Since 1792, European monarchies have been at war with the young French Republic. Powers such as Great Britain, Prussia, and Austria formed the First Coalition to end the French Revolution and restore the monarchy in France. Governed by the Directory, France decided to launch offensives in Germany and Italy as early as 1796. Napoleon Bonaparte, only 26 years old, became the commander-in-chief of the Italian army. He masterfully led the campaign and won resounding victories over the Sardinians and then the Austrians.
The battles at the Lodi Bridge, Arcole, and Rivoli marked the rise of the man who was still just a general. Winner of the Italian campaign, Bonaparte redesigned the geopolitical map of the peninsula and forced Austria to sign the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797. However, Great Britain had already formed a Second Coalition. France would again have to face its adversaries in Italy, but also in Egypt, Holland, and Switzerland.
What Were the Causes of the Italian Campaign?
The Italian campaign is part of the War of the First Coalition. The French Republic has indeed been in conflict with several states since 1792. The German prince’s troops, having penetrated French territory, faced defeat at Valmy. Galvanized, the French launched offensives on several fronts and annexed new territories such as Savoy, Belgium, or the County of Nice.
On January 21, 1793, King Louis XVI was guillotined, which increased the hostility of European courts towards the French Republic. Countries like Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Holy Roman Empire formed an alliance to restore the monarchy in France and prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas. France managed to repel the coalition forces’ attacks. A young captain, Napoleon Bonaparte, demonstrated his strategic talents in late 1793 during the liberation of Toulon.
In 1794, France resumed offensives and won a decisive victory at Fleurus on June 26. It annexed the Austrian Netherlands, conquered Holland, and established the Batavian Republic in 1795. At sea, the French Navy could not compete with the Royal Navy, which dominated the Mediterranean and the Caribbean.
After the fall of Robespierre and the end of the Terror, the Republic established the Directory on October 26, 1795. Directors Barras, Reubell, and La Révellière-Lépeaux decided to continue the war. In addition to securing France’s borders and liberating neighboring peoples from tyranny, they hoped to fill the state coffers through plunder in occupied territories. They thus decided to launch campaigns in Germany and Italy. The French forces were divided into three armies:
- The Army of Sambre-et-Meuse, with 78,000 men, commanded by General Jourdan.
- The Army of Rhine-et-Moselle, with 79,500 men, commanded by General Moreau.
- The Army of Italy, with 50,000 men, commanded by General Bonaparte.
How Did the Italian Campaign Unfold?
On March 24, 1796, the first French offensive of the Italian campaign began. Displeased with the maneuvers of General Pijon, Bonaparte replaced him with General Cervoni. The latter defeated the Austrian troops under General Beaulieu at the Battle of Voltri, not far from Genoa. On April 12, the French were again victorious at the Battle of Montenotte. The battles of Millesimo and Dego allowed Bonaparte to prevent the junction of the Sardinian and Austrian armies.
After the withdrawal of the Austrians, the French defeated the Sardinians at Mondovi on April 21: Sardinia was out of action. Bonaparte now aimed to rid himself of Beaulieu’s Austrians. He crossed the Po River and then defeated the Austrian troops at the Battle of Lodi Bridge. Bonaparte, master of Piedmont and Lombardy, arrived in Milan.
He laid siege to Mantua, the key to the Alpine route. The Austrian general repelled Wurmser’s offensives. After winning the Battle of Castiglione on August 5, 1796, the French army advanced towards Tyrol and faced Alvinczi’s offensives. They defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Arcole Bridge on November 17, 1797. On January 13 and 14, 1797, the French were again victorious at Rivoli, opening the gates to Mantua. France emerged victorious from the Italian campaign, occupying Italy up to the Tiber River and founding several sister republics, such as the Cisalpine Republic. At the gates of Vienna, it forced Austria to sign the Treaty of Campo-Formio on April 7, 1797.
How Does Napoleon Distinguish Himself During the Italian Campaign?
Napoleon Bonaparte received a promotion to divisional general in 1795. His talents as a strategist and mastery of artillery were recognized by the Directory. At just 26 years old, the Directory entrusted Bonaparte with the command of the Army of Italy. His overall strategy was to conquer the Kingdom of Sardinia and Lombardy, then penetrate into Tyrol to intimidate Austria and compel it to make peace.
With his initial victories, he prevented the junction of Sardinian and Austrian troops at the Battle of Millesimo. Furthermore, Bonaparte captured strategic points like Dego. A brilliant tactician, he anticipated enemy movements and exploited their errors. For example, he deceived the Austrians by crossing the Po at Piacenza rather than Valenza. To succeed in these maneuvers, the army’s chief general in Italy relied on the swift movement of his troops, often traveling on forced marches. He could also rely on the heroic acts of generals such as Masséna, Lannes, and Augereau.
What Were the Italian Campaign’s Battles?
The main battles of the Italian campaign are as follows:
All these battles were French victories. However, the Austrians were victorious at Caldiero on November 12, 1796.
What Were the Consequences of the Italian Campaign?
The Italian campaign, masterfully led by Napoleon, was a resounding victory for France. The presence of the French army about a hundred kilometers from Vienna alarms Austria, which agrees to negotiate peace. On October 18, 1797, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo-Formio, ending the First Coalition. A new geopolitical order is established on the Italian peninsula. The Cisalpine Republic, a “sister republic” of France, was proclaimed and recognized by Austria. It includes several territories conquered by Napoleon, such as the Duchy of Milan, the Duchy of Mantua, and Romagna. Austria receives part of the Republic of Venice, Dalmatia, Istria, and Veneto. In 1798, the assassination of a French general in Rome triggered the occupation of the city by French troops. While the Roman Republic is proclaimed, Pope Pius VI leaves Rome before being captured by the French.
The campaign was intended to allow France to fill the state coffers with the wealth accumulated in Italy. Napoleon’s army seized numerous works of art, many of which would remain in French museums. However, the Italian loot contributed little to the state’s revenues. Instead, it enabled Bonaparte to finance the launch of two newspapers: “La France vue de l’armée d’Italie” and “Le Journal de Bonaparte et des hommes vertueux.” These newspapers, tools of propaganda, extol the virtues of the army of Italy and contribute to shaping Napoleon’s image as a conqueror.
What Was the Second Italian Campaign of 1799?
The Second Italian Campaign took place in the context of the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte led the Egyptian campaign against Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire. Great Britain formed the Second Coalition with Austria, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and the Two Sicilies, taking advantage of Napoleon’s absence to reclaim territories conquered by the French in Italy. The Austrian and Russian armies penetrated the peninsula. General Suvarov’s troops achieved victories against those of French generals Moreau and MacDonald. Moreover, uprisings erupted in the Italian Republics established by France.
However, disagreements between Russia and Austria ended the Allied victories. At Zurich, the Russian invasion of France failed. The Russians withdrew, leaving only the Austrians, who besieged Genoa. On November 9, 1799, Napoleon returned from Egypt and assumed the role of First Consul. He sent General Massena to support the besieged in Genoa, then crossed the Alps with his army. While Genoa fell, the French defeated the Austrians at Montebello and then at Marengo on June 14, 1800. French troops retook Genoa on June 22. Bonaparte returned to France, leaving his generals to finish the campaign. The French victory at Hohenlinden forced the Austrians to sign the Treaty of Lunéville on February 9, 1801.
Key Dates of the Italian Campaign
September 8, 1796: French victory at the Battle of Bassano
Napoleon Bonaparte confronts Count Wurmser’s Austrian troops. With 20,000 men, the French outnumber the enemy, who only have 11,000 soldiers. Wurmser retreats, leaving behind numerous cannons and wagons. The French take 2,000 prisoners.
October 15, 1796: Bonaparte created the Cispadane Republic, including Modena and the Legations occupied by the French army.
Bonaparte invaded several Italian regions in 1796. These regions were part of the Austrian Empire and the Papal States. With Bonaparte’s arrival, each region formed its own republic. On October 15, the regions south of the Po River came together and created the Cispadane Confederation. This action is discreetly supported by Bonaparte, who seeks stability in Italy. The confederation will be transformed into the Cispadane Republic a few months later.
November 17, 1796: Bonaparte victorious at Arcole
After being held at bay in Caldiero, Bonaparte encounters the Austrian army at Arcole. His army needs to cross a bridge, but recoils under enemy fire. Bonaparte dismounts and seizes a flag to encourage his troops. Testimonies and the famous painting by Antoine-Jean Gros immortalize this act.
January 14, 1797: Battle of Rivoli
While the French besiege Mantua, the Austrian general Alvinczy attacks General Joubert’s troops. The latter retreats to Rivoli, where he is joined by Bonaparte. With the arrival of Masséna’s troops, the French broke through the Austrian lines. Victorious, Bonaparte has a free hand to finish the siege of Mantua.
February 19, 1797: Treaty of Tolentino
Master of northern Italy, Napoleon Bonaparte invades the Romagna, a possession of the Papacy. He thus forces Pope Pius VI to sign a peace treaty with France. The pope loses Avignon, the Comtat Venaissin, and the Romagna and must pay an indemnity of 36 million pounds.
October 18, 1797: Austrian Belgium is ceded to France
Following its victory at the Battle of Fleurus, France annexed Belgian territory. The two kingdoms had been in conflict since 1792. In the Treaty of Campo Formio, Austria officially recognized France’s possession of the lands, which were divided into nine departments. Belgium will experience some economic development under French authority.
October 18, 1797: Signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio
Defeated by the Army of Italy, Austria was forced to sign the Treaty of Campo Formio. This peace treaty ends the war of the First Coalition. Peace is short-lived as the war resumes in 1799.
1798: Beginning of the Second Coalition
The Second Coalition is an agreement between several European states to stop revolutionary France and attempt to overthrow the Republic to restore the monarchical model. It was Great Britain that set up this second coalition. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Austria, Sweden, and the Two Sicilies are the other members of this coalition. It ended with the Peace Treaty of Lunéville in 1801 and the Treaty of Amiens in the course of 1802.
June 1799: Souvorov defeats the French at the Battle of Trebbia
The Battle of Trebbia is a battle in the Italian campaign undertaken by Bonaparte. On June 19, 1799, soldiers from the Russian Empire and the Archduchy of Austria, commanded by Souvorov, attacked French troops under General Macdonald’s orders. The French are repelled by the enemy. The toll is heavy for France, which loses 6,000 men and sees 12,000 of its 36,000 soldiers taken prisoner.
June 14, 1800: The Battle of Marengo
A decisive victory for France, the Battle of Marengo helped end the second Italian campaign. Bonaparte indeed defeated the Austrians under Melas. General Desaix is killed during the battle.
February 9, 1801: Peace of Lunéville
Defeated at Marengo and Hohenlinden, Austria must once again make peace with France. The Peace Treaty of Lunéville marks the end of the Second Coalition War. The treaty confirms, notably, France’s annexations already included in the Treaty of Campo Formio.
July 16, 1801: Signing of the Concordat
Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon, signs the concordat treaty with representatives of Pope Pius VII. Catholicism is recognized as the religion of the majority of the French. However, it is not recognized as the state religion; the Church is subordinate to the Republic.
