officially declared war on Japan. The battle quickly escalated, drawing in significant forces from around the globe.
December 15, 1941—Massacre at Mont-Valérien
Seventy-five Jewish and Communist captives were executed by German occupiers at Mont Valérien, a former fort west of Paris overlooking the Bois de Boulogne. Among those executed was 39-year-old Gabriel Péri, a former writer for the Communist Party daily L’Humanité. Around a thousand hostages and inmates were killed by the Germans at Mont Valérien between 1940 and 1944. General de Gaulle dedicated the site, and it later became central to the martyrology of the French Resistance against the Nazis.
December 25, 1941-Surrender of Hong Kong to the Japanese
British soldiers in Hong Kong capitulated to Japanese forces after 18 days of battle. Sir Mark Young, the governor of the British colony, surrendered to the Japanese commander, Takashi Sakai. After the Allies won the war and defeated Japan in 1945, Hong Kong was restored to Britain.
The Battle for the Solomon Islands began in January 1942
The British Army faced off against Japanese forces in the first amphibious campaign, which took place in the Solomon Islands. The mission for the American army was to protect vulnerable communication links. There were over a dozen naval engagements during this campaign, the most well-known of which was the Battle of Guadalcanal. Douglas MacArthur, an admiral, commanded the American forces. By 1945, the war was over.
January 2, 1942: Jean Moulin parachuted into France
Jean Moulin, a key figure in the French Resistance, was exiled to London with General de Gaulle. Parachuted into the Alpilles on the night of January 1–2, 1942, he was given two missions, one of which was to organize the Secret Army and unite the many resistance groups.
January 11, 1942: Japan captures the Dutch East Indies
During World War II, the Dutch East Indies, now known as Indonesia, were a significant problem for the Japanese and Allied forces. The country did have extensive oil reserves, which were very important to Japan since the country had no way to manufacture or import oil on its own. The Allies gave up after a string of Japanese victories, and for the next three years, Japan ruled the Dutch East Indies.
January 15, 1942: The Chinese achieved victory over the Japanese at the Third Battle of Changsha
Located in an important part of southern China, Changsha was a major metropolis. Two earlier Japanese raids on the city had been repelled. Even after a full-scale attack on the city supported by the Chinese army headed by Xue Lue, the Japanese were again defeated on their third try. The Japanese withdrawal was met by attacks from Chinese communist rebels.
The Final Solution was adopted by the Nazis on January 20, 1942
Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the German secret agency, chaired the Wannsee meeting outside of Berlin, where fifteen top Nazi leaders and SS members were gathered. This conference was called to examine “the ultimate solution to the Jewish issue.” It was determined that Jewish Europeans in working condition would be sent to concentration camps.
Those who were unable to contribute to society in some other way were ordered to be killed. Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, and finally Auschwitz were among the concentration camps that would soon be used primarily for this mass murder. There was no doubt that a genocide against Jews was under way. And more than six million of them died in concentration camps.
The Battle of Moscow ends on January 22, 1942
The German army under Von Bock launched an attack known as the Battle of Moscow, or Operation Typhoon, to conquer the Russian capital. The Germans, fortified by the start of Operation Barbarossa, marched into Russia and quickly defeated the Red Army. The Russians fought fiercely to keep their capital city for many days, but the cold hurt the Wehrmacht so much that they had to leave.
The Riom trial began on February 19, 1942
Pétain requested the Riom trial to begin on February 19, 1942, and it was intended to prove that politicians from the Third Republic were to blame for their country’s loss in 1940. The caliber of defense presented by Léon Blum and Édouard Daladier, two of the defendants, shocked the audience and shifted blame for the loss from the defendants to the French army’s top brass.
19 February 1942—Executive Decree 9066
On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which legalized the internment of specific ethnic groups in concentration camps for the sake of preventing sabotage and espionage. In spite of the fact that the pact did not single out any one ethnic group, it was largely utilized to imprison Japanese, German, and Italian Americans living in the western United States. During World War II, 120,000 Japanese-Americans were forced into concentration camps.
February 27, 1942, Operation Biting
Bruneval, a commune in the Seine-Maritime area, was the site of Operation Biting (“Coup de croc”) on February 27 and 28, 1942, pitting the German forces against the British. The Brits planned to steal a German radar, a cutting-edge piece of technology at the time. The British were victorious in their mission. With the radar in their possession, the British were able to slow down the Germans’ technological advancement and see that the “Atlantic Wall” was really breachable.
The Doolittle Raid, April 18, 1942
The US chose to attack Tokyo in order to discredit the adversary and boost its own morale as it prepared for a major conflict with Japan and controlled the entire Pacific. Since the United States had no nearby base from which to fire bombers on the Japanese island, the Japanese reasonably assumed that they were secure there.
But Lieutenant Colonel Doolittle created a technique that permitted B-25s (heavy bombers) to launch from a ship. The U.S. aircraft were able to get off a few bombing runs over the capital of the enemy before they had to retire to China. Damage was very light, but it sent a strong symbolic message. Japan had to restructure its defenses because it no longer felt secure.
Battle of the Coral Sea, May 4, 1942
Off the coast of Australia in May of 1942, American and Japanese forces clashed in the Battle of the Coral Sea. This fight between ships in the air was the first of its kind. The Japanese were superior in the Battle of the Coral Sea in terms of strategy. However, the Americans saw this as a moral victory since it was the first time they had successfully thwarted a Japanese mission. In terms of propaganda, both sides claimed victories.
Cologne, Germany, May 30th, 1942: One Thousand Bombers
Cologne, a German city on the left bank of the Rhine, was the target of the first “1,000 Bombers’ Raid” conducted by the Royal Air Force (RAF). General Arthur Harris believed that extensive strategic bombing was necessary to demoralize the enemy and cripple their industrial capacity. More than 1,346 airstrikes had already been conducted on Cologne before the 1,000 bombers arrived. That was the first day in a three-year assault on Germany’s major metropolises.
June 7, 1942—American victory in the Battle of Midway
The Japanese army suffered another crushing loss at Midway Atoll (Battle of Midway), the Pacific’s most forward-operating American outpost, after an earlier failure in the Coral Sea. The navies never faced each other again, and the fighting continued in the air. American naval aviation foiled a Japanese strategy by destroying four enemy aircraft carriers while suffering only one loss. Because of this setback, Japan went into defensive mode.
June 11, 1942: The brave French resistance in Bir Hakeim
The Free French Troops (FFL), under the command of General Koenig, fiercely resisted the German and Italian forces at the battle of Bir Hakeim. The British were able to leave before the battle of El Alamein due to their resistance.
Operation Fall Blau (Blue Case), June 28, 1942
A continuation of Operation Barbarossa, Operation Fall Blau (Blue Case) describes the Wehrmacht’s offensives on the Eastern Front. The battle’s objective was to take the city of Stalingrad. There was an initial string of victories for the German troops during the Fall Blau campaign. The decisive victory, however, went to the Red Army, and Operation Fall Blue marked the beginning of the German defeats.
Vel’ d’Hiv’ Roundup, July 17, 1942
13,000 Jews, including 4,051 children, were detained overnight in Paris and the surrounding area on the instructions of René Bousquet, General Secretary of the Police at the Ministry of the Interior. They stayed there for a few days, parked in the sports hall of the Vélodrome d’Hiver. On July 19, they were sent from Drancy to the death camp Auschwitz. Since the German authorities never gave the command to carry out an operation like the “Vel’ d’Hiv” roundup, it was arranged on the fly by the Vichy administration.
August 7, 1942-Marines landed on Guadalcanal
A landing was made by the First Marine Division on the island of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. The United States launched its first naval attack on Japan at this time. The Japanese were establishing air bases there in an effort to dominate the region. After a fierce battle in February of 1943 that claimed the lives of over 1,600 Americans and 24,000 Japanese, they were ultimately pushed from the island. The Allies began to retake territory from the Japanese at this point.
Japanese won the Battle of Savo Island on August 9, 1942
One of the most pivotal moments of the Solomon Islands War, the Battle of Savo Island, set off the Battle of the Eastern Solomons. The United States and Japan were at loggerheads in this war. The final tally showed 1,270 dead on the Allied side and 58 dead on the Japanese side, a devastating loss for the American forces. However, the Japanese army failed to capitalize on this success by rushing in reinforcements. The Americans were given more time to lay the groundwork for a successful offensive in the Eastern Solomons.
Attempting to land in Dieppe, France, on August 19, 1942, was a disastrous failure
The disastrous effort to land Allied forces (including 5,000 Canadians, 1,100 British, and 50 Americans) on the beaches of Dieppe (Haute-Normandie) was ultimately unsuccessful. Once the Germans realized where the fleet was, they strafed and bombarded the beaches relentlessly. Four thousand soldiers were lost due to death, injury, or capture. The purpose of the attack was to gauge the strength of the German fortifications in advance of a large-scale invasion. The repercussions were all felt by the Allies.
October 23, 1942-Battle of El Alamein
The Afrika Korps and the Italian army were Axis troops that the British fought in the Egyptian desert. The British were successful in halting their enemy’s advancement in Egypt because they withdrew before it could establish a foothold there. The Allies prevailed in the conflict from a strategic standpoint, despite the fact that the tactical conclusion was a status quo. The Afrika Korps advance came to a stop at that point.
November 8, 1942: Allied landing in North Africa
The Allies began Operation Torch because they were serious about taking over Africa. On that fateful day in November 1942, more than 60,000 troops arrived in North Africa. After taking Algiers, the Tunisian campaign got underway. A decisive battle occurred on the Western Front during World War II. The Germans retaliated by invading southern France. That marked the end of the buffer zone.
November 11, 1942: Germany entered the free zone
Due to the Allied invasion in North Africa, Hitler ordered “Operation Attila” to be carried out in France. The Germans attacked a “free zone” in the south of the nation. Germany had full power and influence over the Vichy regime.
On November 13, 1942, the British forces retook Tobruk
Even so, the Allies and the British army were successful in retaking Tobruk and its deep-water port, which facilitated the docking of enormous ships. General Rommel and his Afrika Korps were present in every major battle of the Desert War, yet the Allies were able to slowly but surely amass successes.
November 19, 1942, Operation Uranus
The Uranus operation was the Red Army’s attack against the German army in Stalingrad, which began on November 19, 1942. The Wehrmacht had, in fact, taken cover here. The Red Army won after an encirclement planned and executed by Marshal Zhukov, and the Axis finally started pulling back.
27 November 1942: Scuttling of the French Navy
The German troops attacked the Toulon arsenal at 4:40 in the morning. The men of the French navy, under the leadership of Admiral Jean de Laborde, destroyed the whole fleet in the face of the assault. To prevent being sent to Germany, whole ships, machinery, and pieces of artillery were destroyed. Only four submarines were successful in making it to North Africa.
7 December 1942-Operation Frankton
On December 7, 1942, the British army conducted Operation Frankton, an attack against the German fleet near Bordeaux. Ten guys launched hostilities from Montalivet in kayaks. The mission’s difficulty was in planting explosives on board German ships docked at Bordeaux. The commandos made their way back to the Charente via land. As a result of the action, four German army ships were severely damaged.
January 22, 1943-Marseille roundup
After successfully entering the free zone in November 1942, German forces took Marseille. After a series of assaults, German authorities decided the Old Port was too hazardous to leave as-is and set about redesigning it. When police reinforcements from Paris arrived on January 22, 1943, they searched every building in the city. Whether they were really responsible for the crimes or not, 2,000 individuals were deported to concentration camps, and 1,500 structures were destroyed.
January 26, 1943-Foundation of the MUR
By early 1943, Jean Moulin had accomplished his goal of uniting the Resistance by establishing the MUR: Mouvements Unis de Résistance (United Resistance Movements). Emmanuel d’Astier de la Vigerie’s Libération-Sud, Jean-Pierre Levy’s Franc-Tireur, and Henri Frenay’s Combat formed this coalition.
The Germans were decisively defeated in Stalingrad on January 31, 1943
The soldiers of Friedrich Paulus’ 6th German Army, who had been surrounded in Stalingrad (now Volgograd) since the end of November 1942, surrendered to the Red Army. The guys imprisoned in what they referred to as “the cauldron” had been without supplies for a very long time, according to the German air force.
Hitler’s men ultimately became disheartened as the winter became worse and ammunition became more limited. Hitler prohibited Friedrich Paulus from submitting. To keep him from submitting, Hitler had him promoted to the rank of Reich Marshal on the 25th, albeit in vain. On February 3, the final German troops would give up. Throughout the siege of Stalingrad, 90,000 Germans perished from starvation and cold.
February 16, 1943-Institution of the STO
The Vichy administration established legislation requiring all males between the ages of 21 and 23 to serve in the Vichy regime’s Obligatory Labor Service. They were sent off to Nazi Germany to work for the regime for a full two years. Nearly 700,000 males were conscripted for the STO.
In exchange, Pierre Laval’s administration was able to convince Germany to remove the border, which in practice no longer existed because the Germans had occupied the “free zone” since November 1942. Additionally, Nord and Pas-de-Calais were reintegrated into the French government. They needed Belgium for everything. Roughly 10% of French citizens who rejected the STO ended up joining the maquis.
March 6, 1943: Battle of the Solomon Islands campaign
Between the Kolombangara and Arundel Islands in the Solomon Islands lies a narrow passageway known as Blackett, which opens out into the Pacific Ocean. In the wake of the American victory at the Battle of Guadalcanal in February 1943, Kolombangara became home to a major Japanese garrison. In charge of restocking was Lieutenant Tanegashima, but on their way back from bombing Vila, his two destroyers, the Murasame and the Minegumo, ran upon Admiral Merrill’s Task Force 68, a trio of light cruisers and three destroyers. The two Japanese destroyers were sunk.
March 10, 1943: Battle of Ksar Ghilane-Tunia campaign
In 1943, Tunisia was the scene of fierce fighting between Allied and Axis troops. As a result, North Africa became involved in World War II. The French constructed the Mareth Line, a fortification between the cities of Mareth and Tataouine, and sheltered New Zealand infantry behind it. The New Zealand forces were spared discovery by the 15th and 21st Panzer divisions and German stukas thanks to the victory of the Leclerc column at Ksar Ghilane.
The Battle of the Komandorski Islands began on March 27th, 1943
The Americans kept an eye on the Japanese garrisons on two islands in the Aleutian chain known as Komandorski throughout the retaking of the Pacific Islands. After learning of a supply convoy’s impending arrival, Rear Admiral McNorris was given the mission of intercepting it. As both sides were cut off from any possible reinforcements, the final artillery engagement between Japanese and American destroyers and cruisers took place. It was an error on Admiral Hosogaya’s part to assume that American air backup was on the way after the ships were heavily damaged. The Japanese gave up when they were close to victory.
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of April 19, 1943
In response to Adolf Hitler’s orders to destroy them, the 60,000 Jews still living in the Warsaw Ghetto (Poland) rose up and fought the Nazi SS. Until May 16th, they continued their frantic fight. A total of seven thousand people were executed with their weapons still in their hands, while the rest were to be taken to concentration camps.
The Afrika Korps was expelled from North Africa on May 13, 1943, as the Allies launched a massive offensive
On May 13, 1943, the Allies ended the operation in Tunisia by expelling the Afrika Korps. Following the capitulation of the German army, the Afrika Korps soldiers became prisoners of war. Convoys were sent to bring them to the United States and Canada over the sea.
May 17, 1943: Operation Chastise—the destruction of German dams
The British attempted to persuade Russia to stave off the German invasion and recognized that the British army might be a potent ally in May 1943. In order to destroy the primary dams providing water and energy to the war industries, the Ruhr area was the target of a Royal Air Force operation called Operation Chastise.
The Möhne, Edersee, Sorpe, and Ennepe dams were attacked by Avro Lancaster Mk-III aircraft fitted with a unique bomb developed by engineer B. Wallis. Mixed results were obtained since a number of pilots were shot down and the Germans quickly recovered with their production of water and energy. The defense on the Don and Volga rivers was made easier by the fact that the flooded air facilities were unable to transfer any more aircraft to the Russian front.
The CNR had its first meeting on May 27th, 1943
With the establishment of the National Council of the Resistance in France, Jean Moulin resumed his effort to bring the Resistance (CNR) together. The CNR, which was led by Jean Moulin himself, tried to organize the numerous French Resistance activities during World War II without ignoring the political inclinations of each organization.
De Gaulle and Giraud established the CFLN on June 3, 1943
To replace the Free French administration, generals de Gaulle and Giraud agreed to form the French Committee for National Liberation (CFLN). The CFLN sought to accomplish two goals. First, it sought to rally the French people behind the war effort. Second, it sought to set the stage for France’s eventual liberation. It was in June of 1944 that the CFLN took power as the Provisional Government of France.
New Georgia and Solomon Islands Campaign, June 20, 1943
The Japanese seized the island of New Georgia in 1942 and established the Munda Point air station there to aid in the invasion of Guadalcanal. After the American triumph, the Japanese concluded that the next American goal was to strike their bases in Rabaul and the Solomon Islands. The Japanese chose to wait for the Allies at New Georgia on Bougainville because they lacked the weapons to defend it. The major invasion was made south of Munda Point, a base that was captured on August 5, 1943. The initial landings occurred in June 1943 near Segi Point. Up until October 1943, there was constant warfare to liberate New Georgia.
Jean Moulin’s arrest on June 21, 1943
Jean Moulin was detained at Caluire-et-Cuire on June 21, 1943, as he prepared to attend a conference with seven other Resistance commanders. He had been actively hunted by the Vichy government and the Gestapo. Many doubts concerning the circumstances leading up to this arrest still exist today. Several days after his detention, Jean Moulin was tortured to death.
First day of the Battle of Kursk, July 4, 1943
In the largest tank battle ever fought (Battle of Kursk), the Germans were finally defeated. A decisive blow to the Red Army was just what Hitler had been looking for after two years of war and the defeat at Stalingrad. On July 4, he launched an attack on the Kursk area with thousands of tanks and hundreds of aircraft.
But the Soviets were well prepared, and when the Wehrmacht was pinned down in a minefield and under fire from anti-tank guns, they counterattacked with reinforcements. After this setback, the Red Army’s advance towards Berlin would continue unabated.
July 6, 1943: First Battle of the Gulf of Kula-Solomon Islands Campaign
The United States embarked on an effort to free the Pacific, and especially the Solomon Islands, in 1943 (Operation Cartwheel). When Task Group 36.1’s Admiral Ainsworth returned after a bombardment with two light cruisers and four destroyers on July 5, he was getting ready to seize the Munda Point base in New Georgia.
Admiral Akiyama was in charge of a covert night supply convoy, which the Allies dubbed the “Tokyo Express.” Both sides suffered casualties, and the survivors retreated before dawn on the sixth of July. The USS Radford and USS Nicholas, two destroyers, stayed at the scene after the USS Helena went down to rescue the survivors.
July 8, 1943: Death of Jean Moulin
Jean Moulin was sent off to Germany after enduring years of torture at Klaus Barbie’s hands. While on the road, he succumbed to his wounds. Jean Moulin was declared dead on July 8, 1943, at the Metz station. Again, questions about the reliability of the data persist. In 1964, his remains were interred in the Pantheon.
By 10 July 1943, the Allies had invaded Sicily
British, Canadian, and American troops arrived in Sicily as the Allies successfully wrapped up their battle in Tunisia. They wanted to launch an invasion of the rest of Italy from there. While Benito Mussolini was imprisoned on July 25, the island fell to the Allies by mid-August.
July 13, 1943: Second Battle of the Gulf of Kula-Solomon Islands Campaign
The first fight between Allied ships and a Japanese supply convoy during the liberation of the Solomon Islands by the Americans in 1943 occurred in the Gulf of Kula, off the island of Kolombangara. The Japanese attempted to resupply their sites with a strategy the Allies dubbed the “Tokyo Express,” which included deploying quick ships at night.
The ships of Admiral Ainsworth were detected on July 12 by a convoy led by Admiral Izaki. It seemed to the Americans that the Japanese were catching them off guard when they launched their torpedoes. After the loss of the Jintsu and 482 sailors as well as Admiral Izaki, the battle ended at 9.30 a.m. on July 13. The Americans sent back three light cruisers in horrible shape and lost a destroyer.
July 24, 1943: Arrest of Mussolini
King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy was reinstated as head of the Italian military forces by a decision of the Great Council of Fascism. Marshal Badoglio took over for Mussolini once he was called to Rome, and Mussolini was put behind bars. In Italy, celebrations broke out once the news of Mussolini’s arrest spread.
The Italian National Liberation Committee was formed on July 27th, 1943.
The day following Mussolini’s arrest, a coalition of anti-fascist parties was formed. It included the Communist Party, the Christian Democrats, the Socialist Party, the Liberals, the Action Party, and the Democratic Labor Party. When German forces abandoned Rome on June 5, 1944, the Committee’s influence grew.
“Operation Tidal Wave” was launched on August 1, 1943
The Royal Air Force sent 165 planes almost 6,800 miles (11,000 km) to Romania for a massive operation. This mission is known as “Tidal Wave,” which is also its code name. Around the city of Ploiesti, Romania constructed one of the world’s biggest oil complexes with the help of foreign investment (mostly from the Allies).
Hitler sided with General Ion Antonescu, the man in charge, against the fanatical Iron Guard group in return for a critical supply of gasoline for the German troops. The bombing did a lot of damage to this facility. Although casualties were high, they could have been even worse if not for several holes in Ploiesti’s fortifications (personnel absent on Sundays, weapons in maintenance, etc.).
3 August 1943: Operation Polkovodets Rumiantsev-Eastern Front
It was on August 3, 1943, that the Polkovodets Rumiantsev operation was initiated by the Red Army. The liberation of more German-occupied Ukrainian territory was an important goal. In about twenty days, the Russian “Steppe Front” from the vicinity of Kursk was able to free the cities of Kharkov (the Third Battle of Kharkov) and Belgorod. After being driven back over the Dnieper River, the Germans were finally repelled. The liberation of Ukraine would not be complete until the Russians landed in Kiev in the autumn of 1943, after the epic battle of the Dnieper.
Second Battle of Smolensk, Eastern Front, August 7, 1943
The Red Army’s goal from August 7 to October 2, 1943, was to completely clear the fronts of Smolensk (which had been controlled by the Germans since 1941) and Bryansk. German defense forces were deployed, but they were not able to stop the Russians from crossing the Dnieper and freeing Ukraine. But the Germans were well prepared, and the Russians had to work slowly but steadily for two months to regain Smolensk and Roslavl. After the front stabilized some 30 miles (50 kilometers) away from its previous location, Moscow was no longer in danger.
August 7, 1943: Battle of the Gulf of Vella-Solomon Islands campaign
In the Gulf of Vella, Task Group 31.2, led by Captain Moosbrugger and consisting of six destroyers, encountered one of the Japanese swift supply convoys (the Tokyo Express), led by Captain Sugiura. Only one of the Japanese destroyers, the Shigure, avoided destruction while the others, the Hagikaze, Arashi, and Kawakaze, met their end. During the evening of August 6 and the morning of August 7, 1943, about 1,210 Japanese sailors lost their lives.
18 August 1943: Battle of Horaniu-Solomon Islands campaign
With the Allied success at Munda Point and the Gulf of Vella, the Japanese chose to withdraw their forces from the central Solomon Islands in a convoy led by Rear Admiral Matsuji Ijuin. During the evening of August 17 and into the morning of August 18, American forces led by Captain Ryan launched an assault on this convoy. The Japanese were able to flee with their 9,000 soldiers after a brief battle.
August 24, 1943-Battle of the Dnieper-Eastern Front
The loss at Kharkov in August 1943 made it clear to Hitler that the Soviet Union might achieve a major strategic goal by conquering the mineral-rich Ukrainian territory. Therefore, he issued orders for a vigorous counterattack on this front. With 4 million men engaged over an 870-mile (1,400-kilometer) front, the Dnieper conflict was one of the biggest wars of World War II. After four months of struggle and enormous losses in men and material, on December 23, 1943, the Red Army entered Kiev, the capital of Ukraine. This marked the liberation of the banks of the Dnieper from Nazi soldiers.
Italy joined the Allies on September 3, 1943
The government of Pietro Badoglio negotiated the armistice with the Allies and declared war on Germany. Benito Mussolini, leader of Italy’s fascist state, was toppled a few months before due to the Anglo-American intervention in Sicily. Just a few hours later, on September 12, Germany began an invasion of Italy and released Mussolini. In the North, where he had found safety, he founded the Republic of Salo. The monarch and Badoglio escaped to the south, which was still held by the Allies.
Corsica rebelled against its occupiers on September 9, 1943
The Italian surrender sparked a widespread rebellion among Corsican resistance members. Up until October 4, the rebels battled against the German army, with increasing backing from North African troops. The French island department of Corsica was the first to be freed.
Operation Eiche on September 12th, 1943
While imprisoned at Gran Sasso, Mussolini witnessed a German commando raid led by Otto Skorzeny to free him. Hitler conceived and launched the mission, codenamed “Operation Eiche.” The German dictator was determined to release his Italian counterpart by any means necessary.
The Italian Social Republic was established on September 18, 1943
King Victor Emmanuel III removed Benito Mussolini from office as “Duce” and Minister of Foreign Affairs because Italy wanted to return to neutrality against the Germans. Hitler, afraid of losing his friend, sent the Wehrmacht to northern Italy to rescue Mussolini and restore him to power (Operation Oak). Italy capitulated to Nazi Germany on September 8, 1943, and immediately became a client state of the Third Reich. It changed its name to the Italian Social Republic, often known as the Republic of Salo, on September 18, 1943. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Mussolini relocated to the picturesque town of Salo on Lake Garda.
Insurrection against the Nazis on September 27th, 1943, during the Four Days of Naples
Naples was one of the cities hit the hardest by Allied bombardment in the early stages of World War II. A growing uprising against the German occupation of southern Italy started in September 1943. While Colonel Schöll proclaimed a state of siege in Naples and the prefect organized the teenagers to go labor in the camps in Germany, the military commanders of the area escaped. And thus, on September 27, 28, 29, and 30, 1943, the Neapolitans took to the streets to confront the German invaders. Tanks from the Allies rolled into a free Naples on October 1, 1943. This was just around the time of the Allied invasion.
The Solomon Islands offensive began on October 7, 1943, with the Battle of Vella Lavella
In August of 1943, when the United States launched its battle to free the Solomon Islands, the Japanese began leaving the islands. However, there were still around 600 Japanese forces stationed on Vella Lavella. After the battle of Horianu, Rear Admiral Ijuin was tasked with leading a fleet of nine destroyers to evacuate any remaining troops. Ijuin came under fire from three American warships led by Captain Walker on the evening of October 7, 1943. Even though the Yugumo was lost, the three American ships were also damaged and likely would have been lost had the Japanese not retreated from the battle. The Japanese occupation of the Solomon Islands came to an end at this point.
The Battle of Empress Augusta Bay, Bougainville Campaign, November 2, 1943
An objective of the Bougainville operation was the freeing of the eponymous island off the coast of Papua New Guinea. Admiral Omori sent six destroyers and four cruisers to support the troop landing in Empress Augusta Bay and the subsequent Japanese aircraft bombardment on November 1, 1943. In an intercept, Rear Admiral Merrill’s Task Force 39 sunk two Japanese ships (a destroyer and a cruiser) and damaged the others. Merrill shot smoke bombs to make them think his heavy cruiser had sunk, forcing them to surrender. The Japanese withdrew, believing their goal was complete.
Tarawa was freed by the Americans on November 23, 1943
The Japanese were ultimately vanquished after three days of warfare on the Pacific atoll of Tarawa. It was a triumph that came after one of the first Allied landings in the Pacific and helped turn the tide against Japan. On February 23, the Americans achieved their primary aim and landed on the Marshall Islands.
The Battle of Cape St. George, Bougainville Campaign, November 26, 1943
As the last conflict of the Solomon Islands campaign, the fighting on November 26, 1943, was decisive. A rapid supply convoy (dubbed the “Tokyo Express”) was sent to the base at Buka, not far from Bougainville, while the bulk of the American soldiers were engaged in the fight at Empress Augusta Bay.
Five warships under Captain Burke’s command were sent to intercept it. He used radar to sink the Onami, Makinami, and Yugiri, giving the Americans a decisive victory. Before this decisive naval engagement, the Japanese had already established themselves as superior nighttime combatants.
Tehran Conference, November 28, 1943
It was in Tehran, Iran, that Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin finally met for the first time since the outbreak of World War II. In order to free France from Nazi domination, the Allies decided during the Tehran conference to arrange an invasion in Normandy. Also on the table was the future of Germany and Poland, as well as the establishment of a global security agency (the UN).
December 24, 1943: Eisenhower, leader of the Allied forces
In order to prepare for the landings in June of 1944, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt formally selected General Dwight D. Eisenhower as Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces. Ten years later, Eisenhower would become President of the United States, although at the time, no one could have predicted it.
The Battle of North Cape, fought on December 26, 1943, was a victory for the British navy
Many supply convoys were sent by the British to their Russian allies across the North Sea to the Russian ports of Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. The German Navy conducted Operation Ostfront with the intention of destroying two of these “Arctic convoys.” British Royal Navy cruisers and destroyers, led by the HMS Duke of York, successfully repelled the German naval assault. British naval dominance over German fleets was underscored by this incident.
Stalin was bleeding Chechnya as of February 23, 1944
The Soviet commander ordered the wholesale expulsion of Chechens, who were accused of collaborating with the Nazis. Before morning, 300,000 people were rounded up and transported to neighboring Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.
More than half a million more met the same fate in the days that followed. There were thousands of deaths from exposure, starvation, and asphyxia on the wagons taking people to the concentration camps.
Ardeatine Massacre, 24 March 1944
After 32 SS were murdered in a bombing in Rome on March 23, 1944, the Germans retaliated by executing 335 Italian citizens the next day. Aside from the Jewish prisoners of Regina Coeli, the Italian captives were selected from the ghetto. Dead bodies were found in the Ardeatine Pits in the Ardeatino neighborhood. One of Italy’s most significant massacres occurred here.
The Bombing of Nuremberg, March 30, 1944
The British Royal Air Force bombed the German city of Nuremberg on March 30 and 31, 1944. Despite not being the first of its kind, the March 31 strategic bombing operation is remembered as the day the British Air Force suffered its heaviest fatalities of the whole war.
April 6, 1944, Roundup at Izieu
Following Klaus Barbie’s orders, the Gestapo broke into a camp in the French town of Izieu where Jewish children were spending the Easter break from school. A few days later, seven adults and forty-four kids were sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp. Among those who were later dubbed “the children of Izieu,” the youngest was just four years old.
May 9, 1944: The Battle of Henan-Hunan-Guangxi began
It was on May 9, 1944, that the Japanese launched Operation Ichi-Go, commonly known as the Battle of Henan, Hunan, and Guangxi. The Japanese were victorious in an onslaught against allied Chinese and American forces. To prevent further strikes from the United States, the Japanese planned to seize control of the bases in the southeastern part of China. As expected, the Japanese subsequently invaded Indochina, although U.S. airstrikes continued throughout.
The Battle of Monte Cassino began on May 17, 1944
In 1943 and 1945, Moroccan riflemen serving under General Juin helped defeat the Germans in Italy. They achieved this feat at Monte Cassino, located midway between Naples and Rome. In all, 115,000 Allied soldiers were killed or wounded. Even yet, in Italy, they were able to keep making strides forward. That was the crowning achievement of the Free French throughout World War II.
May 26, 1944: Allied bombing raids on southeastern and central France
The Allies’ Transportation Plan called for an assault on French communication links, particularly the railways, in advance of the Normandy invasion. Bombings on May 26 were a part of this operation, and they were directed against strategic locations in the south and central east of the nation. The bombardment was effective against military targets, but many people were killed as a result of inaccuracy brought about by the aircraft’s high altitude.
Rome was occupied by Allied forces on June 4, 1944
Italy had been split between Allied and German soldiers since September 1943, when Mussolini was freed. In June, however, the Allies invaded Rome and successfully repelled the Wehrmacht. A new administration led by Ivanoe Bonomi, head of the National Liberation Committee, took power in the South when Badoglio was ousted.
June 6, 1944: The Normandy Landings
Operation Overlord was initiated by the United States and the rest of the Allied troops under the leadership of General Dwight D. Eisenhower. On “D-Day,” American forces landed on the beaches of Normandy, followed an hour later by British and Canadian troops. The first combatants were parachuted inland.
June 7, 1944—The events of Laclotte and the tragedy of Saint-Pierre-de-Clairac
On June 7, 1944, two Nazi atrocities occurred in Lot-et-Garonne. The Gestapo orchestrated the events at Laclotte, in which the SS assaulted the town and murdered French people. Eleven resistance fighters were slain and two housing estates were torched in the Saint-Pierre-de-Clairac disaster, which was executed by the same SS division. Tulle and Oradour-sur-Glane were massacred by the same army just a few days later.
June 9, 1944, Tulle massacre
Under the guise of enforcing paper control, the 2nd SS Das Reich tank division swept into Tulle (Corrèze) and rounded up all of the capable male population. As retribution for maquis assaults, 99 were executed by hanging, and another 149 were transferred to the Dachau concentration camp, where 101 of them perished. The following day, the same division returned to Normandy, the site of the recent Allied operations, and made its way to Oradour-sur-Glane.
10 June 1944: The inhabitants of Oradour were massacred by the SS
Oradour-sur-Glane, a tiny town close to Limoges, was destroyed by a detachment of the SS “Das Reich” division sent by General Lammerding. Under the guise of checking IDs, all of the people were brought to the marketplace.
Women and children were transported to the church while the men were imprisoned in barns. The buildings were set on fire by the SS, and 642 people (including 246 women and 207 children) perished. The “Das Reich” division had previously carried out a slaughter the day before at Tulle while returning from the eastern front, where exactions were frequent.
13 June 1944: Hitler launches the V1s over London
From their launch pads in Calais, the first Vergeltungswaffe-1 (retaliation weapons-1) were fired in the direction of London. After the Allied invasion of Normandy, Hitler intended to deal a fatal blow to British morale. The British Air Force showed that V-1s might be intercepted midair or redirected from their intended course. These aerial bombs would kill 6,000 people in only three months. Scientists in Germany who worked on these rockets would eventually take part in the space race.
June 15, 1944—Battle of Saipan
The United States defeated the Japanese in the Mariana Islands during the Battle of Saipan, which began on June 15 and ended on July 9 of that year. At least a large number of people committed suicide rather than be taken prisoner by the Americans during this conflict. It was a turning point in the assault on the Pacific, as it enabled the construction of strategic bases and brought Japan within the reach of the American air force.
June 19, 1944-Battle of the Philippine Sea
As the Engagement of Saipan was going on at the same time, on June 19-20, 1944, the Imperial Japanese Navy and the United States Navy fought a naval and aviation battle in the Philippine Sea. The Japanese Navy’s planes and aircraft carriers were mostly destroyed in this conflict. Because of the disparity in power, the conflict earned the moniker “Great Marianas Pigeon Shot.”
26 June 1944-Battle of Bobr
The Battle of Bobr was fought between the French Volunteer Legion of the Wehrmacht and the Soviet Army during Operation Bagration, which was launched by the USSR to expel the Germans from Belarus. On June 26 and 27, 1944, it happened. While the odds were against them, the German soldiers, who included at least 400 Frenchmen, were victorious after two days of warfare. As an excuse for their loss, Russian media outlets overstated the number of enemy fighters.
30 June 1944: Capture of Cherbourg
Beginning on June 6, 1944, when the Allies landed in Normandy, the Battle of Cherbourg lasted until June 30, when the United States was victorious. As the remainder of the German soldiers surrendered, Allied forces swept in and took control of the harbor city of Cherbourg. This victory was important to keeping the war going because it gave the Allies control of the port of Cherbourg, which made it easier to send supplies to the western front.
The Brazilian Expeditionary Force lands in the South Atlantic on July 2, 1944
The Brazilian Expeditionary Force got to Italy on July 2, 1944. The Brazilian Air, Army, and Navy Corps were 23,500 strong and were incorporated into the 5th British Army during the Transalpine operation. After eight months of warfare, the FEB lost 443 soldiers but captured 20,573 foes, making a significant impact on the falls of Bologna, Parma, Modena, and Genoa.
18 July 1944: Battle of Mount Gargan
The German Jesser brigade, led by Georges Guingouin, battled the French maquis on Mount Gargan from July 18 to July 24, 1944, with help from the French militia. Over 4,800 German forces faced 3,500 French resistance fighters, the bulk of whom were francs-tireurs and partisans. Although they suffered 38 deaths and 54 injuries, the maquisards were able to slow down the enemy and prevent them from completely dismantling the maquis.
On July 20, 1944, an attempt was made to kill Hitler
Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg masterminded a conspiracy to murder the Führer at his headquarters in Wolfsschanze on July 20, 1944. The bomb in the luggage killed numerous policemen but only wounded Adolf Hitler slightly. Many of those involved in the scheme were executed during a violent crackdown.
July 21, 1944-Battle of Guam
From July 21 to August 10, 1944, the island of Guam was the site of the pivotal Battle of Guam during the Pacific War. Since the island had been American territory from 1899 until 1941 (when it was taken in the wake of the Pearl Harbor attack), its conquest and subsequent defense attracted widespread attention in the United States. In the same way that their success at Saipan let them set up bases and solidify their grip on the Pacific, the Americans were able to do the same thing here.
Battle of Tinian, 24 July 1944
Operation Forager continued from July 24th to August 1st, 1944, with the Battle of Tinian as a sub-part. Fighting was shorter on Guadalcanal than on the other islands because of the island’s flat terrain, which played into the hands of the Americans. It was also during this period that the first military use of napalm occurred.
Operation Cobra, July 25, 1944
The Americans began Operation Cobra, an attack in the Cotentin area, on July 25, 1944. Its secret name referred to the movement of the American forces, and its objective was to clear a path through the German lines to invade Brittany. The successful conclusion of this operation, which was highlighted by the capture of Avranches and the eluding of the German defenses, was essential to the result of the Battle of Normandy.
August 15, 1944: Landing in Provence
The “Anvil” Provence landing, which was mostly made up of French colonial citizens, started with a troop parachute drop and ended with a beach landing. Although the operation, involving over 300,000 soldiers, was smaller than in Normandy, it advanced more quickly because the Nazis had dispatched troops north. In fewer than 10 days, the towns of Grenoble, Toulon, and Marseille were freed.
Those famous words from August 25, 1944: “Paris is liberated.”
After the victorious Normandy landings, General Eisenhower led the Allied advance into Paris to reclaim the French capital. In one of the most famous addresses in French history, given on August 25, 1944, de Gaulle said, “Paris outraged, Paris shattered, Paris martyred – but Paris liberated!”
The Liberation of Nice, August 28, 1944
The Resistance incited an insurrection on August 28, 1944, which eventually resulted in the liberation of Nice. Although there were only around a hundred warriors at the start, the insurrection gathered steam as the day progressed. Until American troops arrived on August 29 and then tanks on August 30, the revolt was mostly backed by the Allies. At that point, the Nazi occupants were completely expelled. There were 31 fatalities and 280 injuries among the Nice resistance fighters.
Lapland War began on September 15, 1944
In September of 1944, hostilities in Lapland erupted. The battle to free Finland’s territory ramped up after the peace accord between Finland and the Soviet Union was signed. In April of 1945, the Finns won the war, but not before the German “scorched earth strategy” had done significant damage. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1947, gave the Soviet Union control of the Petsamo area and its nickel mines.
The failure of Operation Market Garden, September 17, 1944
Operation Market Garden, launched in September 1944, was an assault operation. The British-led force’s objective was to cross German-occupied waterways in the Netherlands using seized bridges. If Field Marshal Montgomery’s operation had been a total success, the Siegfried Line might have been bypassed and forces could have entered the Ruhr, which could have contributed to a speedy finish to the war.
October 1, 1944-Battle of Aachen
On October 1, 1944, the Battle of Aachen began and lasted until October 21, 1944. After fierce battles, American forces breached the Siegfried Line and entered the city, which was held by 12,000–18,000 German soldiers who were trapped and unable to mount a counterattack. The significance of the Nazi fortifications may be understood in light of the fact that Aachen was the first major German city to fall on the Western Front.
October 2, 1944: Warsaw Uprising
After two months of combat, the Warsaw Uprising was crushed on October 2, 1944. The Polish resistance movement, Armia Krajowa, instigated the uprising as part of the Storm effort to gain independence from German control and strengthen the standing of the Red Army. The systematic killing of Polish resistance members by German troops and the inaction of the Allies signified the defeat of the revolt.
October 10, 1944: Signature of the Franco-Soviet Pact
The provisional administrations of the French Republic and the Soviet Union signed an alliance and mutual aid contract in Moscow on December 10, 1944. Georges Bidault and Molotov confirmed the partnership in the presence of General de Gaulle and Stalin to counteract the German menace and deter the future vanquished from attempting aggression. The arrival of the Normandy-Niemen fighter squadron on the Eastern Front marked the beginning of the Franco-Soviet partnership.
October 27, 1944: The Japanese navy was defeated in the Gulf of Leyte
The Japanese Navy in the Pacific was almost wiped out at the conclusion of the biggest naval war in history. Five days into the battle, the American Navy destroyed half of Japan’s naval tonnage. From that point on, the United States Navy had free reign of the majority of the Pacific and could sail straight into Okinawa in preparation for an assault on Japan.
The city of Strasbourg was freed on this day in 1944
More than 60 miles (100 km) were traveled in six days by General Leclerc’s second armored division as they advanced to Strasbourg and entered the city. About 12,500 German troops were captured when the city was freed. For his part, Leclerc told the Alsatians: “The spire of your church has remained our preoccupation. We swore that we would raise the flag there once again. This task has been completed.“
November 24, 1944-Bombing of Tokyo
Among the numerous times the United States bombed Tokyo, one of those times was on November 24, 1944. To my knowledge, this was the first aerial attack to originate from the east. The fleet of 88 B-29 bombers had a 10% success rate while dropping their bombs from 10,000 feet. Non-military targets were often bombed during World War II in an effort to undermine the adversary by damaging their political and economic infrastructure.
German counterattack in the Ardennes, December 16, 1944
Field Marshal Von Rundstedt led the Germans in one last, decisive counteroffensive in the Ardennes against the Americans. After a fierce struggle that culminated in a Nazi push up to December 23rd, this last assault became legendary as the battle of Bastogne. However, on January 26th, the German forces were pushed back and the operation was halted. Von Rundstedt was captured by the British, and they lost tens of thousands of troops throughout their greatest battalions.
1 January 1945: Operation Nordwind
During World War II, a mission known as “Operation Nordwind” was launched. Beginning on January 1 and ending on January 25, 1945, the Wehrmacht conducted an operation in Lorraine and northern Alsace. At the month’s end, the German advance was halted by Allied forces. Rittershoffen and Hatten were nearly entirely destroyed as a result of the fierce combat that took place during this operation.
On January 1, 1945, the Allied forces launched Operation Bodenplatte
On January 1, 1945, during the Battle of the Bulge, the Allies launched Operation Bodenplatte. The German air force carried out the operation in an effort to acquire air superiority over the enemy and aid the ground forces. Numerous Allied sites in northeastern France, the southern Netherlands, and eastern Belgium were assaulted by a total of 900 aircraft, including fighters and bombers.
January 17, 1945: Liberation of Warsaw
Warsaw was in ruins when the Red Army arrived. The German occupation of the Polish capital had ended after five years. Jews made up a significant portion of the population, and they were murdered en masse, either in concentration camps or within the ghetto. Warsaw’s population was just a tenth of what it had been before the war when it was freed.
On January 27, 1945, the camp of Auschwitz was liberated.
The major Nazi killing facility was captured by the Red Army. There, they came upon 7,500 tired survivors. Some of them had been successful in obtaining firearms and had rebelled against the previous SS. In Auschwitz, 1.5 million prisoners were killed between the spring of 1942 and the winter of 1945.
In an assault on January 30, 1945, the Wilhelm Gustloff was sunk
A total of 10,000 people, including East Prussian refugees, German troops, and commanders, were aboard the ship Wilhelm Gustloff as it sailed out of Gotenhafen in the Bay of Danzig on January 30, 1945. A Soviet submarine discovered it and blasted it with four torpedoes. In about 50 minutes, the ship went down, taking the lives of between 5,000 and 9,000 people.
Operation Corn Flakes was launched in February 1945
Between February and March 1945, the US Office of Strategic Services carried out Operation Corn Flakes. The goal of this propaganda campaign, which took place during World War II, was to undermine the morale of the inhabitants of Germany and Austria. The Allies attempted to convey the idea that the war was about to end by inserting anti-Nazi letters into the mail. The term given to this operation indicates how the mail was delivered at breakfast time.
February 4, 1945—Opening of the Yalta Conference
In Crimea, on the edge of the Black Sea, Churchill, Stalin, and Roosevelt get together once again to determine the destiny of Germany and Japan. The Soviet Union hoped to aid the American effort to defeat Japan. Following a vote, Germany was disarmed and partitioned into three occupying zones (France would also be assigned a zone later). It was up to the other European nations to do what they wanted. However, communism was really implemented by Stalin throughout the areas freed by the Red Army (with the exception of Austria). This contributed to the escalation of tensions that led to the Cold War.
February 10, 1945: The General von Steuben was sunk
The DS Steuben, once a luxury liner, began transporting German soldiers in 1944. Injured soldiers and refugees were brought to Kiel from East Prussia on February 10th, 1945. The submarine S-13, captained by Alexander Marinesko, detected the ship in mid-ocean and launched an assault. Three thousand to four thousand people perished when the ship went down. Around 600 individuals made it through the ordeal alive.
February 13, 1945: Bombing of Dresden
The Saxony state capital was completely destroyed by Allied bombing raids. A first wave of 244 British and Canadian Lancaster bombers rushed over the city in the evening, marking the start of the assault. The downtown area of the city was devastated by a massive fire. With a second and third round of bombardment, Dresden was completely leveled. A total of 8 mi2 (20 km2) were destroyed in only four days.
It was a point of contention that so many innocent people who had sought safety in the city had lost their lives. Researchers were able to reduce the estimated number of fatalities from 250,000 to 135,000 thanks to their teamwork, and the new number is 35,000. There was no anti-aircraft system in place in Dresden.
Battle of Iwo Jima, 23 February 1945
Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, by Joe Rosenthal of the Associated Press.
Between the months of February and March of 1945, the Battle of Iwo Jima was fought. As part of World War II, it matched American forces against those of Japan. On February 23, U.S. troops launched an assault on the island and made it to the summit of Mount Suribachi. Finally, they had the island topped off with an American flag. Forever captured by photographer Joe Rosenthal, “Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima” is a symbol of this moment in history.
Bombs were dropped on Tokyo on March 9, 1945
On the night of March 9-10, 1945, American soldiers launched an assault on the city of Tokyo. With a range of 1,500 miles, the 300 B-29 bombers rained down 1,700 tons of incendiary bombs on the city. More than 100,000 people were murdered in this attack, making it the bloodiest bombing of World War II. The area bombed was 12 mi2 (30 km2). The Americans planned another attack on Tokyo on May 26, 1945.
On March 9, 1945, Japan seized Indochina
Japan began to occupy Indochinese territory starting in 1940 while acknowledging the validity of France on Asian land. The Japanese imperial army unexpectedly assaulted the French forces stationed there on March 9, 1945. There was no opposition to the toppling of the French government. The Japanese executed General Lemonnier, resident Auphelle, and Colonel Robert. In only two days, 3,000 Frenchmen were slaughtered.
Cambodian independence was proclaimed on March 10
In order to include them in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, the Japanese Empire during World War II urged the different territories of French Indochina to declare independence. On March 10, 1945, in Phnom Penh, Norodom Sihanouk declared Cambodia to be an independent nation. Son Ngoc Thanh declared himself Cambodia’s prime minister on August 9. The new Cambodian government assumed office on August 14, the day before Japan officially surrendered.
March 12, 1945: Anne Frank leaves a diary when she dies
The Frank family was apprehended by the Nazis while hiding out at the family business for two years. They were then sent to concentration camps. A few months later, at the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, Anne Frank passed away. Upon returning to Amsterdam, the family’s lone survivor, the father, found his daughter’s journal, in which she chronicled the family’s two years of concealment.
March 22, 1945—Operation Plunder
During World War II, the Allies launched a military operation known as “Operation Plunder,” commonly known as the Rhine crossing. The 22nd of March was the start date, and the 1st of April was the finish date in 1945. Soldiers on the eastern side of the Rhine built a bridgehead around 35 miles (55 km) wide and 18 miles (30 km) deep, allowing Allied forces to continue their push into German territory.
Beginning of Operation Famine, March 27, 1945
Beginning in March of 1945, the United States military initiated a program known as “Operation Famine.” The goal was to damage Japanese harbors and waterways to impede supply trains and army movements. The 313th Bombardment Wing successfully completed the military mission on March 27, 1945, when it dropped mines equipped with auditory and magnetic sensors. The business had already released 2,000 marine mines by April.
On April 1, 1945, the Americans attacked Okinawa
The Americans arrived on Okinawa in March after struggling to take the little island of Iwo Jima. But the Japanese resistance became more tenacious the closer they got to Japan. As a result, the Americans were forced to battle until the end of June, losing about 16,000 marines after losing 6,000 troops at Iwo-Jima. Additionally, they had to endure kamikaze assaults, which damaged the soldiers’ morale. On the other hand, there were over 100,000 casualties on the other side, and bombers could now reach Japan and attack it. The Japanese army’s tenacious resistance persuaded the US to unleash the atomic bomb.
Texel Uprising in Georgia, 5 April 1945
On the island of Texel, Georgian Soviet troops led an uprising known as the Georgian Texel Uprising. The island was at that time under German authority, and its inhabitants were prisoners of war who chose to fight for their captors. In a rebellion that began on April 5, 1945, they succeeded in seizing possession of the island, but the Germans eventually mounted a counteroffensive and retook Texel.
7 April 1945-Operation Ten-Gō
April 1945 was the time of Operation Ten-Gō. The Japanese Navy was in charge of the operation. The American invasion of Okinawa was met by the world’s biggest battleship, the Yamato, and eight other Japanese vessels. When the U.S. Air Force discovered the fleet, they bombed and sunk five ships, including the Yamato. There were a total of 3,700 fatalities among the Japanese forces.
Battle of Seelow, April 16, 1945
The Soviet Union and German soldiers engaged in combat at Seelow. The Russian forces attempted to use searchlights to blind their foes on April 16, 1945. However, this strategy also backfired on them, causing several of their troops to get lost in the night and sink in marshes, while others engaged in fratricide by killing their fellow soldiers who had already pushed inside the opposing lines. Despite this, despite being outnumbered, Russian soldiers defeated the final German rampart before Berlin.
April 16, 1945: Sinking of the Goya in the Baltic Sea
Originally constructed in Germany in 1940, the Goya eventually became a refugee ship. A Soviet L-3 submarine’s captain, Vladimir Konovalov, sighted it on April 16, 1945, in the Baltic Sea when it was carrying refugees from East Prussia to West Germany. Torpedoes sunk the Goya to a depth of 255 feet (78 meters). The death toll from the assault was almost 6,000, with just 165 individuals making it out alive.
Hitler fires Heinrich Himmler on April 18, 1945
In an effort to discover a way out of Nazism after the war, Heinrich Himmler tried to negotiate with the British and Americans on the Western Front. He had previously assured a WJC official that the detention camps would not be attacked. When Adolf Hitler discovered the truth about the treason on April 28, 1945, he fired him immediately. The dictator then appointed Karl Hanke Reichsführer-SS as his successor.
April 26, 1945: Pétain constituted himself a prisoner
Marshal Pétain, like Robert Brasillach, faced charges of “intelligence with the enemy” and “high treason” at the hands of the French government. A captive since his capture by the Germans in Switzerland on April 26, 1945, he voluntarily surrendered the following day. The High Court of Justice found Pétain guilty of collaborating with the Nazis and ordered his execution. General de Gaulle commuted his death sentence to life in prison.
April 28, 1945: Mussolini was executed
Mussolini, who felt increasingly abandoned by the Germans, attempted to depart Italy. On the way, the Italian dictator was recognized and identified by partisans of the 52nd Garibaldi Brigade. When he was caught, he was sent to jail. On April 28, 1945, communist partisans killed him. Mussolini’s naked body was shown in a major Milan plaza.
The Dachau Massacre, April 29th, 1945
The 7th U.S. Army’s 3rd Battalion, 157th Regiment, 45th Infantry Division, was granted access to Dachau on April 29, 1945. When they got there, they discovered 39 carts full of bodies. The detainees and their conditions of confinement were subsequently uncovered. U.S. troops, traumatized by these horrific sights, committed a war crime by executing 50 SS officers following the camp’s liberation. The Dachau Massacre is the name given to this event.
The Dachau concentration camp was freed on April 29, 1945
A total of 32,000 detainees were freed by American troops from the Dachau concentration camp in Bavaria. It was the first German concentration camp, created by Himmler in 1933. German records show that over 32,000 people who were transported there between 1933 and 1945 died there.
After his suicide on April 30, 1945, Adolf Hitler’s regime collapsed
Adolf Hitler was notified that Russian soldiers were continuing their push towards Berlin while he was holed up in the chancellery bunker. The Führer committed suicide with his lover at his side. For the sake of preventing a repeat of Mussolini’s destiny, his corpse was burned.
May 2, 1945: The red flag flies over Berlin
Soon after Hitler and Joseph Goebbels committed suicide, the Red Army marched into Berlin and successfully raised the red flag over the German capital the next day. Marshals Zhukov and Koniev, who were in charge of the Soviet army, portrayed themselves as heroes when Germany finally capitulated.
In Italy, German forces formally surrendered on May 2, 1945
The Allied armies were in the ascendancy after leading a last push against the German forces in April. Germany had no alternative but to surrender after Mussolini was killed a few days earlier and Hitler committed suicide on April 30.
May 3, 1945-Shipwrecks of the Cape Arcona, the Thielbek, and the Deutschland
Prior to the April 14, 1945, arrival of Allied forces, Heinrich Himmler ordered the deportees to be killed. On April 20th, several inmates were loaded onto the ships Cap Arcona, Thielbek, and Deutschland. Reaching open water was essential to the Nazi strategy to sink the prisoner ships. The ships were bombed by British planes on May 3, 1945. Roughly eight thousand people perished when the SS sank or slaughtered them. Only 316 individuals managed to avoid death.
The administration of Flensburg was established on May 5th, 1945
Attempts were made to establish a transitional Reich administration in Germany after Hitler’s assassination (also called the Flensburg government). Hitler appointed Karl Dönitz chancellor of Germany and Joseph Goebbels minister of propaganda in his will. Dönitz appointed Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk Chancellor after Goebbels’s suicide. They preferred being called Minister-President.
On May 8, 1945, World War II in Europe officially ended
Following Germany’s unconditional surrender, the leaders of the Allied nations all made radio broadcasts declaring an end to hostilities in Europe. Though the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9 were a turning point, Japan’s surrender on September 2 marked the official end of World War II.
On July 9th, 1945, the London Accords and the Division of Austria were signed
A military tribunal to trial the main war criminals of World War II was established as part of the London Accords on July 9, 1945. Defeated nations’ futures were settled at the Potsdam Conference a few days later. The victorious powers split Germany and Austria apart. Allied forces had occupied Austria since April 1945, at which time the country was divided into four occupation zones: American, Soviet, British, and French.
July 17, 1945, Potsdam Conference
The Allies convened the Potsdam Conference on July 17, 1945. The future of the vanquished countries was chosen by Truman, Stalin, and Churchill. Remember that France was once again excluded from the Potsdam Conference because of the ongoing combat on the Japanese side of World War II.
The trial against Pétain began on July 23, 1945
At the end of the third month following his detention, Pétain’s trial began in the High Court of Justice. As the trial progressed, he remained silent. While the disputes were chaotic, the genuine roles of the Marshal and the Third Republic’s institutions during the partnership were never in question. After a trial, Philippe Pétain was found guilty of high treason and providing information to the enemy. He was condemned to death and humiliation for his country. De Gaulle, in his role as President of the Provisional Government of the Republic, decided to have the death sentence reduced to one of life in prison without the possibility of parole.
Germany’s destiny was decided at Potsdam on August 2, 1945
The destiny of Germany was settled after the conclusion of the Potsdam Conference on August 2, 1945. With the surrender of East Prussia to Poland and Russia, the Third Reich was finally brought to an end, and Germany’s frontiers were redrawn. Upper Silesia was also lost to Germany, and an official border between Germany and Austria was drawn. Three occupation zones were established; the French zone was created later.
The atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945
As the Japanese government continued to reject the ultimatum issued at the Potsdam Conference, the United States resolved to put its new atomic bombs to the test in live combat. An American B-29 dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. 75,000 people perished as a direct consequence, not considering the long-term health effects of radiation exposure.
The Soviet Union formally declared war on Japan on August 8
Stalin assured the Allied powers at the Yalta conference that the Soviet Union would invade Japan. Russia went to war with the Empire on August 8, 1945. With Marshal Aleksandr Mikhailovich Vasilevsky at the helm, the Russian army launched offensives in Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and the southern region of Sakhalin. The Kuril Islands were also under its control. The Russian army, aided by Mongolian People’s Republic troops, made rapid progress over the course of a few days, covering 250 miles (400 km).
The bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, on August 9, 1945
The Americans’ atomic onslaught against Japan continued with the same goal in mind. The city of Nagasaki was destroyed by an atomic weapon three days after Hiroshima. Initially, at least 38,000 people lost their lives. At the same time, the explosion destroyed about 1.5 mi2 (4 km2) of structures, largely factories.
Japan formally gave up on September 2, 1945
The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki decimated Japanese forces, and the Soviet onslaught launched against them on September 2, 1945, prompted the Japanese emperor to formally surrender Japan (a first announcement had been made on the radio two weeks before). The conclusion of World War II was signaled by Japan’s unconditional surrender.
The Nuremberg Trial began on November 20, 1945
An international court in Nuremberg, Germany, prosecuted Nazi war criminals. The trial that lasted over a year (October 1, 1946) was held in the city that served as the symbol of Nazi philosophy. Representatives from the United States, England, the USSR, and France made up the jury. On October 16, 1946, 11 of the 24 top officials of the Third Reich received hanging sentences.
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The Schutzstaffel, often known as the SS (which means “Protection Squadron”), was formed in the mid-1920s with a small number of people. Growth in membership and scope of operations followed Adolf Hitler‘s ascension to power. The SS evolved from Hitler’s personal bodyguards into a “state within a state” with a wide range of political, repressive, and ideological responsibilities. The SS was responsible for some of the greatest crimes perpetrated during the World War II in the 20th century, and was therefore declared a criminal organization after the war’s conclusion.
Why did Hitler create the Schutzstaffel?
Adolf Hitler.
When Adolf Hitler joined the National Socialist Party of German Workers (NSDAP) in 1921, he quickly rose to the position of president. Later the same year, he plotted a coup called the Beer Hall putsch in an effort to seize control. Due to legitimate security concerns, Hitler decided to hire personal bodyguards.
In 1923, he formed the Stabswache, which was soon succeeded by Adolf Hitler’s Stosstrupp and then, in 1925, by the Schutzstaffel. The SS would endure and develop even though the coup had failed and Hitler had been imprisoned for five years (though he would spend only nine months of them behind bars).
How was the Schutzstaffel organized?
Formerly a unit of the Sturmabteilung (SA), the main paramilitary force of the NSDAP, the Schutzstaffel was formed independently in 1933. In 1934, after the “Night of the Long Knives” coup, the SS was able to strike off on its own. It was granted organizational autonomy under the Führer’s direction. Contrary to popular belief, the Schutzstaffel was not part of the German Army (Wehrmacht).
The SS had a complicated hierarchy with many different sub-units and branches. The SS-Führungshauptamt (administrative and operational headquarters) included Himmler’s personal staff, large units like the Waffen-SS and the SS-Totenkopfverbände (death squads) in charge of the camps, the Gestapo (the Third Reich’s police force), and the Einsatzgruppen (mobile extermination units that acted primarily on the Eastern Front).
Heinrich Himmler: The man at the head of the Schutzstaffel
Heinrich Himmler
Heinrich Himmler, one of the key figures in Nazi Germany’s strategy of annihilation, was born on October 7, 1900 and was often regarded as the SS’s leader. Heinrich Himmler, who was too young to fight in World War I, became an extreme nationalist and Nazi right-winger very rapidly.
He began his career in the SS in 1926 as the district chief for Upper Bavaria, and after gaining Hitler’s trust, he quickly rose through the ranks, eventually becoming not only the head of the Schutzstaffel, but also the head of the German police and ultimately the Minister of the Interior of the Third Reich. Additionally, Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich were responsible for the administration of Nazi concentration and death camps.
Waffen-SS: The military component of the Schutzstaffel
The Waffen-SS was the purely military part of the SS. It was Heinrich Himmler’s idea to form this army, and they portrayed themselves as being made up entirely of die-hard Nazi race-bashers. One such Waffen-SS division was the 33rd SS “Charlemagne” Division, which was mostly composed of French volunteers willing to fight with the Germans.
How did the SS participate in World War II?
The SS committed some of the greatest crimes during World War II. It established and oversaw the concentration and extermination camps where Jews and other enemies of the Nazi dictatorship were held, paving the way for mass murder. It was also responsible for maintaining the reign of Nazi terror, first inside Germany and afterwards in the other war zones where it was active.
It carried out its repressive and ideological duties throughout all of the Third Reich’s occupied areas, including France. A notorious atrocity committed by the Schutzstaffel was the Babi Yar Massacre in the Kiev area. More than 33,000 Jews were killed there by the Einsatzgruppen before the neighboring detention camp was erected.
The massacre in Oradour-sur-Glane, France, was carried out by an SS division that hoped to crush any potential resistance movement in the wake of the Normandy landings. In parallel, the Schutzstaffel, which sought to dominate the Aryan race, established the Lebensborn to “produce” Aryan offspring.
How was the Schutzstaffel represented?
The SS was officially symbolized by the double Sig Rune (or Siegrune), which was a combination of the letters “S” and “S,” standing for “Schutzstaffel.” Its slogan was “Meine Ehre heißt Treue,” which translates to “My Honor Means Loyalty.”
The SS used distinctive Hugo Boss outfits beginning in the 1930s and lasting until the conclusion of WWII. The SS was founded on Adolf Hitler’s ideology of the Aryan race’s supremacy and German unification. The Schutzstaffel’s mission to destroy the Jewish people was motivated by ideological considerations of this kind.
Effects of German defeat on the SS
The SS was disbanded after Germany’s defeat in 1945. The Schutzstaffel was formally labeled a criminal organization when its members were listed as defendants in the renowned Nuremberg Trials (1945-1946).
Outcomes for SS members and associates were very variable. Some were captured and put on trial, while others evaded capture and punishment on a global scale. Some prominent Schutzstaffel members, like Heinrich Himmler, committed suicide rather than face justice for their misdeeds.
TIMELINE OF THE SCHUTZSTAFFEL
On January 30, 1933, Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany
President Paul von Hindenburg named Hitler Reich Chancellor, although he had little sympathy for the head of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party. This is a pivotal moment in Hitler’s rise to power and the beginning of the Nazi era.
It all started with the first concentration camp on March 20, 1933
Nazi concentration camp in Bavaria (1933-1945).
The SS’s Heinrich Himmler created the first concentration camp, known as Dachau. This camp was built specifically to hold communists and social democrats who opposed Hitler’s policies. More than 250,000 individuals were detained at Dachau between 1933 and 1945. As many as 70,000 people killed.
Gestapo was established on April 26, 1933
The Gestapo, or “secret state police,” was established by Hermann Goering to eliminate any and all resistance to the National Socialist rule. The Gestapo took advantage of complete legal protection to commit innumerable extortions and murders. The Gestapo deported several opponents to detention camps.
Himmler is officially named Gestapo chief on April 20, 1934
Himmler, the Second in Command of the Third Reich, was instrumental in establishing the totalitarian Nazi system. On April 20, 1934, he assumed control of the Gestapo as the SS’s leader.
From that point on, Hitler had all the instruments of repression necessary to impose Nazi doctrine on the populace at large. Heinrich Müller aided him in his efforts. As the Nazi regime fell apart, Himmler killed himself rather than be apprehended.
On June 30, 1934, the “Night of the Long Knives”
Ernst Röhm reviewing troops of the Silesian SA in Breslau, Germany (now Wrocław, Poland), 1933.
On the night of June 30, 1934, Hitler had SA leader Ernst Röhm eliminated. The Nazi paramilitary organization SA or Sturmabteilung (assault section) was formed in 1921 and played a crucial role in Hitler’s rise to power. But Hitler, fearing the group’s rising influence, had its leaders murdered and gave the repressive SS (Schutzstaffel) much of the authority (protective echelon).
German troops celebrate Hitler’s 50th birthday with a military parade on April 20, 1939
To celebrate being 50 years old, Adolf Hitler planned a military parade in Berlin, with the sole purpose of showing off the might of the Nazi army to the rest of the world. Army Panzers, Air Might pilots, and Luftwaffe soldiers all took part in this show of force.
Venlo incident: November 9, 1939
The Gestapo and Walter Schellenberg, future chief of the German Secret Service, plotted the Venlo incident of November 9, 1939. Two British spies were duped into thinking he plotted to kill Hitler because of this man. It was then decided to meet at Venlo, Netherlands; however, the Gestapo thwarted these plans by murdering Dutch secret agent Dirk Klop and kidnapped two British spies. Hitler gained two things from this: the British public lost faith in German plotters and Germany found an excuse to interfere in the Netherlands.
On January 20, 1942, the Nazis instituted their “Final Solution”
The Wannsee Conference, attended by 15 senior Nazi and SS members, represented the beginning of the “Final Solution”. This can be summarized in two decisions: the identification of Jews to work in concentration camps and the complete extermination of all other Jews. This marked the beginning of the murder and genocide of the Jewish people.
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, April 19, 1943
Sixty thousand Jews in the Warsaw ghetto rebelled against Nazi SS executioners. The uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto lasted almost a month. 7,000 Jews lost their lives as a direct consequence. The survivors were immediately sent to death camps.
On September 12th, 1943, an SS commando successfully frees Mussolini
Mussolini was liberated from an SS prison in Abruzzo under Captain Otto Skorzeny. The “Duce” used his freedom to establish a new fascist state in northern Italy. Before Mussolini was captured and killed by Italian partisans, he ordered the first executions to be carried out.
The massacre in the Ardeatine Pits took place on March 24, 1944
Three hundred and thirty-five Italian civilians were shot by the Germans on March 24, 1944. (prisoners from the Regina Coeli prison and Jews arrested in a ghetto). This especially brutal murder was in retaliation for the explosion the day before in Rome that took the lives of 32 SS men.
Events at Laclotte and the disaster in Saint-Pierre-de-Clairac on June 7, 1944
French people were slaughtered when the Gestapo and the SS raided the village of Laclotte in the Lot-et-Garonne on June 7th, 1944. Eleven members of the Resistance were killed and many homes were burned at Saint-Pierre-de-Clairac on the same day by the same SS division.
Tulle, a city that was sacrificed on June 9, 1944
The Corrèze town of Tulle was swept by the 2nd SS Das Reich armored division. Supposedly, they were conducting a document verification operation. The operation was unofficially carried out in response to maquisard assaults. Ninety-nine able-bodied Frenchmen were executed, while another 149 were transferred to the Dachau concentration camp.
On June 10, 1944, the SS carried out a massacre against the local population of Oradour
A section of the SS Das Reich division was sent to Oradour-sur-Glane the day following the Tulle operation. The same method was used: the SS said they were conducting an identification check and segregated the males from the women and children before setting fire to the buildings. This atrocity resulted in the deaths of 642 locals.
Liberation of Auschwitz concentration camp, January 27, 1945
The major Nazi death camp, Auschwitz, fell to the Red Army. Seven thousand five hundred people were relieved to see it, and some of them had even gathered enough courage and weapons to rise against the SS. So, between the years of spring 1942 and winter 1945, 1.5 million inmates were killed at Auschwitz.
Adolf Hitler fires Heinrich Himmler on April 18, 1945
Heinrich Himmler sought to negotiate with the British and the Americans as he saw the impending defeat of Germany. After Adolf Hitler discovered his trusted aide betrayed him on April 28, 1945, he immediately relieved him of his responsibilities. The Führer put Karl Hanke in charge of the SS.
The Dachau Massacre, April 29, 1945
The 7th U.S. Army’s 3rd Battalion, 157th Regiment, 45th Infantry Division, was granted entry to Dachau on April 29, 1945. In addition to the appalling living circumstances of the camp’s inmates, the Americans came upon 39 carts full of bodies on their route there. The American troops killed 50 SS members in a fit of rage.
Three ships, the Cape Arcona, the Thielbek, and the Deutschland, went down on May 3, 1945
On April 14th, 1945, Heinrich Himmler, anticipating the approach of Allied soldiers, issued an order for the ex-deportees to be killed. The strategy was straightforward: load up the Cap Arcona, Thielbek, and Deutschland with prisoners and sink them as they hit open water. The British Air Force attacked these vessels on May 3, 1945. Eight thousand individuals perished, most likely from drowning or being shot by the SS.
The verdict of the Nuremberg Trial, announced on September 30, 1946
Evidence about Ernst Kaltenbrunner’s crimes is presented, 2 January 1946.
A ruling was made by the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. The courts convicted culpability in 22 top Nazis for their roles in the atrocities committed during the war. As “crimes against humanity,” twelve of them were given the death penalty. One of them was Hermann Goering, the former head of the Luftwaffe. Goering took his own life by ingesting a pill containing cyanide the day before he was to be executed.
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As a worldwide Christian holiday, December 25 is widely celebrated as the “Nativity of Mary” or “Nativity of Jesus.” It is a feast honoring the birth of Jesus, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born to the Virgin Mary in a stable in Bethlehem, according to the faith. Nativity is, along with Easter, the central feast of the Christian calendar. The origin of the Feast of the Nativity of Mary is in the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. The development of this feast throughout the Christian community, from its earliest celebrations to the present-day custom of placing Nativity cribs and trees topped with stars, seems to be inspired by the more popular Christmas celebration.
The Story of the Nativity
The birth of Jesus of Nazareth is commemorated annually on the feast of the Nativity of Mary. For Christians, his birth represents the Incarnation of God into a human body, and he is both the Son of God and God. In the story, the angel Gabriel revealed to the young Mary that she would bear the Son of God. This event is known as the Annunciation.
Mary’s carpenter husband Joseph was at first inclined to disown her, but an angel appeared to him in a dream and explained everything. The Gospels state that during the reign of King Herod the Great (72 BC–4 BC), the Roman authorities arranged a massive census, compelling all adult males to return to their hometowns to be tallied. So, Joseph took Mary away from Nazareth, and they set out for Bethlehem. According to the Gospel of Luke, Mary gave birth to Jesus in the city.
A painting of the Nativity of Jesus Christ.
There was a prophecy that a king would come from the line of David, and because Jesus’ birth fulfilled that prophecy, King Herod, afraid for his throne, ordered the slaughter of all the babies in Bethlehem. The term “Massacre of the Innocents” describes this event. However, after receiving a second warning in his dream, Joseph quickly took his family to safety in Egypt. As of now, the Gospels are the sole source for information on this massacre, which has led some to speculate that it was fabricated in order to draw parallels between Jesus’ and Moses’ stories.
But according to Roman historian Flavius Josephus (b. 37 AD), the census recounted in the gospels took place in 6 or 7 AD and was ordered by Governor Quirinus. Nonetheless, Herod’s rule expired in 4 BC; thus, this date presents a dilemma for the story of the Nativity. In other words, Herod’s power predated the Quirinus census. In addition, Quirinus’ census would only apply to Judea (where Bethlehem lies) and not Galilee (where Nazareth is located).
Determining a reliable year for Jesus’ birth
Luke the Evangelist (d. 84 AD) referred to Bethlehem as the City of David. Luke was an apostle of Paul who did not personally meet Jesus during his lifetime. Therefore, there is room for mistake in his gospel.
If Joseph went to Bethlehem to be numbered during the reign of governor Quirinus, then one may be looking at a hybrid of Herod I the Great (72 BC–4 BC) and his successor, Herod Archelaus (4 BC–6 AD), referred to in the story of the Nativity. There are two schools of thought when it comes to determining when Jesus was born: those who believe that the census did not take place and that the event must have taken place just a little before the death of Herod I before 4 BC, and those who believe that Joseph did take the census, but under Herod Archelaus, thus placing the birth of Jesus of Nazareth in 6 or 7 AD.
How December 25 was chosen as the day for Nativity
Roman Pagan festival Saturnalia.
“The Nativity” derives its name from the Latin word for the event, Nativitas or Natalis (which means “relating to birth”). While the feast of the Nativity of Jesus has been going strong since at least the 3rd century, there is no universally agreed-upon date for doing so throughout all of Christianity due to the fact that the date is not explicitly stated in the Gospels and has no historical value.
Today, the Nativity is still celebrated on the date of December 25 because the date was chosen as the feast of the Incarnation by Pope Liberius of Rome in the 4th century for symbolic reasons. Since Christmas is pretty much the rehashing of ancient Pagan celebrations, the date of December 25 was also chosen for Christmas Day for the sake of weakening the Pagan celebrations.
The date was a convenient astrological sign as well. Because the winter solstice (the real basis of many end-of-year celebrations like Christmas) usually occurs in late December.
Just like the Nativity, many faiths use this date to celebrate the triumph of life (light) over death (darkness). The Roman Pagans celebrated Saturnalia (the feast of the god Saturn) on this date; Mithra worshippers celebrated Mithragan (the day of the birth of Mithra) on the same day; Sol Invictus (the “Undefeated Sun”), a solar deity combining aspects of Apollo and Mithra, was born on this day; and the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah (commemorating the re-inauguration of the Temple in Jerusalem) also falls at a near date.
Therefore, the 25th of December is a day with the common symbolism of the winter solstice, utilized by different faiths, including Paganism, throughout history. In 425, during his reign, Emperor Theodosius II established the day of the Nativity. Gradually, the Feast of the Nativity gained prominence. Around the end of the 5th century, Clovis was baptized on Nativity Day; in 506, the Council of Agde declared the Nativity a legal holiday; and in 529, Emperor Justinian declared the Nativity a day of rest.
The first Nativity scene was created by Francis of Assisi
St. Francis of Assisi, in 1223, at Greccio, Italy, arranged a live Nativity scene (with “the faithful” playing the roles) that looks to be the first known example of the term “Nativity scene” as we know it today. Miniature Nativity scenes, like the ones that are popular now, originated in the 16th century, when they were promoted by the Jesuits.
Finally, Christians give presents on December 6 in honor of Saint Nicholas, the patron saint of children, or on the Epiphany, when they remember the gifts the Magi gave to the infant Jesus. The traditional holiday for exchanging presents during the Feast of the Nativity of Mary again varies throughout time and space. But the presents are often handed out on December 25.
Origins of the customs associated with the Nativity
A number of customs dating back to the early Christian period accompany the feast of the Nativity. First, there is the liturgical season of Advent, which consists of the four Sundays immediately before the Nativity of Mary (and also Christmas). Christians traditionally burn an Advent candle on each Sunday leading up to the Nativity of Mary to represent the light that will be born again on that day.
The same candle tradition appears in the Pagan Saturnalia festival in ancient Rome, which occurs at the same time of year. Again, Christmas gift-giving is reminiscent of the ancient Roman practice of presenting sigillaria.
Moving on, one of the most important Christian holidays, after Easter, is the celebration of Christ’s birth at Midnight Mass on December 24, which is seldom conducted on this day. Because the traditional Christmas Eve celebration with loved ones comes too close to the day of Midnight Mass.
During the Nativity season, it is customary for religious Christians to display a miniature replica of a cave or stable in their homes, complete with figurines depicting Mary, Joseph, and the infant Jesus. This is called the Nativity scene. Traditional crib decorations sometimes include a shepherd tending to his flock of sheep to depict the first visitors to the baby Jesus following the angel’s message (angels are sometimes also present around the nativity crib).
However, the donkey and ox that breathed heat into the baby are not recounted in detail in any of the four gospels that are considered canonical. Evidence for them may be found in the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, a late apocryphal document dating back to at least the 6th century.
According to the story, after giving birth in a cave, Mary took Jesus to a stable, where the animals greeted him by submitting to their lord’s care on their knees, echoing a verse from Isaiah: “The ox knows its master, the donkey its owner’s manger.” (Isaiah 1:3) While the donkey and ox were banned from the Nativity scene by the Council of Trent in the 16th century, they have since become a part of the popular Nativity custom. The existence of a Nativity scene in the four gospels, which are considered canonical, implies the presence of domestic animals.
Henry IV signed the Edict of Nantes in 1598, after decades of religious conflict had ravaged the Kingdom of France. Before becoming a Catholic in 1593, Henry IV was a Protestant. As the only survivor of the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre, the monarch was determined to bring about religious harmony in his realm. He was familiar with the devastating effects of such insular disputes.
Articles in the edict aim to facilitate peace between Catholics and Protestants. Protestants were thus given the right to religious liberty. The latter had sheltered themselves inside fortified cities. Louis XIV, his grandson, was destined to ruin his ancestor’s hard work. The Sun King (Louis XIV), at heart a devout Catholic, issued the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, rescinding the Edict of Nantes and forcing the Reformed (Protestants) to leave France en masse.
When Was the Edict of Nantes Signed?
Henry IV of France. Paint: Frans Pourbus the Younger.
The Edict of Nantes was signed by King Henry IV on April 13, 1598. This sovereign act was meant to ease tensions between Catholics and Protestants. Since 1562, followers of the two faiths have been at war with one another. St. Bartholomew’s Day was only one of eight violent civil wars that ravaged the kingdom. There were 92 articles in the Edict of Nantes. It was the result of several years of negotiations to ensure the internal stability of the kingdom. When first issued, the Edict of Nantes was met with resistance from both populations. In 1599, talks were set in motion and eventually concluded.
Was the Edict of Nantes an Edict of Tolerance?
The relationship between the two faiths was the primary focus of the Edict of Nantes. Tolerance was therefore recast as the concept of living together in this context. The Edict of Nantes established a set of regulations that must be followed. A closer look at these regulations, however, reveals that the edict was biased in favor of the Catholic faith. Certainly, civic and political rights, as well as the freedom to practice their religion were guaranteed to Protestants but this was not the case everywhere. In addition, a new tax was imposed on Protestants.
How Did the Edict of Nantes Affect Protestants?
The Edict of Nantes
Among Protestants, conditions varied after the Edict of Nantes was implemented. They were tried in tribunals presided over by fellow Protestant magistrates in more progressive municipalities like Bordeaux. In other cities such as Lyon or Toulouse, Protestants still weren’t allowed to practice their religion openly. There were a total of 150 safe havens, including forts, palaces, and manors, where Protestant nobles and their families could reside. Garrisons could be set up to protect these havens from potential attackers. They provided a safe haven for Protestant academies that educated future pastors.
When Did the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes Take Place?
Louis XIV.
Beginning in 1681, Louis XIV ordered his dragoons to employ violence against the French Huguenots in an effort to win them over. Finally, on October 18, 1685, the Edict of Fontainebleau repealed the earlier Edict of Nantes. Protestantism was outlawed in a new edict approved by King Louis XIV.
As a devout Catholic, the King had spent years trying to stamp out the practice. Protestants, in his estimation, were a small minority who had an unhealthy obsession with England and Northern Europe.
Protestants, also known as the Reformed, continued to leave France in large numbers after the Edict of Fontainebleau was issued, settling in countries like Germany and the Netherlands. 200,000 Protestants left France between the years 1679 and 1700. Nonetheless, after 1685, they were no longer allowed to leave the country.
Protestants were pressured into becoming Catholic. Only 45 Protestants were “officially” living in France in 1686. The false conversions could not be counted.
What Were the French Wars of Religion, and How Did They Lead to the Edict of Nantes?
The French Wars of Religion were a series of conflicts between Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots) in France during the 16th century. These wars resulted in significant bloodshed and instability. King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598 to grant religious tolerance and end the violence by allowing Huguenots to practice their religion in certain areas.
The Catholic Church commemorates All Saints’ Day, a feast honoring God and all the saints, on November 1st. Since the beginning of the Church, Christians have honored the lives of the saints who died as martyrs.
Many cultures are familiar with All Saints’ Day because of the time off from school that it often coincides with. Despite its apparent name, All Saints’ Day is often confused with the subsequent All Souls’ Day and, to a lesser extent, with the preceding Halloween celebration.
Origin of All Saints’ Day
Origin
Before the 16th-century notion of devotion to the saints by the Pope, there were already several kinds of canonizations by various Christian groups. The origin of this day dates back even before the 12th-century canonization process. It’s believed that All Saints’ Day has been celebrated since at least the 5th century. Since no one date had been chosen during that period, most countries (including Syria and Rome) celebrated All Saints’ Day around Easter.
History
The Intercession of St. Francis Xavier, France, 17th century.
All Saints’ Day has been celebrated annually on May 13 since 610, when Pope Boniface IV dedicated the Roman Pantheon, rechristened as the Church of St. Mary and Martyrs. Some believe that the date of November 1 was chosen in the 8th century, during the dedication of a chapel to all the saints in St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome by Pope Gregory III. However, others believe that this date was first chosen in 830, when Pope Gregory IV ordered the universality of All Saints’ Day, making it common to all of Christendom.
Unlike the next day’s All Souls’ Day, which is not a public holiday in some countries, All Saints’ Day is celebrated by many countries on November 1. For this reason, many Christians actually commemorate All Saints’ Day by doing rituals often associated with All Souls’ Day, such as paying respects at graves.
How Is All Saints’ Day Commemorated?
During All Saints’ Day, the believer does not pray to the saint, as is commonly assumed, but simply to God (in his three forms). The faithful person is “pleased” with expressing his or her appreciation for the saint and asking for the saint’s intercession with God. Therefore, the saint is not a god but rather a mediator between the believer and God.
In response to Protestant accusations that Catholics worshiped saints, this distinction was hammered out especially strongly at the Council of Trent (1545–1563). Protestants still don’t put much stock in saints, even today. The doctrine of the communion of saints is still not accepted by Protestants.
The Catholic Church glorifies persons who they believe had a direct connection with God by canonizing them and designating a day after them. However, the Catholic Church does not make the claim that they know all there is to know about all the saints who have lived and made it to heaven. This leads the church to believe that there are more saints than it is aware of, all of whom are worthy of worship.
The celebration of All Saints’ Day is an answer to this issue; it serves to reaffirm the connection between contemporary Christians and the many saints who have come before them, both those commemorated in the calendar and others who have been all but forgotten by history. All Saints’ Day is not only a day to honor the dead but also a time for Christians to reflect on how their own lives may emulate the sacrifices of the saints they honor.
The saints serve an important pedagogical purpose. A portion of Saint Mark’s Gospel read on All Saints’ Day is seen as crucial; it serves as a guide to holiness in its most distilled form.
According to Catholic teaching, a saint is an outstanding human being (or an angel) who lived a good life on Earth. Actions that are totally consistent with what Jesus of Nazareth preached. Some of the saints were martyred because of how dedicated they were to their religion. According to the Catholic canon, others have worked miracles as well. Of course, seeing a miracle or dying a martyr is not required to become holy.
Popes have been bestowing this level of sanctity through the beatification and canonization processes since the 13th century. It seems that people who have been canonized are those who have achieved everlasting bliss and are now at peace with God. The Catholic Church established a martyrology to honor the lives of its martyrs and assigns each saint a special day of the year on which to be prayed.
Both Catholics and Orthodox Christians believe that the communion of the saints of the Church Triumphant in heaven with the ChurchMilitant or the Church of the Living, is unbroken. Christians believe in a form of solidarity that transcends place and time, a bond known as the communion of saints, which connects both the living and the dead (Church Penitent). If one subscribes to this doctrine, he or she may address the saints as if they were right by his or her side during All Saints’ Day.
The origin of the term “Halloween” has long been a mystery. It’s an abbreviation for “All Hallows’ Eve,” which means All Hallows’ Day (All Saints’ Day). Halloween’s origin dates back more than 2,500 years to when the Pagan people were celebrating a festival that was then called Samhain. Both the new year and the dead were honored during this Celtic and Gallic festivity.
The druids kept the new fire burning, and the celebrations included ritual sacrifices, mead-sharing, and a feast. How was Halloween practiced among the Celts? The American celebration of St. Patrick’s Day has its roots in Ireland; therefore, what Irish tale gave rise to these traditions? Discover where and when this autumnal custom of Halloween originated.
The Origin and Meaning of Halloween
Samhain, the ancestor of Halloween.
Samhain, a Celtic celebration with spooky overtones, is where Halloween gets its start. Samhain, which means “end of summer” in contemporary Gaelic, is still the name of the month of November in Irish and other languages today. More than 2,500 years ago on a full moon night in October, when the Celtic year came to a close in Ireland, Great Britain, and northwest Gaul, this ritual festival was organized to celebrate the upcoming new year. This event was already celebrated in several countries during this historical period.
There are two distinct halves to the Celtic calendar year, the dark half starting on Samhain (November 1) and the bright half commencing on Beltane (May 1), and both are as significant. There were also two distinct seasons in Western European countries—winter and summer—because of the region’s moderate and humid environment. The community’s pace of life shifted as summer winded down. Herds were brought inside for the winter, relieving farmers of their duties during this season.
Why Is Halloween Celebrated on October 31st?
Unlike the Gregorian calendar, which was based on the sun, the lunar calendar used by the Celts meant that the dates of their most important festivals were not set in stone. Samhain was celebrated precisely on the night of the next full moon. Therefore, that is why October 31 is chosen as the date for Halloween for “convenience.” Samhain was more than just a religious celebration at the beginning of the new year since it symbolized the opening of the bridge between the living and the dead.
The Feast of Samhain, the Ancestor of Halloween
Samhain is a 7-day celebration that begins three days before the full moon and continues for another three days thereafter. It is mandatory for everyone to join, regardless of their social standing, or they will be punished by the gods. There are lots of pork, beer, mead, and wine during the Samhain feast. Pig, a god of destruction and terror, is revered as a holy food that grants eternal life. On the other hand, mead is a honey-water alcoholic beverage.
This festival is intended to create bridges between the two worlds (those of the living and the dead), where everyone is invited to come to the other side. This allows the deceased to lose their gift of invisibility. It is a celebration in the sense that people meet “in the middle” of the actual and abstract worlds.
Celtic languages have a shared etymology for the words “middle” and “drunkenness.” In addition to the usual fare of sacrifices and lighting a new fire, the Samhain celebration also included ritualized games and musical performances. For the druids to reignite a new fire in every home and usher in the new year, the Gauls put out their old fires.
In addition to being a religious holiday, Samhain also served as a political, military, and commercial event when deals were sealed. Although it was mostly a peaceful celebration, the renewal of the king’s authority served as a fitting capstone to the occasion.
The Roman invasion had an impact on Celtic culture since it introduced a harvest festival in honor of an Etruscan goddess named Pomona. Since Christianity condemned the Pagan practice, it was eventually replaced by the All Saints’ Day holiday celebration. Despite the destruction of their ancient temples, Pagan practices continued. The celebration of All Saints’ Day became an official holiday in Europe in 837. Thus, Halloween, or Samhain, was pushed back to be celebrated on October 31st, a day earlier than usual.
From Turnip to Pumpkin: The Celtic Legends Reached America
Following the potato famine (the “Great Famine”) of 1846–48, many Irish emigrated to the United States, bringing with them a wealth of folklore, including their renowned Samhain festival, which over time turned into today’s Halloween.
The Origin of the Pumpkin on Halloween
You’ve certainly heard the story of Jack O’Lantern, the drunkard who was sent out of heaven on October 31 for daring to play jokes on the devil before he was later killed. Jack O’Lantern was condemned to wander in the dark with a lantern for all eternity. The lantern was a turnip he was munching on, and the candle he placed inside to protect it from the wind.
At the end of the 19th century, Halloween was made a national holiday in the United States for the first time. US citizens started to celebrate Halloween with its associated custom of “Trick-or-Treating,” going from door to door in search of sweets. And the pumpkin, since it is much simpler to carve than the turnip, became the primary emblem of Halloween.
As for the kids going door to door asking for candy, that practice has its roots in Irish culture, where it was common for the impoverished to beg for food from the more well-off. The witches and wizards, as well as the concept of threatening the people with a nasty fate if they refuse, are both relatively modern developments.
Movies About Halloween
Friday the 13th, a 1980 horror film directed by John Carpenter, added more suspense to Halloween. This includes the original 1978 Halloween movie from the same director that went on to become the focus of a long-running, critically acclaimed series.
In 2022’s Halloween Ends, the myth is revived once again, cementing the festival’s reputation as a party that is both innocent for children and a source of overflowing and terrifying imagination for the older ones.
Tradition and Commercialism Collide at Halloween
Even today, people in Scotland and Wales continue to gather around bonfires as a symbol of Samhain or Halloween, since it is a custom that originated in the Celtic culture. Halloween games involving fruit, such as jumping into a pool to grab apples or apple bobbing, are a tradition in both the United States and Britain that dates back to the Roman harvest festival.
The tradition of using candlelight to illuminate carved pumpkins, the “Jack-o’-lanterns,” in the form of hideous masks dates back to the same Roman harvest festival.
Particularly in the latter half of the 20th century, Halloween became one of the largest holidays in many European countries, third only to Christmas and Easter. However, as Europeans already have many historical celebrations and Halloween has become too commercial, the holiday has lost its magic in Europe.
The distinction between the Day of the Dead celebration (which originated in Mexico) and Halloween is worth noting. The former is celebrated on November 2nd to remember the deceased, and it does not have a connection with Halloween.
What was known about the sky in Central Europe during the Bronze Age? What kind of calendars were used? The worldviews of the Bronze Age societies and level of knowledge are still a mystery since they had no written language. The initial, not always uncontested, hints are only offered by discoveries like the Nebra Sky Disk, the Gold Hats, or the Trundholm Sun Chariot. But the issue is that there are several possible interpretations of what is shown on these objects and how they work. Thus, archaeoastronomers often have to fumble in the dark while studying this field, but it does not make them any less fascinating.
Travel to the European Bronze Age
4,000 years ago, Central Europe was far from being at the center of the world. Because the greatest cultural advances at that time occurred elsewhere: on the Mediterranean, in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and far-off India, sophisticated civilizations thrived, people there constructed large cities, communicated through writing, and created intricate social and administrative institutions. These civilizations’ accomplishments are attested to by the countless written records they have left behind.
Graves and depot findings, which are ancient artifacts that were buried in the ground, are the main sources of knowledge about Bronze Age life.
The difficulty of lack of writing
Contrarily, there was a substantial disparity in this regard in Central and Northern Europe. This is due to the lack of writing among the Bronze Age civilizations of this area. There is thus little knowledge available today on how the Aunjetitz, Tumulus, and Urnfield cultures’ inhabitants behaved, what they thought, and what they understood about their surroundings and the sky. Even the Celtic people of ancient Rome valued oral traditions above written documents.
Therefore, we must examine these artifacts if we wish to understand the worldview of our ancestors at that time—findings from archaeology that, even without writing, provide insight into the manner of life and knowledge of people in Europe throughout the Bronze Age. The primary sources of evidence today are the remains of ancient structures and ceremonial complexes, burials, and ornamented everyday items including pottery, copper, bronze jewelry, and weaponry.
Simple settlements, mining, and trade
Bronze Age objects from the Havering Hoard in London. Credit: Museum of London
These archeological discoveries provide a rather straightforward picture of life: people lived in tiny farms or communities, and their homes were typically built of wood with stone foundations. There were no large cities or even historically significant structures in this area. There were often just local leaders, and the social structure was not very hierarchical.
However, our predecessors had already made great advancements in the mining and metalworking arts. They mined copper and other ores and produced ornately designed jewelry, swords, and cult artifacts. Trade links with the South and Scandinavia also existed at the time. The Amber Road linked the Baltic with the highly developed civilizations of the Mediterranean, and ore was carried, for instance, through the Alps and to the east.
What were their observations of the sky?
What about the understanding of astronomy, though? How well-versed in the celestial cosmos and the rules of the sun and moon were the Europeans of the Bronze Age? Theoretically, the trade commodities might have carried sophisticated astronomical knowledge from the Near East to Central Europe. On the other hand, it is known that European Stone Age tribes already had an understanding of astronomy and utilized it as a timer for ceremonial and agricultural activities, which brings to mind Stonehenge and Goseck.
However, a few new archeological discoveries suggest that this knowledge was not only retained throughout the Bronze Age but also advanced.
The Nebra Sky Disk
Replica of the Nebra Sky Disk as it was found. Credit: Christian Reinboth, Wikimedia.
A Bronze Age discovery, graves, and robbers
It is the most well-known astronomical artifact from the European Bronze Age and a UNESCO document. However, it nearly completely vanished into unreachable channels. The story of the Nebra Sky Disk’s discovery is a truly suspenseful tale. Illegal excavations, shady art dealers, robbers, and an archaeologist are the main actors in the story.
In Germany’s woodland, in the summer of 1999, a crime thriller was set. Under the crest of the Mittelberg near Nebra, two guys were skulking about the Ziegelroda Woodland using metal detectors to search the forest floor. They are searching for artifacts, particularly guns or jewels that can be sold for cash. Their odds were strong since this region was already home to some 800 Bronze Age burial mounds.
The location of the Sky Disk in the Ziegelroda Forest.
The gadget beeps loudly out of the blue—it’s a find. As soon as the two thieves began digging on the woodland floor, they found a circular, dark-gray disk that was roughly 30 centimeters in diameter. But first, they showed little interest in it. The two gold-plated swords, several bracelets, and hatchets they discovered were much more fascinating. The disk was somewhat damaged during the excavation, so the two thieves collected the findings and the broken disk before attempting to transform their plunder into cash.
Swords made of bronze with gold decorations discovered with the disk.
Undercover archaeologist
They got $15,000 for their discovery from a dealer; although this sum may seem like a lot of money to the two novice thieves, it was really much too little when compared to the true worth of the findings. The numerous dubious traders who received the findings were aware of this. They were all unaware of the significance of the obscure disk, however. One of them even made an attempt to use steel wool to clean the soiled portion. Then, one of the merchants offered the pieces to several museums, which made the authorities wonder.
They devised a covert operation in an effort to recover the items and bring the criminals to justice. In order to set up a covert meeting with the thieves in a Basel hotel in February 2002, the Saxony-Anhalt State Office for Archaeology pretended to be a potential buyer, and just at the right moment, Swiss police stepped in and arrested the burglars, a teacher, and a museum educator. In 2003, the two thieves revealed the precise location of the disk as well as the discoveries that went along with it.
At least 3,700 years old
The Nebra Sky Disk was liberated from millennia-old sludge.
Even the first studies of the mysterious disk indicated something remarkable: the seemingly innocuous discovery was made of bronze, and it was decorated with celestial symbols made of sheet gold, including a crescent moon, a full moon, stars with pointed ends, and golden arcs. Using the so-called exchange procedure, the gold was fastened to the bronze plate. The gold plate’s edge was forced into the groove that had been cut into the bronze and secured therein for this purpose. Europe had been familiar with this kind of metallurgy since the Bronze Age.
But how ancient was this artwork—could it date to the Bronze Age, for example? Since the disc itself doesn’t contain any carbon that might have been dated using the radiocarbon technique, it was challenging to date it. However, the objects found with them provided a hint: Archaeologists determined that the swords and bracelets were buried by their owners in the Bronze Age, or approximately 1600 BC, based on the design of the items.
The Nebra Sky Disk is a remarkable artifact in archaeology and is now thought to be between 3,700 and 4,100 years old. This disk is among the ten most significant archaeology-related artifacts ever because of its antiquity, craftsmanship, and theme.
But what exactly did the Sky Disk signify, and what was its function?
Moon and the Pleiades
Pleiades
The Sky Disk as a sign of the arrival of spring
Sun, moon, and stars are what the sky disk of Nebra symbolizes, and it is obvious that it must be related to the sky because of this. As a result, the disk is the only artifact from the Bronze Age or earlier to have such distinct and obvious astronomical connections. It is regarded as the earliest sky image made of concrete in existence. The earliest Egyptian concrete celestial depictions are from a period around 200 years later.
Of course, earlier representations of the night sky exist, such as those found in the Old Kingdom of Egypt. However, they just depict stars in a schematic grid pattern and are essentially decorative. The Nebra Sky Disk, however, seems to be an incredibly accurate representation of a very specific astronomical circumstance. But for what reason did this disk, which was already valued at the time, exist?
A first cue is provided by the noticeable cluster of dots located above the crescent moon and the gold disk: Most archaeoastronomers believe that the Pleiades, or the seven stars, is represented by these seven dots. Even with the naked eye, you can see this open star cluster in the Taurus constellation. As a result, it has been used to identify certain points throughout the year since ancient times.
The Pleiades were visible in the sky from spring through October around 3600 years ago, during the period of the Nebra Sky Disk. Each year around March 10 at nightfall, they rise for the first time, and in October at dawn, they set for the final time. For many societies of the Bronze Age, their rising signaled the arrival of spring and the time to start planting. On the other hand, the sinking was seen as a sign of the end of the harvest season. The Pleiades are calendar stars of the first tier.
Astronomical mnemonic
The Pleiades are the cluster of stars that are visible above the crescent moon. The distribution of the other dots, however, is random. This model depicts how the Nebra Sky Disc could have appeared during its usage during the Bronze Age.
It follows that this collection of points was likewise employed by the designers of the sky disk to symbolize the Pleiades. There is no chance that the Pleiades are on the disk adjacent to the crescent moon and on the spherical disk near the full moon or the sun. The moon would have formed a crescent if the Pleiades were in conjunction with it as it rose in the spring, after recently passing a new moon. On the other hand, the moon was always full when the Pleiades and the moon were in conjunction in the fall.
The Nebra Sky Disk could have been used by Bronze Age people as a calendrical mnemonic, or an astronomical symbol signifying the start of spring. It would seem sensible that the remaining 25 gold dots on the disk would likewise represent actual constellations, but oddly enough, this is not the case. Instead, it seems like the dots are placed carefully to minimize pattern formation.
The “distance preservation” of the things on the bronze disk is virtually abnormal. It’s possible that these dots are stars, but their purpose is only to indicate that the sky is involved. The Pleiades are the only concrete stars that are intended. The Bronze Age disk, however, tells much more about the sky than just the start of spring and the Pleiades.
Observing the solstices and equinoxes
What do the arcs of the horizon on the sky disk mean?
The sun and moon were the most significant indications for our ancestors, even in the Stone Age. The ceremonial and agricultural years were distinguished by the summer and winter solstices, the moon phases, the rising and setting of the sun, and the months. Among other things, the solar observatory at Goseck, which was constructed around 7,000 years ago, demonstrates that people living in Central Europe were already keeping track of the sun and moon’s movements at that time.
82° angle, with golden arcs
Each horizon arc indicates an angle of 82°.
But what function did the Nebra Sky Disk serve here? The disk’s two eye-catching golden rim arcs are used in this situation. The metal analysis demonstrates that they were added after the majority of the other gold jewelry. Thus, they are a part of the disk’s second phase of usage. It’s fascinating how long they are since they span an 82° arc. This appears odd for a simple decoration since, for symmetry’s sake, one would anticipate a 90° circular quarter.
But if you search for angles of 82 degrees in astronomy, you will discover what you need: The sunsets move through precisely 82° from one solstice to the next in the latitude where Saxony-Anhalt is situated. The sunrises follow the same rules. The position of the Nebra Sky Disk’s discovery makes it possible to use it as a useful tool to pinpoint key solar year-corner events like solstices and equinoxes.
Sun over the Brocken
The opposite end of the horizon arc indicates when the winter solstice is, if the Nebra Sky Disk is lined up with the winter solstice at sunset.
This is due to the fact that the sun sets almost precisely over the peak of the Brocken, which is located around 85 kilometers distant, as viewed from the location where the disk was discovered below the Mittelberg at the summer solstice. On this day, the sky disk is adjusted such that one end of the horizon arc close to the crescent moon precisely points to sunset and the Brocken.
The golden arc, which you can see if you keep the Nebra Sky Disk in this position over the next few days and weeks, indicates the migration of the sunsets. The winter solstice occurs when the setting sun in winter reaches the furthest point of its arc; from this point on, sunsets begin to migrate in the other direction. A fresh cycle starts as the days become longer. It is still unclear, nevertheless, if the owners of the Nebra Sky Disk during the Bronze Age really used it for this usage. However, it is at least likely given that the two horizon arcs were constructed later.
But further studies turned out to reveal an even more intricate use for the Nebra Sky Disk.
Using the Nebra Sky Disk as a leap-year indication
The thick crescent moon
The crescent of the moon immediately after a new moon is far thinner than it appears on the sky disk. Credit: Jared Tanner
At first sight, the crescent moon on the Nebra Sky Disk seems pretty typical, with bent ends. However, it doesn’t exactly match the picture from an astronomical standpoint. because it is too thick to clearly see the moon’s small crescent immediately after a new moon. But once again, it is too thin to depict the crescent moon. Instead, it portrays a moon that is in an intermediate state and is around four days old.
For proof of a four-day crescent moon, researchers looked through the annals of other early Bronze Age nations. They discovered what they sought in the Babylonians: The thickness of the moon at the start of spring was a crucial indicator of whether or not a leap month was due in the Mul-Apin, an astronomical cuneiform document from the 7th century B.C.
It is balanced by a leap month
The Babylonians used a hybrid of solar and lunar calendars, much like many other highly developed Bronze Age civilizations. The moon’s phases were used to establish the months, which ranged from new moon to new moon. The issue with this is that a year made up of twelve lunar months is eleven days shorter than a year made up of 360 solar days. As a result, over time, the lunar year changes in opposition to the seasons, which is highly unfeasible.
The Babylonians documented their lunisolar calendar’s leap year among other things in the Mul-Apin. Credit: British Museum. CC BY-SA 4.0
The Babylonians came up with a solution by turning on an extra leap month every two to three years. At the start of spring, they took the moon as a sign that it was time: If there was just a very thin crescent moon close to the Pleiades, everything was still in balance, thus a leap month wasn’t required. The lunar year had to be shifted if the moon was already a few days old when it made its conjunction with the Pleiades.
Thick moon next to the Pleiades
Exactly what is seen on the Nebra sky disk is this constellation, which includes the Pleiades and a four-day crescent moon. The owners simply needed to compare the moon’s appearance to that of its golden representation on the disk when the Pleiades are rising in the spring. If it was thinner, everything was OK; if it seemed to be the same thickness, a leap month was required.
This caused a scandal among archaeologists and archaeoastronomers: could the purportedly technologically illiterate Bronze Age inhabitants of Nebra have previously been able to follow such a complicated lunisolar calendar? We wouldn’t have thought they were capable of it. The reason for this is that without writing, even long-term astronomical change tracking was difficult.
Import from Mesopotamia
This is likely how the disk appeared during its first period of use: barren of horizon arcs and barque.
Therefore, it is questionable if the designers of the Sky Disk really independently came up with this knowledge. The Bronze Age trade lines from the Near East to Eastern Europe and from there to Nebraska appear to have been the most probable source of knowledge about the leap month. We find the idea that this norm originated in a society devoid of writing to be less plausible than the idea that a link to Mesopotamia conveyed this knowledge.
The sky disk may have been created as a memory and identification aid by a shaman, druid, or other scholar who had learned about the lunisolar calendar and leap year of the Babylonians via interactions with merchants. The workings of the disk were probably only known to a very restricted group of individuals. And when they passed away without passing on their wisdom, the sky disk’s function was likewise rendered useless.
By the time the sky disk was buried, it had long ago ceased to be used as a calendar measuring device and was only being used for ceremonial reasons, as shown by the improvements to the horizon arcs, solar barque, and mounting holes. It eventually turned into a cult item.
Was the Trundholm Sun Chariot a calendar?
When seen from its dayside, Trundholm Sun Chariot moves from east to west, much like the sun. Credit: Malene Thyssen
However, there may be more proof that Bronze Age inhabitants of Central Europe were already familiar with and used a combined solar and lunar calendar in addition to the Nebra Sky Disk. The Trundholm Sun Chariot, a piece of Bronze Age art that was uncovered in Denmark in 1902, may possibly serve as proof.
The path of the sun
The Trundholm Sun Chariot, which dates back to circa 1400 BC, is composed of an upright disk with gold decoration on one side that is supported by a form of the cart and drawn by an image of a horse. The disk, which is around 25 cm in diameter, has rings of spirals and circles that are concentrically organized on both sides.
Since comparable sun chariots are shown in numerous ancient societies, it is apparent that this sun chariot was primarily used for religious and cultic purposes. They represent the path the sun takes over the midday sky. This is further confirmed by the way in which the horse and chariot are oriented: when seen from the side of the Trundholm Sun Chariot that faces the golden day, the horse goes to the right, mirroring the sun’s motion from east to west in the sky.
A calendar for astronomical counting
But the Trundholm Solar Chariot’s designers could have had an even more profound and useful intention. The arrangement of the decorations on the solar disk holds the solution to this problem. There is disagreement among experts as to how precisely these spirals and circles may have been used as a form of counting calendar by Bronze Age inhabitants.
Spirals and double spirals on the front and rear are ornamented; are they representations of days, weeks, or months. Credit: Copenhagen National Museum
The spirals on the night side may be used to tally the days of the lunar year, according to Klaus Randsborg of the University of Copenhagen. He estimates that 177 is obtained by multiplying the total number of spirals in each ring of the disk by the number of the ring in which they are located. 177 days are equivalent to six lunar months, or half a lunar year.
Spirals as days and weeks
According to some scholars, the pattern on the night side has a reference to the solar year: Eight symbols that represent days and may signify a week are located on the disk’s inside. Ancient Etruscans and, for a brief while, even the Romans used calendars with eight-day weeks.
The 45 spirals in the two outer rings, according to Sparavigna, represent the seven days of the week. The result is 360 days, or about one solar year, if one doubles both quantities at this point. The five missing days, or a kind of changeover time, may therefore be represented by the circle’s center.
Maybe a lunar eclipse calendar as well
The Trundholm Sun Chariot’s night side. Credit: Malene Thyssen
Some academics even believe that the Trundholm Sun Chariot’s motifs represent a lunar eclipse calendar. The pattern of lunar eclipses repeats every 18 years and 10 days, as was early understood by experts in Mesopotamia and ancient China. Therefore, the Saros cycle may be used to forecast when the next eclipse will occur. It is unknown, nevertheless, if similar views were shared by the Central and Northern Europeans of the Bronze Age in their scriptless civilization.
The Trundholm Sun Chariot’s actual purpose and whether it actually acted as a calendar are therefore still unknown. It is difficult to evaluate the level of knowledge of the Bronze Age inhabitants of this area in the absence of written records. Again, the symbols on the disk may have been nothing more than a lovely ornament. The only thing that is really certain is that the filigree components demonstrate a high degree of metalworking and casting expertise, proving that Bronze Age artists were already highly developed, even in northern Europe.
The Gold Hats as calendars
Sunbeams, circles, and diamonds
Was the Berlin gold hat a calendar? Credit: Philip Pikart
They are also a part of the late Bronze Age gold hats, which are intriguing and are still being studied. Four of these cone-shaped pieces of Urnfield Culture art, hammered from thin gold sheet, have so far been discovered in Europe; three are in Germany and one is in the west of France.
Cult jewelry for the affluent
Priests most likely wore these conical hats on cultic occasions because they were still about 75 centimeters tall. Therefore, it is most likely not an accident that the lower aperture fits almost precisely on a man’s skull. The complete hat weighs less than 500 grams since the gold plate was pushed out so thin. However, the ornamentation of ribbons with circles and tiny jewels hammered into the gold sheet is what makes these gold hats distinctive.
Nothing in this sculpture, including the overall number of ornamental zones, the number of individual components, or even the number of rings around the many humps, is left to chance. Because several experts have discovered a sophisticated calendar that, like the sky disk, serves to connect the lunar year and the solar year in a series of rings and patterns.
Saros cycle, solar year, and lunar year
The 354 days of a lunar year are produced, for instance, by adding the decorations from Berlin Gold Hat zones 2 to 18. However, specific switching zones also make it possible to count the sun months on the patterns. Even the Saros cycle, which heralds the recurrence of lunar eclipses, could have been inscribed on the hat made of gold. because 223 is the length of a Saros cycle in months when all the ornaments from zones 3 to 13 are added together.
On the Berlin Gold Hat, the fifth zone from the top has a unique design that combines 19 lying crescent moons with lying lozenges. They could last for the 19 years of the lunar cycle, after which the solar and lunar cycles will once more coincide. Meton, a Greek scholar, calculated and recorded this cycle, so it now bears his name (Metonic Cycle).
Numerous assumptions, little knowledge
However, as with the Trundholm Sun Chariot, these are currently little more than hypothetical number games. Because there are some hints that a system and possibly a calendar exist, as well as the pattern of the gold hats. What the various circles and patterns actually mean, however, and how intricate this was, remain a mystery.
The sun chariot, the sky disk, and the gold hats are only a few pieces of an enormous jigsaw puzzle which are the European Bronze Age societies. Therefore, it is not easy to claim that these civilizations have “deep astronomical knowledge.” Because it remains conjecture without an understanding of the archaeological, religious-historical, and anthropological background. But it is exactly this background knowledge about the individuals who developed the Nebra Sky Disk and other astronomical artifacts of this period that we lack at this time.
Around 500 BC, Greek coastal communities in Asia Minor rose up against the Persian Empire and its leader, Darius. Athens, as a city-state, attempted to send aid, but it was unsuccessful. The insurrection was crushed, and the Emperor decided to launch an invasion of Greece as vengeance. Thus began the First Persian War in 492 BC, which culminated in the surprising defeat of the Persians. Darius’s son Xerxes, who became king after his death, is ready to get revenge for the insult his father suffered. The Second Persian War started in 480 BC, after several years of buildup. It’s a stunning and unlikely triumph for the Greeks once again. A turning point that ushered in the classical period and signaled the end of Persian expansionism.
FIRST PERSIAN INVASION OF GREECE (492 BC to 490 BC)
Battle of Marathon.
What caused the First Persian War? (First Persian invasion of Greece)
The Persian king Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great)’s reign in the sixth century BC saw the expansion of his modest kingdom into a massive empire that spanned from India to the Mediterranean. After a string of military victories, he conquered the Lydian kingdom along the Aegean Sea in 547 BC, seizing several Greek coastal towns in Asia Minor in the process. Twenty years later, the newly installed Persian emperor Darius I made the strategic decision to expand the realm by successfully initiating the invasion of Thrace and the seashores of the Sea of Marmara. By virtue of this expansion, Persia was now de facto in charge of the maritime commerce between the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and therefore the Mediterranean. A great threat to Greece.
Greek towns of Ionia, which were part of the Persian Empire under Cyrus but enjoyed considerable autonomy, saw their power diminish under Darius. He levied excessive and unfair taxes, sparing only the emperor’s loyal subjects. The Greeks’ rebellion against the Persians was inspired by a sense of injustice and the longing for freedom.
The Ionian Revolt started in 499 BC. The Ionians went to Sparta, the leader of the region’s most powerful army, for help when things seemed bleak, but Sparta, like most other towns on the peninsula, refused to participate despite pleas for “Greek brotherhood.” But Athens alone provided military aid. The naval battle of Ladae, which began in 494 BC and was first won by the Ionians, was ultimately reversed when the Persians recovered their early advantage. When the Greek fleet was attacked, it was completely destroyed. Miletus (Milet, Miletos), a city in the region, was captured and afterwards destroyed.
During the First Persian War
Darius planned an invasion of mainland Greece in 492 BC as retaliation for Athens’ aid to the revolutionaries. To put it simply, this was the first shot fired in the First Persian War (First Persian invasion of Greece). In 491 BC, the Persian Empire sent envoys to every city in Greece, demanding surrender. Some countries agreed, but Athens and Sparta rejected the offer and had the diplomats killed. The First Persian War officially kicked off when the Persian army sailed across the Aegean Sea in 490 BC.
One by one, the Cyclades islands that lied between the two coasts were conquered. Rapidly advancing to Euboea’s southernmost point, the Persian expedition then pushed north to the allied city of Eretria, which had previously been under Athens’ protection. The first stage of the emperor’s vengeance was the swift seizure of its populace and deportation to Mesopotamia.
After that, the Persians continued on toward Athens. When the Persians attacked Athens, the Athenians could have waited there to defend the city, but instead they chose to meet them on the plain of Marathon. In the middle of September in 490 BC, the two sides engaged in a decisive fight. Even though the odds were against them, the Athenians were able to drive back the Persian army’s massive infantry and thick armor.
Who won the First Persian War?
The Greek people quickly adopted Athens’ triumph as a symbol, since it proved that the Persians were not unbeatable. In the wake of their glorious victory at Marathon, the Athenians wanted to further cement their position as the dominant power in Greece. Against this background, the military tactician Themistocles rose to prominence and played a pivotal role in the establishment of a military alliance among several Greek towns known as the Delian League.
Since the Persians achieved many crucial goals during the war, including control of the Aegean Sea and the establishment of subservient governments on all of the islands, the defeat was nonetheless seen as a relative failure on their side. A surprise uprising in Egypt, which had been ruled by the Persians since 525 BC and which likewise sought its freedom, soon diverted Darius’s focus.
SECOND PERSIAN INVASION OF GREECE (480 BC to 479 BC)
The Spartans throw Persian envoys into a well. M. A. Barth – ‘Vorzeit und Gegenwart”, Augsbourg, 1832
What caused the Second Persian War? (Second Persian invasion of Greece)
Death came for Darius in 486 BC, after he had spent his last months crushing an Egyptian uprising. His son, Xerxes I, succeeded him with the goal to “blow a wind of horror across Greece” and revenge the defeat suffered by the Persian army at the hands of the Athenians. He spent over five years planning a massive military campaign, consisting of a marine and land assault. Some modern historians put the number of men involved at between 300,000 and 500,000.
This was accompanied by the mobilization of 600 ships. The Greeks had also been getting ready for the approaching fight, albeit they had less resources at their disposal (about 370 galleys and less than 100,000 troops). Athens supplied the majority of the fleet; using money from the Laurion mines, it had 200 ships built.
The Persian Empire was numerically superior over the Greek possessions in Sicily, but Xerxes still didn’t want to take any chances, so he formed an alliance with Carthage. By allying himself with some of the locals, the emperor also took advantage of the historical rivalry between the several towns. A large number of Greek towns opted to take a neutral stance and not join the Delian League. The Persians won a string of successes in the early months of the war.
How was the Second Persian War
Spring of 480 BC. marked the beginning of the Second Persian War. The Persian army swiftly conquered Thessaly and Pieria, and then pressed on to Athens. The two battles of Artemisia and Thermopylae in the summer of 480 BC resulted in a definite Persian victory but proved more difficult and arduous than predicted, with a strong storm robbing Xerxes of part of his naval fleet and the Greek allies inflicting enormous casualties on the Persian soldiers.
After conquering Boeotia, Xerxes moved on to Attica. Due to the severity of the threat, Athens was forced to evacuate its citizens. In September, the Persians made an incursion into Athens, devastated the city, and slaughtered its remaining inhabitants. The Greeks realized they needed a drastic change if they want to restore power. Xerxes was alerted that numerous Greek generals intended to desert and sought to be let to go. It was a sentiment shared by the Emperor, who was anticipating a triumphant outcome.
Even yet, it was all a ploy, as the Greek ships quickly took advantage of the circumstance to surround the Persian ships, cutting off the emperor’s supply of warriors. When half of the Persian fleet and the ground troops vanished during the Battle of Salamis, it was clear that the tide had turned. Xerxes abandoned his army and sought safety in Asia Minor.
The Persians re-invaded Attica in the spring of 479 BC, reigniting hostilities between the two countries. After initially taking a backseat in the struggle, Sparta now decided to act and join in the combat on an equal footing with the other parties. After a decisive victory in the Battle of Plataea, the combined Greek and ally forces drove the Persians out of Europe. The autumn of 479 BC saw the culmination of the Greek counterattack with the naval victory at Cape Mycale in Ionia.
Who won the Second Persian War?
The outcome in Greece was now certain. The Spartans went home, thinking this is the end. The Athenians decided to keep fighting and, in particular, to lay siege to the Persian-held city of Sestos. A few months later, the Persian commander at Sestos was captured by storm and crucified. Historians like Herodotus and Thucydides wrote that the end of the Persian Wars was signaled by the fall of this city.
That so, there isn’t universal agreement on this, and conflict between the Persians and the Greeks went on for decades. The Athenians gained power and prestige as a result of the war; they used the booty from the Persians to fund the city’s reconstruction, they led the Delian League to victory, and their navy eventually came to dominate the Mediterranean. During the Battle of Eurymedon, which occurred between 469 and 466 BC, Athens and its League allies soundly destroyed the Persian army. In this way, the possibility of another Persian invasion of Greece and the conquest of Greek towns in Asia Minor by the Empire was eliminated.
The aftermath of the Persian Wars
Athens and Persia signed the Peace of Callias in 449 BC to end their wars. To ensure the independence of the Greek towns in Asia, Artaxerxes I (son of Xerxes) swore he would never send ships into Greek seas or troops within three days’ march of the shore. Herodotus, a Greek historian, started writing his magnum opus, the Histories, on the rise and fall of the Persian Empire and the Persian Wars, about 445 BC.
As a result of its pivotal role in the Greek troops’ triumph against the Persians, Athens expanded its dominance to the disadvantage of Sparta. The Peloponnesian War, which lasted from 431 to 404 BC, was fought between the Delian League (under Athens’ dominance) and the Peloponnesian League (under Spartan hegemony).
KEY DATES OF THE GRECO-PERSIAN WARS
The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent under Darius the Great.
498 BC: Capture of Sardis
The Greeks made an invasion in the Asia Minor city of Sardis and attempted to dislodge the Persians from their control there. The lower city was burned to the ground, but the citadel was holding strong. The governor of Sardis controlled the Persian-installed tyrants in the Ionian towns (located around the Aegean Sea, mostly in modern-day Turkey). This partial triumph, however, portended an eventual loss at Ephesus and the implementation of harsh new repressive measures by Darius I, King of Persia.
494 BC: Sack of Miletus
It was only fitting that the Persian Empire took its anger out on Miletus, the catalyst for the uprising of the Ionian towns. Women and children were taken as slaves to the east as the city was sacked. This devastating loss, brought on by disunity among the Greek towns, foreshadowed the First Persian War; on the other hand, Athens’ future dominance was resting on this spirit of cooperation.
490 BC: Darius destroys Byzantium
The city of Byzantium was sacked, looted, and razed to the ground by Darius the Great’s Persian army during the First Persian War. Byzantium, which had been occupied by Greeks since the city’s founding, perhaps two centuries before, was one of the Persian king’s most pressing goals. However, its location on the shore of the Bosphorus, between Asia and Europe, gave it an advantage. Darius, on the other hand, still planned to get revenge on Athens for its role in fomenting rebellion against him.
September 13, 490 BC: Battle of Marathon
As the Persian army arrived on the plain of Marathon, Miltiades, in command of the Athenian hoplites, an assault began. Despite their numerical advantage, the Persians soundly defeated. Only 192 Greeks were killed while 6,400 Persians were killed. However, the tradition claims that a soldier named Pheidippides ran all the way to Athens to spread the news of the triumph before collapsing from weariness. This magnificent competition was being held to celebrate the Marathon tournament. Upon this plain, the First Persian War came to a close, and the golden age of Athens and democracy began.
486 BC: Death of Darius I
Persian King Darius I passed away while on an expedition to put down an uprising in Egypt. Upon his death, his son Xerxes I ascended to the throne with the goal of reversing his father’s failure in Greece. With lightning speed, he started the Second Persian War and set his sights on Athens, the city that had rescued the Greeks in 490 BC. Once upon a time, the Achaemenid dynasty ruled supreme over the vast and strong Persian Empire, and it remained so until the rise of Alexander the Great of Macedon.
483 BC: Discovery of the Mines of Laurion
The Athenians exposed the Laurion silver mines on their own land. As well as contributing to the development of the city, this discovery turned to be crucial during the Second Persian War. Themistocles amassed this fortune by building 200 triremes during the wars with Aegina. But since he thought the threat extended beyond Greece’s borders, thus these sleek vessels became crucial in the Battle of Salamis.
July 480 BC: Junction of the Persian Troops
The Persian army is using Thessalonica as a hub to assemble a massive fleet of ships and warriors, maybe 150,000 strong. Afterwards, the ships follow the shoreline so as to maintain a constant distance from the on-the-ground forces. The Greeks, having reached a consensus at the Congress of Corinth in the summer of 481 BC, coordinate and resolve to evacuate the northern part of Greece. At the pass of Thermopylae, a small spot that limited the advantage of large units, they waited for the Persians.
September 17, 480 BC: Beginning of the Battle of the Cape of Artemision
Three hundred Greek triers, the vast bulk of whom hail from Athens, stood ready at the Cape of Artemisia for the massive Persian fleet. The outcome of the subsequent battles was uncertain, although stopping the Persian assault was the Greeks’ primary objective. The former’s fleet was so intimidating that the Greeks had to retreat. A few days later, though, things begin to change. Even though the Persian fleet had sailed away from the shore, a large portion of it was destroyed by the storm.
19 September 480 BC: Heroic defeat of Leonidas at Thermopylae
Fighting with the support of seven hundred Spartan, Theban and Platonic volunteers, King Leonidas I of Sparta heroically resisted several thousand Persians who surround him. The Lacedaemon leader and his men fought to the death to force the bulk of the Greek troops to retreat. After an unexpected betrayal, the Persians found a way to strike the Greeks in the back, thus disrupting their defense plan. The Greeks then retreated to concentrate on the isthmus of Corinth. Athens was now sacked by the Persians and the Parthenon, then built of wood, and was burned.
29 September 480 BC: Victory of the Greeks at Salamis
Since the Persian fleet was larger and about to deploy Xerxes I’s troops on Greek soil, the Athenian fleet was performing retreat. In the Strait of Salamis, they faced the Persians. But it was a trap, since the Isthmus connecting the island to the mainland was too narrow. The Greek boats, which were easier to control, under the direction of the Athenian tactician Themistocles, were able to destroy the enemy ships that had been trapped in this narrow strait. From a high point in Attica, Xerxes saw his army crushed.
August 27, 479 BC: Death of Mardonios at Plataea
Persian commander Mardonius was slain leading an attack against a Lacedemonian force. The Greeks, led by Pausanias, then defeated the Persians in battle at Plataea, located to the north of Athens. After the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes handed over leadership to Mardonius and went to Persia for the winter. The fighting had continued since the spring, but it paid off for the Greeks. The Persians started to leave the towns of Ionia that they had ruled over since the turn of the last century.
478 BC: The Spartan Pausanias takes Byzantium
Regent of Sparta, Pausanias took the reins of the Greek army against the Persians. After distinguishing himself at the Battle of Plataea, he marched on Cyprus and then seized the city of Byzantium. The city was rebuilt after being completely destroyed by Darius a few years before. General Alcibiades of Athens conquered it in 409 BC.
478 BC: Formation of the Delian League
Some Greek towns joined a league inspired by Themistocles and Aristides, and eventually the league’s leadership was brought back to Athens. The city of Delos remained the official name of this coalition. The purpose of the Delian League was to forestall a fresh Persian onslaught, and it focused only on the navy rather than the land forces. Even when the city was still basking in the glow of its victory in Salamis, an imperialist shift was being signaled.
472 BC: Aeschylus presents “The Persians”
In Athens, Aeschylus staged a play of “The Persians.” The text of this ancient Greek tragedy, which recalled the Second Persian War and, more specifically, the Battle of Salamis, was the first of its kind to survive. Aeschylus, who participated in these conflicts personally, provided graphic and bloody details, but more than anything else, this writer revolutionized the genre by having several actors appear onstage instead of just a narrator and a chorus.
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Powell J., Blakeley D.W., Powell, T. Biographical Dictionary of Literary Influences: The Nineteenth Century, 1800-1914. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001. ISBN 978-0-313-30422-4
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